Galvanometers

Galvanometers are very sensitive meters which are used to measure tiny currents, usually 1mA or less. They are used to make all types of analogue meters by adding suitable resistors as shown in the diagrams below. The photograph shows an educational 100A galvanometer for which various multipliers and shunts are available.

Making a Voltmeter
A galvanometer with a high resistance multiplier in series to make a voltmeter.

Making an Ammeter
A galvanometer with a low resistance shunt in parallel to make an ammeter.

Galvanometer with multiplier and shunt

Maximum meter current 100A (or 20A reverse). This meter is unusual in allowing small reverse readings to be shown.

Transistors
This page covers practical matters such as precautions when soldering and identifying leads. The operation and use of transistors is covered by the Transistor Circuits page. Types | Connecting | Soldering | Heat sinks | Testing | Codes | Choosing | Darlington pair

Also see: Heat sinks | Transistor Circuits

Function
Transistors amplify current, for example they can be used to amplify the small output current from a logic IC so that it can operate a lamp, relay or other high current device. In many circuits a resistor is used to convert the changing current to a changing voltage, so the transistor is being used to amplify voltage.

A transistor may be used as a switch (either fully on with maximum current, or fully off with no current) and as an amplifier (always partly on). The amount of current amplification is called the current gain, symbol hFE. For further information please see the Transistor Circuits page.

Types of transistor
There are two types of standard transistors, NPN and PNP, with different circuit symbols. The letters refer to the layers of semiconductor material used to make the transistor. Most transistors used today are NPN because this is the easiest type to make from silicon. If you are new to electronics it is best to start by learning how to use NPN transistors.

The leads are labelled base (B), collector (C) and emitter (E).

Transistor circuit symbols

These terms refer to the internal operation of a transistor but they are not much help in understanding how a transistor is used, so just treat them as labels!

A Darlington pair is two transistors connected together to give a very high current gain. In addition to standard (bipolar junction) transistors, there are field-effect transistors which are usually referred to as FETs. They have different circuit symbols and properties and they are not (yet) covered by this page.

Connecting
Transistors have three leads which must be connected the correct way round. Please take care with this because a wrongly connected transistor may be damaged instantly when you switch on.

If you are lucky the orientation of the transistor will be clear from the PCB or stripboard layout diagram, otherwise you will need to refer to a supplier's catalogue to identify the leads. The drawings on the right show the leads for some of the most common case styles. Please note that transistor lead diagrams show the view from below with the leads towards you. This is the opposite of IC (chip) pin diagrams which show the view from above.

Transistor leads for some common case styles.

Please see below for a table showing the case styles of some common transistors.

Transistor codes
There are three main series of transistor codes used in the UK:
y

Codes beginning with B (or A), for example BC108, BC478

The first letter B is for silicon, A is for germanium (rarely used now). The second letter indicates the type; for example C means low power audio frequency; D means high power audio frequency; F means low power high frequency. The rest of the code identifies the particular transistor. There is no obvious logic to the numbering system. Sometimes a letter is added to the end (eg BC108C) to identify a special version of the main type, for example a higher current gain or a different case style. If a project specifies a higher gain version (BC108C) it must be used, but if the general code is given (BC108) any transistor with that code is suitable.

Codes beginning with TIP, for example TIP31A

TIP refers to the manufacturer: Texas Instruments Power transistor. The letter at the end identifies versions with different voltage ratings.

Codes beginning with 2N, for example 2N3053

The initial '2N' identifies the part as a transistor and the rest of the code identifies the particular transistor. There is no obvious logic to the numbering system.

Choosing a transistor
Most projects will specify a particular transistor, but if necessary you can usually substitute an equivalent transistor from the wide range available. The most important properties to look for are the maximum collector current IC and the current gain hFE. To make selection easier most suppliers group their transistors in categories determined either by their typical use or maximum power rating. To make a final choice you will need to consult the tables of technical data which are normally provided in catalogues. They contain a great deal of useful information but they can be difficult to understand if you are not familiar with the abbreviations used. The table below shows the most important technical data for some popular transistors, tables in catalogues and reference books will usually show additional information but this is unlikely to be useful unless you are experienced. The quantities shown in the table are explained below.

NPN transistors
Code BC107 BC108 BC108C BC109 BC182 BC182L BC547B BC548B Structure NPN NPN NPN NPN NPN NPN NPN NPN Case style IC max. VCE hFE max. min. Ptot max. Category (typical use)
Audio, low power General purpose, low power General purpose, low power Audio (low noise), low power General purpose, low power General purpose, low power Audio, low power General purpose, low power BC184 BC549

Possible substitutes
BC182 BC547 BC108C BC183 BC548

TO18 100mA 45V 110 300mW TO18 100mA 20V 110 300mW TO18 100mA 20V 420 600mW TO18 200mA 20V 200 300mW TO92C 100mA 50V 100 350mW TO92A 100mA 50V 100 350mW TO92C 100mA 45V 200 500mW TO92C 100mA 30V 220 500mW

BC107 BC182L

BC107 BC182 BC107B BC108B

BC549B 2N3053 BFY51 BC639 TIP29A TIP31A TIP31C TIP41A 2N3055

NPN NPN NPN NPN NPN NPN NPN NPN NPN

TO92C 100mA 30V 240 625mW TO39 700mA 40V TO39 TO92A TO220 TO220 TO220 TO220 TO3 1A 1A 1A 3A 3A 6A 15A 30V 80V 60V 60V 50 40 40 40 10 500mW 800mW 800mW 30W 40W 40W 65W 117W

Audio (low noise), low power General purpose, low power General purpose, medium power General purpose, medium power General purpose, high power General purpose, high power General purpose, high power General purpose, high power General purpose, high power

BC109

BFY51

BC639

BFY51

TIP31C TIP41A

100V 10 60V 60V 15 20

TIP31A TIP41A

Please note: the data in this table was compiled from several sources which are not entirely consistent! Most of the discrepancies are minor, but please consult information from your supplier if you require precise data.

PNP transistors
Code BC177 BC178 BC179 BC477 BC478 Structure PNP PNP PNP PNP PNP Case style IC max. VCE hFE max. min. Ptot max. Category (typical use)
Audio, low power General purpose, low power Audio (low noise), low power Audio, low power General BC177 BC178

Possible substitutes
BC477 BC478

TO18 100mA 45V 125 300mW TO18 200mA 25V 120 600mW TO18 200mA 20V 180 600mW TO18 150mA 80V 125 360mW TO18 150mA 40V 125 360mW

purpose, low power

TIP32A TIP32C

PNP PNP

TO220 TO220

3A 3A

60V

25

40W 40W

General purpose, high power General purpose, high power

TIP32C

100V 10

TIP32A

Please note: the data in this table was compiled from several sources which are not entirely consistent! Most of the discrepancies are minor, but please consult information from your supplier if you require precise data.

Structure

This shows the type of transistor, NPN or PNP. The polarities of the two types are different, so if you are looking for a substitute it must be the same type. There is a diagram showing the leads for some of the most common case styles in the Connecting section above. This information is also available in suppliers' catalogues. Maximum collector current. Maximum voltage across the collector-emitter junction.
You can ignore this rating in low voltage circuits.

Case style

IC max. VCE max. hFE

This is the current gain (strictly the DC current gain). The guaranteed minimum value is given because the actual value varies from transistor to transistor - even for those of the same type! Note that current gain is just a number so it has no units.
The gain is often quoted at a particular collector current IC which is usually in the middle of the transistor's range, for example '100@20mA' means the gain is at least 100 at 20mA. Sometimes minimum and maximum values are given. Since the gain is roughly constant for various currents but it varies from transistor to transistor this detail is only really of interest to experts. Why hFE? It is one of a whole series of parameters for transistors, each with their own symbol. There are too many to explain here.

Ptot max.

Maximum total power which can be developed in the transistor, note that a heat sink will be required to achieve the maximum rating. This rating is important for transistors operating as amplifiers, the power is roughly IC VCE. For transistors operating as switches the maximum collector current (IC max.) is more important. This shows the typical use for the transistor, it is a good starting point when looking for a substitute. Catalogues may have separate tables for different categories.

Category

Possible substitutes These are transistors with similar electrical properties which will be suitable substitutes in most circuits. However, they may have a different case style so you will need to take care when placing them on the circuit board.

Darlington pair
This is two transistors connected together so that the amplified current from the first is amplified further by the second transistor. This gives the Darlington pair a very high current gain such as 10000. Darlington pairs are sold as complete packages containing the two transistors. They have three leads (B, C and E) which are equivalent to the leads of a standard individual transistor. You can make up your own Darlington pair from two transistors. For example:
y y

For TR1 use BC548B with hFE1 = 220. For TR2 use BC639 with hFE2 = 40.

The overall gain of this pair is hFE1 hFE2 = 220 40 = 8800. The pair's maximum collector current IC(max) is the same as TR2.

Breadboard
Also see: Stripboard | PCB | Types of Circuit Board
Download PDF version of this page

Uses of Breadboard

Small Breadboard
Photograph Rapid Electronics

A breadboard is used to make up temporary circuits for testing or to try out an idea. No soldering is required so it is easy to change connections and replace components. Parts will not be damaged so they will be available to re-use afterwards.

Almost all the Electronics Club projects started life on a breadboard to check that the circuit worked as intended. The photograph shows a typical small breadboard which is suitable for beginners building simple circuits with one or two ICs (chips). Larger sizes are available and you may wish to buy one of these to start with.

Connections on Breadboard
Breadboards have many tiny sockets (called 'holes') arranged on a 0.1" grid. The leads of most components can be pushed straight into the holes. ICs are inserted across the central gap with their notch or dot to the left.

Wire links can be made with single-core plastic-coated wire of 0.6mm diameter (the standard size). Stranded wire is not suitable because it will crumple when pushed into a hole and it may damage the board if strands break off. The diagram shows how the breadboard holes are connected: The top and bottom rows are linked horizontally all the way across as shown by the red and black lines on the diagram. The power supply is connected to these rows, + at the top and 0V (zero volts) at the bottom.
I suggest using the upper row of the bottom pair for 0V, then you can use the lower row for the negative supply with circuits requiring a dual supply (e.g. +9V, 0V, -9V).

The other holes are linked vertically in blocks of 5 with no link across the centre as shown by the blue lines on the diagram. Notice how there are separate blocks of connections to each pin of ICs. Large Breaboards
On larger breadboards there may be a break halfway along the top and bottom power supply rows. It is a good idea to link across the gap before you start to build a circuit, otherwise you may forget and part of your circuit will have no power!

Building a Circuit on Breadboard

Converting a circuit diagram to a breadboard layout is not straightforward because the arrangement of components on breadboard will look quite different from the circuit diagram.

When putting parts on breadboard you must concentrate on their connections, not their positions on the circuit diagram. The IC (chip) is a good starting point so place it in the centre of the breadboard and work round it pin by pin, putting in all the connections and components for each pin in turn. The best way to explain this is by example, so the process of building this 555 timer circuit on breadboard is listed step-by-step below. The circuit is a monostable which means it will turn on the LED for about 5 seconds when the 'trigger' button is pressed. The time period is determined by R1 and C1 and you may wish to try changing their values. R1 should be in the range 1k to 1M . Time Period, T = 1.1 R1 C1 For further information please see 555 monostable.
Monostable Circuit Diagram

IC pin numbers IC pins are numbered anti-clockwise around the IC starting near the notch or dot. The diagram shows the numbering for 8-pin and 14-pin ICs, but the principle is the same for all sizes.

Components without suitable leads Some components such as switches and variable resistors do not have suitable leads of their own so you must solder some on yourself. Use single-core plastic-coated wire of 0.6mm diameter (the standard size). Stranded wire is not suitable because it will crumple when pushed into a hole and it may damage the board if strands break off.

Building the example circuit Begin by carefully insert the 555 IC in the centre of the breadboard with its notch or dot to the left.

Then deal with each pin of the 555:

1. Connect a wire (black) to 0V. 2. Connect the 10k resistor to +9V. Connect a push switch to 0V (you will need to solder leads onto the switch) 3. Connect the 470 resistor to an used block of 5 holes, then... Connect an LED (any colour) from that block to 0V (short lead to 0V). 4. Connect a wire (red) to +9V.

Monostable Circuit on Breadboard

5. Connect the 0.01F capacitor to 0V.

You will probably find that its leads are too short to connect directly, so put in a wire link to an unused block of holes and connect to that.

6. Connect the 100F capacitor to 0V (+ lead to pin 6). Connect a wire (blue) to pin 7. 7. Connect 47k resistor to +9V. Check: there should be a wire already connected to pin 6. 8. Connect a wire (red) to +9V. Finally...
y y y y

Check all the connections carefully. Check that parts are the correct way round (LED and 100F capacitor). Check that no leads are touching (unless they connect to the same block). Connect the breadboard to a 9V supply and press the push switch to test the circuit.

If your circuit does not work disconnect (or switch off) the power supply and very carefully re-check every connection against the circuit diagram. Zener diodes
Example: Circuit symbol:

a = anode, k = cathode Zener diodes are used to maintain a fixed voltage. They are designed to 'breakdown' in a reliable and nondestructive way so that they can be used in reverse to maintain a fixed voltage across their terminals. The diagram shows how they are connected, with a resistor in series to limit the current. Zener diodes can be distinguished from ordinary diodes by their code and breakdown voltage which are printed on them. Zener diode codes begin BZX... or BZY... Their breakdown voltage is printed with V in place of a decimal point, so 4V7 means 4.7V for example. Zener diodes are rated by their breakdown voltage and maximum power:
y y

The minimum voltage available is 2.4V. Power ratings of 400mW and 1.3W are common.

Diodes
Signal diodes | Rectifier diodes | Bridge rectifiers | Zener diodes

Also see: LEDs | AC and DC | Power Supplies

Example:

Circuit symbol:

Function
Diodes allow electricity to flow in only one direction. The arrow of the circuit symbol shows the direction in which the current can flow. Diodes are the electrical version of a valve and early diodes were actually called valves. Forward Voltage Drop Electricity uses up a little energy pushing its way through the diode, rather like a person pushing through a door with a spring. This means that there is a small voltage across a conducting diode, it is called the forward voltage drop and is about 0.7V for all normal diodes which are made from silicon. The forward voltage drop of a diode is almost constant whatever the current passing through the diode so they have a very steep characteristic (current-voltage graph). Reverse Voltage When a reverse voltage is applied a perfect diode does not conduct, but all real diodes leak a very tiny current of a few A or less. This can be ignored in most circuits because it will be very much smaller than the current flowing in the forward direction. However, all diodes have a maximum reverse voltage (usually 50V or more) and if this is exceeded the diode will fail and pass a large current in the reverse direction, this is called breakdown.

Ordinary diodes can be split into two types: Signal diodes which pass small currents of 100mA or less and Rectifier diodes which can pass large currents. In addition there are LEDs (which have their own page) and Zener diodes (at the bottom of this page).

Connecting and soldering

Diodes must be connected the correct way round, the diagram may be labelled a or + for anode and k or - for cathode (yes, it really is k, not c, for cathode!). The cathode is marked by a line painted on the body. Diodes are labelled with their code in small print, you may need a magnifying glass to read this on small signal diodes!

Small signal diodes can be damaged by heat when soldering, but the risk is small unless you are using a germanium diode (codes beginning OA...) in which case you should use a heat sink clipped to the lead between the joint and the diode body. A standard crocodile clip can be used as a heat sink. Rectifier diodes are quite robust and no special precautions are needed for soldering them.

Testing diodes
You can use a multimeter or a simple tester (battery, resistor and LED) to check that a diode conducts in one direction but not the other. A lamp may be used to test a rectifier diode, but do NOT use a lamp to test a signal diode because the large current passed by the lamp will destroy the diode!

Signal diodes (small current)

Signal diodes are used to process information (electrical signals) in circuits, so they are only required to pass small currents of up to 100mA.

General purpose signal diodes such as the 1N4148 are made from silicon and have a forward voltage drop of 0.7V. Germanium diodes such as the OA90 have a lower forward voltage drop of 0.2V and this makes them suitable to use in radio circuits as detectors which extract the audio signal from the weak radio signal. For general use, where the size of the forward voltage drop is less important, silicon diodes are better because they are less easily damaged by heat when soldering, they

have a lower resistance when conducting, and they have very low leakage currents when a reverse voltage is applied.
Protection diodes for relays Signal diodes are also used to protect transistors and ICs from the brief high voltage produced when a relay coil is switched off. The diagram shows how a protection diode is connected 'backwards' across the relay coil.
Current flowing through a relay coil creates a magnetic field which collapses suddenly when the current is switched off. The sudden collapse of the magnetic field induces a brief high voltage across the relay coil which is very likely to damage transistors and ICs. The protection diode allows the induced voltage to drive a brief current through the coil (and diode) so the magnetic field dies away quickly rather than instantly. This prevents the induced voltage becoming high enough to cause damage to transistors and ICs.

Rectifier diodes (large current)

Diode Rectifier diodes are used in power supplies to convert alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC), a process called rectification. They are also used elsewhere in circuits where a large current 1N4001 must pass through the diode. 1N4002

Maximum Maximum Reverse Current Voltage 1A 1A 1A 3A 3A 50V 100V 1000V 100V 1000V

All rectifier diodes are made from silicon and therefore have a forward voltage drop of 0.7V. The table shows maximum 1N4007 current and maximum reverse voltage for some popular rectifier diodes. The 1N4001 is suitable for most low voltage 1N5401 circuits with a current of less than 1A. Also see: Power Supplies
1N5408

Bridge rectifiers
There are several ways of connecting diodes to make a rectifier to convert AC to DC. The bridge rectifier is one of them and it is available in

special packages containing the four diodes required. Bridge rectifiers are rated by their maximum current and maximum reverse voltage. They have four leads or terminals: the two DC outputs are labelled + and -, the two AC inputs are labelled .

The diagram shows the operation of a bridge rectifier as it converts AC to DC. Notice how alternate pairs of diodes conduct. Also see: Power Supplies

Various types of Bridge Rectifiers

Note that some have a hole through their centre for attaching to a heat sink

Capacitors
Polarised (> 1F) | Unpolarised (< 1F) | Real Values | Variable & trimmers

Also see: Capacitance and Uses of Capacitors

Function
Capacitors store electric charge. They are used with resistors in timing circuits because it takes time for a capacitor to fill with charge. They are used to smooth varying DC supplies by acting as a reservoir of charge. They are also used in filter circuits because capacitors easily pass AC (changing) signals but they block DC (constant) signals.

Capacitance

This is a measure of a capacitor's ability to store charge. A large capacitance means that more charge can be stored. Capacitance is measured in farads, symbol F. However 1F is very large, so prefixes are used to show the smaller values.

Three prefixes (multipliers) are used, (micro), n (nano) and p (pico):

y y y

means 10-6 (millionth), so 1000000F = 1F n means 10-9 (thousand-millionth), so 1000nF = 1F p means 10-12 (million-millionth), so 1000pF = 1nF

Capacitor values can be very difficult to find because there are many types of capacitor with different labelling systems!

There are many types of capacitor but they can be split into two groups, polarised and unpolarised. Each group has its own circuit symbol.

Polarised capacitors (large values, 1F +)

Examples:

Circuit symbol:

Electrolytic Capacitors Electrolytic capacitors are polarised and they must be connected the correct way round, at least one of their leads will be marked + or -. They are not damaged by heat when soldering.

There are two designs of electrolytic capacitors; axial where the leads are attached to each end (220F in picture) and radial where both leads are at the same end (10F in picture). Radial capacitors tend to be a little smaller and they stand upright on the circuit board. It is easy to find the value of electrolytic capacitors because they are clearly printed with their capacitance and voltage rating. The voltage rating can be quite low (6V for example) and it should always be checked when selecting an electrolytic capacitor. If the project parts list does not specify a voltage, choose a capacitor with a rating which is greater than the project's power supply voltage. 25V is a sensible minimum for most battery circuits.

Tantalum Bead Capacitors Tantalum bead capacitors are polarised and have low voltage ratings like electrolytic capacitors. They are expensive but very small, so they are used where a large capacitance is needed in a small size.

Modern tantalum bead capacitors are printed with their capacitance, voltage and polarity in full. However older ones use a colour-code system which has two stripes (for the two digits) and a spot of colour for the number of zeros to give the value in F. The standard colour code is used, but for the spot, grey is used to mean 0.01 and white means 0.1 so that values of less than 10F can be shown. A third colour stripe near the leads shows the voltage (yellow 6.3V, black 10V, green 16V, blue 20V, grey 25V, white 30V, pink 35V). The positive (+) lead is to the right when the spot is facing you: 'when the spot is in sight, the positive is to the right'. For example: blue, grey, black spot means 68F For example: blue, grey, white spot means 6.8F For example: blue, grey, grey spot means 0.68F

Unpolarised capacitors (small values, up to 1F)

Examples:

Circuit symbol:

Small value capacitors are unpolarised and may be connected either way round. They are not damaged by heat when soldering, except for one unusual type (polystyrene). They have high voltage ratings of at least 50V, usually 250V or so. It can be difficult to find the values of these small capacitors because there are many types of them and several different labelling systems! Many small value capacitors have their value printed but without a multiplier, so you need to use experience to work out what the multiplier should be! For example 0.1 means 0.1F = 100nF. Sometimes the multiplier is used in place of the decimal point: For example: 4n7 means 4.7nF.

Capacitor Number Code A number code is often used on small capacitors where printing is difficult:
y y y y

the 1st number is the 1st digit, the 2nd number is the 2nd digit, the 3rd number is the number of zeros to give the capacitance in pF. Ignore any letters - they just indicate tolerance and voltage rating.

For example: 102 means 1000pF = 1nF (not 102pF!)

For example: 472J means 4700pF = 4.7nF (J means 5% tolerance).

Capacitor Colour Code A colour code was used on polyester capacitors for many years. It is now obsolete, but of course there are many still around. The colours should be read like the resistor code, the top three colour bands giving the value in pF. Ignore the 4th band (tolerance) and 5th band (voltage rating). Colour Code Colour Number Black Brown Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Violet Grey White 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

For example: brown, black, orange means 10000pF = 10nF = 0.01F. Note that there are no gaps between the colour bands, so 2 identical bands actually appear as a wide band. For example: wide red, yellow means 220nF = 0.22F.

Polystyrene Capacitors This type is rarely used now. Their value (in pF) is normally printed

without units. Polystyrene capacitors can be damaged by heat when soldering (it melts the polystyrene!) so you should use a heat sink (such as a crocodile clip). Clip the heat sink to the lead between the capacitor and the joint.

Real capacitor values (the E3 and E6 series)

You may have noticed that capacitors are not available with every possible value, for example 22F and 47F are readily available, but 25F and 50F are not!

Why is this? Imagine that you decided to make capacitors every 10F giving 10, 20, 30, 40, 50 and so on. That seems fine, but what happens when you reach 1000? It would be pointless to make 1000, 1010, 1020, 1030 and so on because for these values 10 is a very small difference, too small to be noticeable in most circuits and capacitors cannot be made with that accuracy. To produce a sensible range of capacitor values you need to increase the size of the 'step' as the value increases. The standard capacitor values are based on this idea and they form a series which follows the same pattern for every multiple of ten. The E3 series (3 values for each multiple of ten) 10, 22, 47, ... then it continues 100, 220, 470, 1000, 2200, 4700, 10000 etc. Notice how the step size increases as the value increases (values roughly double each time). The E6 series (6 values for each multiple of ten) 10, 15, 22, 33, 47, 68, ... then it continues 100, 150, 220, 330, 470, 680, 1000 etc. Notice how this is the E3 series with an extra value in the gaps. The E3 series is the one most frequently used for capacitors because many types cannot be made with very accurate values.

Variable capacitors

Variable Capacitor Symbol

Variable capacitors are mostly used in radio tuning circuits and they are sometimes called 'tuning capacitors'. They have very small capacitance values, typically between 100pF and 500pF (100pF = 0.0001F). The type illustrated usually has trimmers built in (for making small adjustments - see below) as well as the main variable capacitor.

Many variable capacitors have very short spindles which are Photograph Rapid Electronics not suitable for the standard knobs used for variable resistors and rotary switches. It would be wise to check that a suitable knob is available before ordering a variable capacitor. Variable capacitors are not normally used in timing circuits because their capacitance is too small to be practical and the range of values available is very limited. Instead timing circuits use a fixed capacitor and a variable resistor if it is necessary to vary the time period.

Variable Capacitor

Trimmer capacitors Trimmer capacitors (trimmers) are miniature variable capacitors. They are designed to be mounted directly onto the circuit board and adjusted only when the circuit is built.
Trimmer Capacitor Symbol

A small screwdriver or similar tool is required to adjust trimmers. The process of adjusting them requires patience because the presence of your hand and the tool will slightly change the capacitance of the circuit in the region of the trimmer! Trimmer capacitors are only available with very small capacitances, normally less than 100pF. It is impossible to reduce their capacitance to zero, so they are usually specified by their minimum and maximum values, for example 2-10pF.

Trimmer Capacitor
Photograph Rapid Electronics

Trimmers are the capacitor equivalent of presets which are miniature variable resistors.

Power Supplies
Types | Dual supplies | Transformer | Rectifier | Smoothing | Regulator

Next Page: Transducers Also See: AC and DC | Diodes | Capacitors

Types of Power Supply

There are many types of power supply. Most are designed to convert high voltage AC mains electricity to a suitable low voltage supply for electronics circuits and other devices. A power supply can by broken down into a series of blocks, each of which performs a particular function.

For example a 5V regulated supply:

Each of the blocks is described in more detail below:

y y y y

Transformer - steps down high voltage AC mains to low voltage AC. Rectifier - converts AC to DC, but the DC output is varying. Smoothing - smooths the DC from varying greatly to a small ripple. Regulator - eliminates ripple by setting DC output to a fixed voltage.

Power supplies made from these blocks are described below with a circuit diagram and a graph of their output:
y y y y

Transformer only Transformer + Rectifier Transformer + Rectifier + Smoothing Transformer + Rectifier + Smoothing + Regulator

Dual Supplies
Some electronic circuits require a power supply with positive and negative outputs

as well as zero volts (0V). This is called a 'dual supply' because it is like two ordinary supplies connected together as shown in the diagram.

Dual supplies have three outputs, for example a 9V supply has +9V, 0V and -9V outputs.

Transformer only

The low voltage AC output is suitable for lamps, heaters and special AC motors. It is not suitable for electronic circuits unless they include a rectifier and a smoothing capacitor. Further information: Transformer

Transformer + Rectifier

The varying DC output is suitable for lamps, heaters and standard motors. It is not suitable for electronic circuits unless they include a smoothing capacitor.

Further information: Transformer | Rectifier

Transformer + Rectifier + Smoothing

The smooth DC output has a small ripple. It is suitable for most electronic circuits. Further information: Transformer | Rectifier | Smoothing

Transformer + Rectifier + Smoothing + Regulator

The regulated DC output is very smooth with no ripple. It is suitable for all electronic circuits. Further information: Transformer | Rectifier | Smoothing | Regulator

Transformer
Transformers convert AC electricity from one voltage to another with little loss of power. Transformers work only with AC and this is one of the reasons why mains electricity is AC.

Step-up transformers increase voltage, step-down transformers reduce voltage. Most power supplies use a step-down transformer to reduce the dangerously high mains voltage (230V in UK) to a safer low voltage. The input coil is called the primary and the output coil is called the secondary. There is no electrical connection between the two coils, instead they are linked by an alternating magnetic field created in the soft-iron core of the transformer. The two lines in the middle of the circuit symbol represent the core. Transformers waste very little power so the power out is (almost) equal to the power in. Note that as voltage is stepped down current is stepped up. The ratio of the number of turns on each coil, called the turns ratio, determines the ratio of the voltages. A step-down transformer has a large number of turns on its primary (input) coil which is connected to the high voltage mains supply, and a small number of turns on its secondary (output) coil to give a low output voltage.
Vp turns ratio = Vs = Ns Np
and

Transformer circuit symbol

Transformer
Photograph Rapid Electronics

There is more information about transformers on the Electronics in Meccano website.

power out = power in Vs Is = Vp Ip

Vs = secondary (output) voltage Ns = number of turns on secondary coil Is = secondary (output) current

Vp = primary (input) voltage Np = number of turns on primary coil Ip = primary (input) current

Rectifier
There are several ways of connecting diodes to make a rectifier to There is more information convert AC to DC. The bridge rectifier is the most important and it about rectifiers on the produces full-wave varying DC. A full-wave rectifier can also be made Electronics in Meccano website. from just two diodes if a centre-tap transformer is used, but this method is rarely used now that diodes are cheaper. A single diode can be used as a rectifier but it only uses the positive (+) parts of the AC wave to produce half-wave varying DC.

Bridge rectifier A bridge rectifier can be made using four individual diodes, but it is also available in special packages containing the four diodes required. It is called a full-wave rectifier because it uses all the AC wave (both positive and negative sections). 1.4V is used up in the bridge rectifier because each diode uses 0.7V when conducting and there are always two diodes conducting, as shown in the diagram below. Bridge rectifiers are rated by the maximum current they can pass and the maximum reverse voltage they can withstand (this must be at least three times the supply RMS voltage so the rectifier can withstand the peak voltages). Please see the Diodes page for more details, including pictures of bridge rectifiers.

Bridge rectifier
Alternate pairs of diodes conduct, changing over the connections so the alternating directions of AC are converted to the one direction of DC.

Output: full-wave varying DC

(using all the AC wave)

Single diode rectifier A single diode can be used as a rectifier but this produces half-wave varying DC which has gaps when the AC is negative. It is hard to smooth this sufficiently well to supply electronic

circuits unless they require a very small current so the smoothing capacitor does not significantly discharge during the gaps. Please see the Diodes page for some examples of rectifier diodes.

Single diode rectifier

Output: half-wave varying DC

(using only half the AC wave)

Smoothing
Smoothing is performed by a large value electrolytic capacitor connected across the DC supply to act as a reservoir, supplying current to the output when the varying DC voltage from the rectifier is falling. The diagram shows the unsmoothed varying DC (dotted line) and the smoothed DC (solid line). The capacitor charges quickly near the peak of the varying DC, and then discharges as it supplies current to the output.

Note that smoothing significantly increases the average DC voltage to almost the peak value (1.4 RMS value). For example 6V RMS AC is rectified to full wave DC of about 4.6V RMS (1.4V is lost in the bridge rectifier), with smoothing this increases to almost the peak value giving 1.4 4.6 = 6.4V smooth DC.

Smoothing is not perfect due to the capacitor voltage falling a little as it discharges, giving a small ripple voltage. For many circuits a ripple which is 10% of the supply voltage is satisfactory and the equation below gives the required value for the smoothing capacitor. A larger capacitor will give less ripple. The capacitor value must be doubled when smoothing half-wave DC.
5 Io Smoothing capacitor for 10% ripple, C = Vs f
There is more information about smoothing on the Electronics in Meccano website.

C = smoothing capacitance in farads (F) Io = output current from the supply in amps (A) Vs = supply voltage in volts (V), this is the peak value of the unsmoothed DC f = frequency of the AC supply in hertz (Hz), 50Hz in the UK

Regulator
Voltage regulator ICs are available with fixed (typically 5, 12 and 15V) or variable output voltages. They are also rated by the maximum current they can pass. Negative voltage regulators are available, mainly for use in dual supplies. Most regulators include some automatic protection from excessive current ('overload protection') and overheating ('thermal protection').

Voltage regulator
Photograph Rapid Electronics

Many of the fixed voltage regulator ICs have 3 leads and look like power transistors, such as the 7805 +5V 1A regulator shown on the right. They include a hole for attaching a heatsink if necessary. Please see the Electronics in Meccano website for more information about voltage regulator ICs.

Zener diode regulator For low current power supplies a simple voltage regulator can be made with a resistor and a zener diode connected in reverse as shown in the diagram. Zener diodes are rated by their breakdown voltage Vz and maximum power Pz (typically 400mW or 1.3W).

zener diode a = anode, k = cathode

The resistor limits the current (like an LED resistor). The current through the resistor is constant, so when there is no output current all the current flows through the zener diode and its power rating Pz must be large enough to withstand this. Please see the Diodes page for more information about zener diodes. Choosing a zener diode and resistor:
1. The zener voltage Vz is the output voltage required 2. The input voltage Vs must be a few volts greater than Vz
(this is to allow for small fluctuations in Vs due to ripple)

3. 4. 5. 6.

The maximum current Imax is the output current required plus 10% The zener power Pz is determined by the maximum current: Pz > Vz Imax The resistor resistance: R = (Vs - Vz) / Imax The resistor power rating: P > (Vs - Vz) Imax

Example: output voltage required is 5V, output current required is 60mA.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Vz = 4.7V (nearest value available) Vs = 8V (it must be a few volts greater than Vz) Imax = 66mA (output current plus 10%) Pz > 4.7V 66mA = 310mW, choose Pz = 400mW R = (8V - 4.7V) / 66mA = 0.05k = 50 , choose R = 47 Resistor power rating P > (8V - 4.7V) 66mA = 218mW, choose P = 0.5W There is more information about regulators on the Electronics in Meccano website.

Transducers
Input Transducers | Output Transducers | Using Input Transducers

Next Page: Voltage Dividers

A transducer is a device which converts a signal from one form to another. Most electronics circuits use both input and output transducers:

Input Transducers
Input Transducers convert a quantity to an electrical signal (voltage) or to resistance (which can be converted to voltage). Input transducers are also called sensors.

Examples:
y y y y

LDR converts brightness (of light) to resistance. Thermistor converts temperature to resistance. Microphone converts sound to voltage. Variable resistor converts position (angle) to resistance. LDR
Photograph Rapid Electronics

Output Transducers
Output Transducers convert an electrical signal to another quantity.

Examples:
y y y y y

Lamp converts electricity to light. LED converts electricity to light. Loudspeaker converts electricity to sound. Motor converts electricity to motion. Heater converts electricity to heat. Loudspeaker
Photograph Rapid Electronics

Using input transducers (sensors)

Most input transducers (sensors) vary their resistance and this can be used directly in some circuits but it is usually converted to an electrical signal in the form of a voltage.

The voltage signal can be fed to other parts of the circuit, such as the input to an IC or a transistor switch. The conversion of varying resistance to varying voltage is performed by a simple circuit called a voltage divider.

Please see the next page for more information about voltage dividers. Voltage Dividers
They are also called Potential Dividers

Voltage divider circuit

Next Page: Transistor Circuits Also See: Transducers | Voltage and Current | Resistance | Impedance

Voltage divider (potential divider)

A voltage divider consists of two resistances R1 and R2 connected in series across a supply voltage Vs. The supply voltage is divided up between the two resistances to give an output voltage Vo which is the voltage across R2. This depends on the size of R2 relative to R1:
y y y

If R2 is much smaller than R1, Vo is small (low, almost 0V)

(because most of the voltage is across R1)

If R2 is about the same as R1, Vo is about half Vs

(because the voltage is shared about equally between R1 and R2)

If R2 is much larger than R1, Vo is large (high, almost Vs)

(because most of the voltage is across R2)

If you need a precise value for the output voltage Vo you can use Ohm's law and a little algebra to work out the formula for Vo shown on the right. The formula and the approximate rules given above assume that negligible current flows from the output. This is true if Vo is connected to a device with a high resistance such as voltmeter or an IC input. For further

Vs R2 Vo = R1 + R2

information please see the page on impedance. If the output is connected to a transistor Vo cannot become much greater than 0.7V because the transistor's base-emitter junction behaves like a diode.

Voltage dividers are also called potential dividers, a name which comes from potential difference (the proper name for voltage). One of the main uses of voltage dividers is to connect input transducers into circuits...

Using an input transducer (sensor) in a voltage divider

Most input transducers (sensors) vary their resistance and usually a voltage divider is used to convert this to a varying voltage which is more useful. The voltage signal can be fed to other parts of the circuit, such as the input to an IC or a transistor switch.

The sensor is one of the resistances in the voltage divider. It can be at the top (R1) or at the bottom (R2), the choice is determined by when you want a large value for the output voltage Vo:
y y

Put the sensor at the top (R1) if you want a large Vo when the sensor has a small resistance. Put the sensor at the bottom (R2) if you want a large Vo when the sensor has a large resistance.

Then you need to choose a value for the resistor...

Choosing a resistor value

The value of the resistor R will determine the range of the output voltage Vo. For best results you need a large 'swing' (range) for Vo and this is achieved if the resistor is much larger than the sensor's minimum resistance Rmin, but much smaller than the sensor's maximum resistance Rmax.

OR

You can use a multimeter to help you find the minimum and maximum values of the sensor's resistance (Rmin and Rmax). There is no need to be precise, approximate values will do. Then choose resistor value: R = square root of (Rmin Rmax)
Choose a standard value which is close to this calculated value. For example: An LDR: Rmin = 100 , Rmax = 1M

, so R = square root of (100 1M) = 10k .

swapping over the resistor and sensor The resistor and sensor can be swapped over to invert the action of the voltage divider. For example an LDR has a high resistance when dark and a low resistance when brightly lit, so:
y y

If the LDR is at the top (near +Vs), Vo will be low in the dark and high in bright light. If the LDR is at the bottom (near 0V), Vo will be high in the dark and low in bright light.

Using a variable resistor

A variable resistor may be used in place of the fixed resistor R. It will enable you to adjust the output voltage Vo for a given resistance of the sensor. For example you can use a variable resistor to set the exact brightness level which makes an IC change state.

The variable resistor value should be larger than the fixed resistor value. For finer control you can use a fixed resistor in series with the variable resistor. For example if a 10k fixed resistor is suitable you could replace it with a fixed 4.7k resistor in series with a 10k variable resistor, allowing you to adjust the resistance from 4.7k to 14.7k .

If you are planning to use a variable resistor connected between the +Vs supply and the base of a transistor you must include a resistor in series with the variable resistor. This is to prevent excessive base current destroying the transistor when the variable resistor is reduced to zero. For further information please see the page on Transistor Circuits.

The sensor and variable resistor can be swapped over if necessary

Transistor Circuits
This page explains the operation of transistors in circuits. Practical matters such as testing, precautions when soldering and identifying leads are covered by the Transistors page. General: Types | Currents | Functional model | Darlington pair Switching: Introduction | Use relay? | IC output | for NPN | and PNP | Sensors | Inverter

Next Page: Analogue and Digital Systems Also See: Transistors (soldering, lead identification)

Types of transistor
There are two types of standard transistors, NPN and PNP, with different circuit symbols. The letters refer to the layers of semiconductor material used to make the transistor. Most transistors used today are NPN because this is the easiest type to make from silicon. This page is mostly about NPN transistors and if you are new to electronics it is best to start by learning how to use these first.

Transistor circuit symbols

The leads are labelled base (B), collector (C) and emitter (E).
These terms refer to the internal operation of a transistor but they are not much help in understanding how a transistor is used, so just treat them as labels!

A Darlington pair is two transistors connected together to give a very high current gain. In addition to standard (bipolar junction) transistors, there are field-effect transistors which are usually referred to as FETs. They have different circuit symbols and properties and they are not (yet) covered by this page.

Transistor currents
The diagram shows the two current paths through a transistor. You can build this circuit with two standard 5mm red LEDs and any general purpose low power NPN transistor (BC108, BC182 or BC548 for example).

The small base current controls the larger collector current. When the switch is closed a small current flows into the base (B) of the transistor. It is just enough to make LED B glow dimly. The transistor amplifies this small current to allow a larger current to flow through from its collector (C) to its emitter (E). This collector current is large enough to make LED C light brightly. When the switch is open no base current flows, so the transistor switches off the collector current. Both LEDs are off. A transistor amplifies current and can be used as a switch.
This arrangement where the emitter (E) is in the controlling circuit (base current) and in the controlled circuit (collector current) is called common emitter mode. It is the most widely used arrangement for transistors so it is the one to learn first.

Functional model of an NPN transistor

The operation of a transistor is difficult to explain and understand in terms of its internal structure. It is more helpful to use this functional model:
y y y y

The base-emitter junction behaves like a diode. A base current IB flows only when the voltage VBE across the base-emitter junction is 0.7V or more. The small base current IB controls the large collector current Ic. Ic = hFE IB (unless the transistor is full on and saturated) hFE is the current gain (strictly the DC current gain), a typical value for hFE is 100 (it has no units because it is a ratio) The collector-emitter resistance RCE is controlled by the base current IB: o IB = 0 RCE = infinity transistor off o IB small RCE reduced transistor partly on o IB increased RCE = 0 transistor full on ('saturated')

Additional notes:
y y y y y y

A resistor is often needed in series with the base connection to limit the base current IB and prevent the transistor being damaged. Transistors have a maximum collector current Ic rating. The current gain hFE can vary widely, even for transistors of the same type! A transistor that is full on (with RCE = 0) is said to be 'saturated'. When a transistor is saturated the collector-emitter voltage VCE is reduced to almost 0V. When a transistor is saturated the collector current Ic is determined by the supply voltage and the external resistance in the collector circuit, not by the transistor's current gain. As a result the ratio Ic/IB for a saturated transistor is less than the current gain hFE. The emitter current IE = Ic + IB, but Ic is much larger than IB, so roughly IE = Ic.

There is a table showing technical data for some popular transistors on the transistors page.

Darlington pair
This is two transistors connected together so that the current amplified by the first is amplified further by the second transistor. The overall current gain is equal to the two individual gains multiplied together:

Darlington pair current gain, hFE = hFE1 hFE2 (hFE1 and hFE2 are the gains of the individual transistors) This gives the Darlington pair a very high current gain, such as 10000, so that only a tiny base current is required to make the pair switch on. A Darlington pair behaves like a single transistor with a very high current gain. It has three leads (B, C and E) which are equivalent to the leads of a standard individual transistor. To turn on there must be 0.7V across both the base-emitter junctions which are connected in series inside the Darlington pair, therefore it requires 1.4V to turn on. Darlington pairs are available as complete packages but Touch switch circuit you can make up your own from two transistors; TR1 can be a low power type, but normally TR2 will need to be high power. The maximum collector current Ic(max) for the pair is the same as Ic(max) for TR2. A Darlington pair is sufficiently sensitive to respond to the small current passed by your skin and it can be used to make a touch-switch as shown in the diagram. For this circuit which just lights an LED the two transistors can be any general purpose low power transistors. The 100k resistor protects the transistors if the contacts are linked with a piece of wire.

Using a transistor as a switch

When a transistor is used as a switch it must be either OFF or fully ON. In the fully ON state the voltage VCE across the transistor is almost zero and the transistor is said to be saturated because it cannot pass any more collector

current Ic. The output device switched by the transistor is usually called the 'load'.

The power developed in a switching transistor is very small:

y y

In the OFF state: power = Ic VCE, but Ic = 0, so the power is zero. In the full ON state: power = Ic VCE, but VCE = 0 (almost), so the power is very small.

This means that the transistor should not become hot in use and you do not need to consider its maximum power rating. The important ratings in switching circuits are the maximum collector current Ic(max) and the minimum current gain hFE(min). The transistor's voltage ratings may be ignored unless you are using a supply voltage of more than about 15V. There is a table showing technical data for some popular transistors on the transistors page.

For information about the operation of a transistor please see the functional model above.

Protection diode If the load is a motor, relay or solenoid (or any other device with a coil) a diode must be connected across the load to protect the transistor from the brief high voltage produced when the load is switched off. The diagram shows how a protection diode is connected 'backwards' across the load, in this case a relay coil.
Current flowing through a coil creates a magnetic field which collapses suddenly when the current is switched off. The sudden collapse of the magnetic field induces a brief high voltage across the coil which is very likely to damage transistors and ICs. The protection diode allows the induced voltage to drive a brief current through the coil (and diode) so the magnetic field dies away quickly rather than instantly. This prevents the induced voltage becoming high enough to cause damage to transistors and ICs.

When to use a relay

Transistors cannot switch AC or high voltages (such as mains electricity) and they are not usually a good choice for switching large currents (> 5A). In these cases a relay will be needed, but note that a low power transistor may still be needed to switch the current for the relay's coil!

Advantages of relays:
y y y y Relays can switch AC and DC, transistors can only switch DC. Relays can switch high voltages, transistors cannot. Relays are a better choice for switching large currents (> 5A). Relays can switch many contacts at once.

Relays
Photographs Rapid Electronics

Disadvantages of relays:
y y y y Relays are bulkier than transistors for switching small currents. Relays cannot switch rapidly, transistors can switch many times per second. Relays use more power due to the current flowing through their coil. Relays require more current than many ICs can provide, so a low power transistor may be needed to switch the current for the relay's coil.

Connecting a transistor to the output from an IC

Most ICs cannot supply large output currents so it may be necessary to use a transistor to switch the larger current required for output devices such as lamps, motors and relays. The 555 timer IC is unusual because it can supply a relatively large current of up to 200mA which is sufficient for some output devices such as low current lamps, buzzers and many relay coils without needing to use a transistor.

A transistor can also be used to enable an IC connected to a low voltage supply (such as 5V) to switch the current for an output device with a separate higher voltage supply (such as 12V). The two power supplies must be linked, normally this is done by linking their 0V connections. In this case you should use an NPN transistor. A resistor RB is required to limit the current flowing into the base of the transistor and prevent it being damaged. However, RB must be sufficiently low to ensure that the transistor is thoroughly saturated to prevent it overheating, this is particularly important if

the transistor is switching a large current (> 100mA). A safe rule is to make the base current IB about five times larger than the value which should just saturate the transistor.
Choosing a suitable NPN transistor The circuit diagram shows how to connect an NPN transistor, this will switch on the load when the IC output is high. If you need the opposite action, with the load switched on when the IC output is low (0V) please see the circuit for a PNP transistor below.

The procedure below explains how to choose a suitable switching transistor.

1. The transistor's maximum collector current Ic(max) must be greater than the load current Ic.
supply voltage Vs load current Ic = load resistance RL

2. The transistor's minimum current gain hFE(min) must be at least five times the load current Ic divided by the maximum output current from the IC.
load current Ic hFE(min) > 5 max. IC current

NPN transistor switch

(load is on when IC output is high)

Using units in calculations

Remember to use V, A and or V, mA and k . For more details please see the Ohm's Law page.

3. Choose a transistor which meets these requirements and make a note of its properties: Ic(max) and hFE(min). 4. Calculate an approximate value for the base resistor:
Vc hFE RB = 5 Ic

There is a table showing technical data for some popular transistors on the transistors page.

where Vc = IC supply voltage (in a simple circuit with one supply this is Vs)

5. For a simple circuit where the IC and the load share the same power supply (Vc = Vs) you may
prefer to use: RB = 0.2 RL hFE

6. Then choose the nearest standard value for the base resistor.
7. Finally, remember that if the load is a motor or relay coil a protection diode is required.

Example
The output from a 4000 series CMOS IC is required to operate a relay with a 100 coil. The supply voltage is 6V for both the IC and load. The IC can supply a maximum current of 5mA. 1. Load current = Vs/RL = 6/100 = 0.06A = 60mA, so transistor must have Ic(max) > 60mA. 2. The maximum current from the IC is 5mA, so transistor must have hFE(min) > 60 (5 60mA/5mA). 3. Choose general purpose low power transistor BC182 with Ic(max) = 100mA and hFE(min) = 100. 4. RB = 0.2 RL hFE = 0.2 100 100 = 2000 . so choose RB = 1k8 or 2k2. 5. The relay coil requires a protection diode.

Choosing a suitable PNP transistor The circuit diagram shows how to connect a PNP transistor, this will switch on the load when the IC output is low (0V). If you need the opposite action, with the load switched on when the IC output is high please see the circuit for an NPN transistor above.

The procedure for choosing a suitable PNP transistor is exactly the same as that for an NPN transistor described above.
PNP transistor switch
(load is on when IC output is low)

Using a transistor switch with sensors

The top circuit diagram shows an LDR (light sensor) connected so that the LED lights when the LDR is in darkness. The variable resistor adjusts the brightness at which the transistor switches on and off. Any general purpose low power transistor can be used in this circuit.

The 10k fixed resistor protects the transistor from excessive base current (which will destroy it) when the variable resistor is reduced to zero. To make this circuit switch at a suitable brightness you may need to experiment with different values for the fixed resistor, but it must not be less than 1k . If the transistor is switching a load with a coil, such as a motor or relay, remember to add a protection diode across the load. The switching action can be inverted, so the LED lights when the LDR is brightly lit, by swapping the LDR and variable resistor. In this case the fixed resistor can be omitted because the LDR resistance cannot be reduced to zero. Note that the switching action of this circuit is not particularly good because there will be an intermediate brightness when the transistor will be partly on (not saturated). In this state the transistor is in danger of overheating unless it is switching a small current. There is no problem with the small LED current, but the larger current for a lamp, motor or relay is likely to cause overheating.
LED lights when the LDR is dark

LED lights when the LDR is bright

Other sensors, such as a thermistor, can be used with this circuit, but they may require a different variable resistor. You can calculate an approximate value for the variable resistor (Rv) by using a multimeter to find the minimum and maximum values of the sensor's resistance (Rmin and Rmax): Variable resistor, Rv = square root of (Rmin Rmax)
For example an LDR: Rmin = 100 , Rmax = 1M , so Rv = square root of (100 1M) = 10k .

You can make a much better switching circuit with sensors connected to a suitable IC (chip). The switching action will be much sharper with no partly on state.

A transistor inverter (NOT gate)

Inverters (NOT gates) are available on logic ICs but if you only require one inverter it is usually better to use this circuit. The output signal (voltage) is the inverse of the input signal:
y y

When the input is high (+Vs) the output is low (0V). When the input is low (0V) the output is high (+Vs).

Any general purpose low power NPN transistor can be used. For general use RB = 10k and RC = 1k , then the inverter output can be connected to a device with an input impedance (resistance) of at least 10k such as a logic IC or a 555 timer (trigger and reset inputs).

If you are connecting the inverter to a CMOS logic IC input (very high impedance) you can increase RB to 100k and RC to 10k , this will reduce the current used by the inverter.

Analogue and Digital Systems

Analogue | Digital | Logic

Next Page: Logic Gates

Analogue signal

Analogue systems
Analogue systems process analogue signals which can take any value within a range, for example the output from an LDR (light sensor) or a microphone.
Analogue meter display An audio amplifier is an example of an analogue system. The amplifier produces an output voltage which can be any value within the range of its power supply.

An analogue meter can display any value within the range available on its scale. However, the precision of readings is limited by our ability to read them. For example the meter on the right shows 1.25V because the pointer is estimated to be half way between 1.2 and 1.3. The analogue meter can show any value between 1.2 and 1.3 but we are unable to read the scale more precisely than about half a division. All electronic circuits suffer from 'noise' which is unwanted signal mixed in with the desired signal, for example an audio amplifier may pick up some mains 'hum' (the 50Hz frequency of the UK mains electricity supply). Noise can be difficult to eliminate from analogue signals because it may be hard to distinguish from the desired signal.

Digital systems
Digital systems process digital signals which can take only a limited number of values (discrete steps), usually just two values are used: the positive supply voltage (+Vs) and zero volts (0V).

Digital systems contain devices such as logic gates, flip-flops, shift registers and counters. A computer is an example of a digital system.

Digital (logic) signal

A digital meter can display many values, but not every value within its range. For example the display Digital meter display on the right can show 6.25 and 6.26 but not a value between them. This is not a problem because digital meters normally have sufficient digits to show values more precisely than it is possible to read an analogue display.

Logic signals Most digital systems use the simplest possible type of signal which has just two values. This type of signal is called a logic signal because the two values (or states) can be called true and false. Normally the positive supply voltage +Vs represents true and 0V represents false. Other labels for the true and false states are shown in the table on the right.

Logic state s True False 1 High +Vs On 0 Low 0V Off

Noise is relatively easy to eliminate from digital signals because it is easy to distinguish from the desired signal which can only have particular values. For example: if the signal is meant to be +5V (true) or 0V (false), noise of up to 2.5V can be eliminated by treating all voltages greater than 2.5V as true and all voltages less than 2.5V as false. Logic Gates
Gate types: NOT | AND | NAND | OR | NOR | EX-OR | EX-NOR Symbols | Truth tables | Logic ICs | Summary truth tables | Combinations | Substituting

Next Page: Capacitance and Uses of Capacitors Also see: Logic ICs | 4000 Series | 74 Series

Introduction
Logic state s

Logic gates process signals which represent true or false. Normally the positive supply voltage +Vs represents true and 0V represents false. Other terms which are used for the true and false states are shown in the table on the right. It is best to be familiar with them all.

True False 1 High +Vs On 0 Low 0V Off

Gates are identified by their function: NOT, AND, NAND, OR, NOR, EXOR and EX-NOR. Capital letters are normally used to make it clear that the term refers to a logic gate. Note that logic gates are not always required because simple logic functions can be performed with switches or diodes:
y y y

Switches in series (AND function) Switches in parallel (OR function) Combining IC outputs with diodes (OR function)

Logic gate symbols

There are two series of symbols for logic gates:
y

The traditional symbols have distinctive shapes making them easy to recognise so they are widely used in industry and education.

The IEC (International Electrotechnical Commission) symbols are rectangles with a symbol inside to show the gate function. They are rarely used despite their official status, but you may need to know them for an examination.

Inputs and outputs

Gates have two or more inputs, except a NOT gate which has only one input. All gates have only one output. Usually the letters A, B, C and so on are used to label inputs, and Q is used to label the output. On this page the inputs are shown on the left and the output on the right.

The inverting circle (o) Some gate symbols have a circle on their output which means that their function includes inverting of the output. It is equivalent to feeding the output through a NOT gate. For example the NAND (Not AND) gate symbol shown on the right is the same as an AND gate symbol but with the addition of an inverting circle on the output.

Truth tables
A truth table is a good way to show the function of a logic gate. It shows the output states for every possible combination of input states. The symbols 0 (false) and 1 (true) are usually used in truth tables. The example truth table on the right shows the inputs and output of an AND gate. Input A Input B Output Q 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1

There are summary truth tables below showing the output states for all types of 2-input and 3-input gates. These can be helpful if you are trying to select a suitable gate.

Logic ICs
Logic gates are available on special ICs (chips) which usually contain several gates of the same type, for example the 4001 IC contains four 2input NOR gates. There are several families of logic ICs and they can be split into two groups:
y

4000 Series

74 Series

To quickly compare the different families please see:

y

Summary table of logic families

The 4000 and 74HC families are the best for battery powered projects because they will work with a good range of supply voltages and they use very little power. However, if you are using them to design circuits and investigate logic gates please remember that all unused inputs MUST be connected to the power supply (either +Vs or 0V), this applies even if that part of the IC is not being used in the circuit!

NOT gate (inverter)

The output Q is true when the input A is NOT true, the output is the inverse of the input: Q = NOT A A NOT gate can only have one input. A NOT gate is also called an inverter. Input A Output Q 0 1 1 0

Traditional symbol

IEC symbol

Truth Table

AND gate
The output Q is true if input A AND input B are both true: Q = A AND B An AND gate can have two or more inputs, its output is true if all inputs are true.

Input A Input B Output Q 0 0 0

0 1 1

1 0 1

0 0 1

Traditional symbol

IEC symbol

Truth Table

NAND gate (NAND = Not AND)

This is an AND gate with the output inverted, as shown by the 'o' on the output. The output is true if input A AND input B are NOT both true: Q = NOT (A AND B) A NAND gate can have two or more inputs, its output is true if NOT all inputs are true. Input A Input B Output Q 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0

Traditional symbol

IEC symbol

Truth Table

OR gate
The output Q is true if input A OR input B is true (or both of them are true): Q = A OR B An OR gate can have two or more inputs, its output is true if at least one input is true.

Input A Input B Output Q 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1

Traditional symbol

IEC symbol

Truth Table

NOR gate (NOR = Not OR)

This is an OR gate with the output inverted, as shown by the 'o' on the output. The output Q is true if NOT inputs A OR B are true: Q = NOT (A OR B) A NOR gate can have two or more inputs, its output is true if no inputs are true. Input A Input B Output Q 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0

Traditional symbol

IEC symbol

Truth Table

EX-OR (EXclusive-OR) gate

The output Q is true if either input A is true OR input B is true, but not when both of them are true: Q = (A AND NOT B) OR (B AND NOT A)

This is like an OR gate but excluding both inputs being true. The output is true if inputs A and B are DIFFERENT. EX-OR gates can only have 2 inputs. Input A Input B Output Q 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0

Traditional symbol

IEC symbol

Truth Table

EX-NOR (EXclusive-NOR) gate

This is an EX-OR gate with the output inverted, as shown by the 'o' on the output. The output Q is true if inputs A and B are the SAME (both true or both false): Q = (A AND B) OR (NOT A AND NOT B) EX-NOR gates can only have 2 inputs. Input A Input B Output Q 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1

Traditional symbol

IEC symbol

Truth Table

Summary truth tables

The summary truth tables below show the output states for all types of 2-input and 3-input gates. Summary for all 2-input gates Inputs Output of each gate Summary for all 3-input gates Inputs Output of each gate

A B AND NAND OR NOR EX-OR EX-NOR 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1

A B C AND NAND OR NOR 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Note that EX-OR and EX-NOR gates can only have 2 inputs.

Combinations of logic gates

Logic gates can be combined to produce more complex functions. They can also be combined to substitute one type of gate for another. Input A Input B Output Q

For example to produce an output Q which is true only when input A is true and input B is false, as shown in the truth table on the right, we can combine a NOT gate and an AND gate like this:

0 0 1 1

0 1 0 1

0 0 1 0

Q = A AND NOT B

Working out the function of a combination of gates Truth tables can be used to work out the function of a combination of gates. Inputs Outputs

For example the truth table on the right show the intermediate outputs D and E as well as the final output Q for the system shown below.

A B C D E Q 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1

D = NOT (A OR B) E = B AND C Q = D OR E = (NOT (A OR B)) OR (B AND C)

1 1 1

Substituting one type of gate for another

Logic gates are available on ICs which usually contain several gates of the same type, for example four 2-input NAND gates or three 3-input NAND gates. This can be wasteful if only a few gates are required unless they are all the same type. To avoid using too many ICs you can reduce the number of gate inputs or substitute one type of gate for another. Reducing the number of inputs The number of inputs to a gate can be reduced by connecting two (or more) inputs together. The diagram shows a 3-input AND gate operating as a 2-input AND gate.

Making a NOT gate from a NAND or NOR gate Reducing a NAND or NOR gate to just one input creates a NOT gate. The diagram shows this for a 2-input NAND gate.

Any gate can be built from NAND or NOR gates As well as making a NOT gate, NAND or NOR gates can be combined to create any type of gate! This enables a circuit to be built from just one type of gate, either NAND or NOR. For example an AND gate is a NAND gate then a NOT gate (to undo the inverting function). Note that AND and OR gates cannot be used to create other gates because they lack the inverting (NOT) function.

To change the type of gate, such as changing OR to AND, you must do three things:
y y y

Invert (NOT) each input. Change the gate type (OR to AND, or AND to OR) Invert (NOT) the output.

For example an OR gate can be built from NOTed inputs fed into a NAND (AND + NOT) gate.

NAND gate equivalents

The table below shows the NAND gate equivalents of NOT, AND, OR and NOR gates: Gate Equivalent in NAND gates

NOT

AND

OR

NOR

Substituting gates in an example logic system The original system has 3 different gates: NOR, AND and OR. This requires three ICs (one for each type of gate).

To re-design this system using NAND gates only begin by replacing

each gate with its NAND gate equivalent, as shown in the diagram below.

Then simplify the system by deleting adjacent pairs of NOT gates (marked X above). This can be done because the second NOT gate cancels the action of the first. The final system is shown on the right. It has five NAND gates and requires two ICs (with four gates on each IC). This is better than the original system which required three ICs (one for each type of gate). Substituting NAND (or NOR) gates does not always increase the number of gates, but when it does (as in this example) the increase is usually only one or two gates. The real

benefit is reducing the number of ICs required by using just one type of gate.

Capacitance and Uses of Capacitors

Capacitance | Charge & Energy | Reactance | Series & Parallel | Charging | Time constant | Discharging | Uses | Capacitor Coupling

Next Page: Impedance and Reactance Also See: Capacitors | Power Supplies

Capacitance
Capacitance (symbol C) is a measure of a capacitor's ability to store charge. A large capacitance means that more charge can be stored. Capacitance is measured in farads, symbol F. However 1F is very large, so prefixes (multipliers) are used to show the smaller values:
y y y

unpolarised capacitor symbol

(micro) means 10-6 (millionth), so 1000000F = 1F n (nano) means 10-9 (thousand-millionth), so 1000nF = 1F p (pico) means 10-12 (million-millionth), so 1000pF = 1nF
polarised capacitor symbol

Charge and Energy Stored

The amount of charge (symbol Q) stored by a capacitor is given by: Q = charge in coulombs (C) where: C = capacitance in farads (F) V = voltage in volts (V)

Charge, Q = C V

When they store charge, capacitors are also storing energy:

Energy, E = QV = CV where E = energy in joules (J).

Note that capacitors return their stored energy to the circuit. They do not 'use up' electrical energy by converting it to heat as a resistor does. The energy stored by a capacitor is much smaller than the energy stored by a battery so they cannot be used as a practical source of energy for most purposes.

Capacitive Reactance Xc
Capacitive reactance (symbol Xc) is a measure of a capacitor's opposition to AC (alternating current). Like resistance it is measured in ohms, , but reactance is more complex than resistance because its value depends on the frequency (f) of the electrical signal passing through the capacitor as well as on the capacitance, C. Xc = reactance in ohms ( ) Capacitive reactance, Xc = where: f = frequency in hertz (Hz) 2 fC C = capacitance in farads (F) 1

The reactance Xc is large at low frequencies and small at high frequencies. For steady DC which is zero frequency, Xc is infinite (total opposition), hence the rule that capacitors pass AC but block DC. For example a 1F capacitor has a reactance of 3.2k for a 50Hz signal, but when the frequency is higher at 10kHz its reactance is only 16 . Note: the symbol Xc is used to distinguish capacitative reactance from inductive reactance XL which is a property of inductors. The distinction is important because XL increases with frequency (the opposite of Xc) and if both XL and Xc are present in a circuit the combined reactance (X) is the difference between them. For further information please see the page on Impedance.

Capacitors in Series and Parallel

1 1 1 Combined capacitance 1 (C) of + = C1 + C2 + C3 capacitors connected C ... in series: Combined capacitance C = C1 + C2 + C3 + ...

(C) of capacitors connected in parallel:

Two or more capacitors are rarely deliberately connected in series in real circuits, but it can be useful to connect capacitors in parallel to obtain a very large capacitance, for example to smooth a power supply. Note that these equations are the opposite way round for resistors in series and parallel.

Charging a capacitor
The capacitor (C) in the circuit diagram is being charged from a supply voltage (Vs) with the current passing through a resistor (R). The voltage across the capacitor (Vc) is initially zero but it increases as the capacitor charges. The capacitor is fully charged when Vc = Vs. The charging current (I) is determined by the voltage across the resistor (Vs - Vc):

Charging current, I = (Vs - Vc) / R (note that Vc is increasing) At first Vc = 0V so the initial current, Io = Vs / R Vc increases as soon as charge (Q) starts to build up (Vc = Q/C), this reduces the voltage across the resistor and therefore reduces the charging current. This means that the rate of charging becomes progressively slower.

time constant = R C

where:

time constant is in seconds (s) R = resistance in ohms ( ) C = capacitance in farads (F)

For example: If R = 47k and C = 22F, then the time constant, RC = 47k 22F = 1.0s. If R = 33k and C = 1F, then the time constant, RC = 33k 1F = 33ms.

A large time constant means the capacitor charges slowly. Note that the time constant is a property of the circuit containing the capacitance and resistance, it is not a property of a capacitor alone. The time constant is the time taken for the charging (or discharging) current (I) to fall to 1/e of its initial value (Io). 'e' is the base of natural logarithms, an important number in mathematics (like ). e = 2.71828 (to 6 significant figures) so we can roughly say that the time constant is the time taken for the current to fall to 1/3 of its initial value. After each time constant the current falls by 1/e (about 1/3). After 5 time constants (5RC) the current has fallen to less than 1% of its initial value and we can reasonably say that the capacitor is fully charged, but in fact the capacitor takes for ever to charge fully! The bottom graph shows how the voltage (V) increases as the capacitor charges. At first the voltage changes rapidly because the current is large; but as the current decreases, the charge builds up more slowly and the voltage increases more slowly. After 5 time constants (5RC) the capacitor is almost fully charged with its voltage almost equal to the supply voltage. We can reasonably say that the capacitor is fully charged after 5RC, although really charging continues for ever (or until the circuit is changed).
Time Voltage Charge Graphs showing the current and voltage for a capacitor charging
time constant = RC

0RC

0.0V

0%

1RC

5.7V

63%

2RC

7.8V

86%

3RC

8.6V

95%

4RC

8.8V

98%

5RC

8.9V

99%

Discharging a capacitor
The top graph shows how the current (I) decreases as the capacitor discharges. The initial current (Io) is determined by the initial voltage across the capacitor (Vo) and resistance (R): Initial current, Io = Vo / R. Note that the current graphs are the same shape for both charging and discharging a capacitor. This type of graph is an example of exponential decay. The bottom graph shows how the voltage (V) decreases as the capacitor discharges. At first the current is large because the voltage is large, so charge is lost quickly and the voltage decreases rapidly. As charge is lost the voltage is reduced making the current smaller so the rate of discharging becomes progressively slower. After 5 time constants (5RC) the voltage across the capacitor is almost zero and we can reasonably say that the capacitor is fully discharged, although really discharging continues for ever (or until the circuit is changed).
Time Voltage Charge Graphs showing the current and voltage for a capacitor discharging
time constant = RC

0RC

9.0V

100%

1RC

3.3V

37%

2RC

1.2V

14%

3RC

0.4V

5%

4RC

0.2V

2%

5RC

0.1V

1%

Uses of Capacitors
Capacitors are used for several purposes:

y y y y y y

Timing - for example with a 555 timer IC controlling the charging and discharging. Smoothing - for example in a power supply. Coupling - for example between stages of an audio system and to connect a loudspeaker. Filtering - for example in the tone control of an audio system. Tuning - for example in a radio system. Storing energy - for example in a camera flash circuit.

Capacitor Coupling (CR-coupling)

Sections of electronic circuits may be linked with a capacitor because capacitors pass AC (changing) signals but block DC (steady) signals. This is called capacitor coupling or CRcoupling. It is used between the stages of an audio system to pass on the audio signal (AC) without any steady voltage (DC) which may be present, for example to connect a loudspeaker. It is also used for the 'AC' switch setting on an oscilloscope.

The precise behaviour of a capacitor coupling is determined by its time constant (RC). Note that the resistance (R) may be inside the next circuit section rather than a separate resistor. For successful capacitor coupling in an audio system the signals must pass through with little or no distortion. This is achieved if the time constant (RC) is larger than the time period (T) of the lowest frequency audio signals required (typically 20Hz, T = 50ms).

Output when RC >> T When the time constant is much larger than the time period of the input signal the capacitor does not have sufficient time to significantly charge or discharge, so the signal passes through with negligible distortion. Output when RC = T When the time constant is equal to the time period you can see that the capacitor has time to partly charge and discharge before the signal changes. As a result there is significant distortion of the signal as it passes through the CR-coupling. Notice how the sudden changes of the input signal pass straight through the capacitor to the output.

Output when RC << T When the time constant is much smaller than the time period the capacitor has time to fully charge or discharge after each sudden change in the input signal. Effectively only the sudden changes pass through to the output and they appear as 'spikes', alternately positive and negative. This can be useful in a system which must detect when a signal changes suddenly, but must ignore slow changes. Impedance and Reactance
Impedance | Reactance | Input Impedance | Output Impedance | Voltage Divider

Next Page: 555 and 556 Timer Circuits Also See: Capacitance | Resistance | Ohm's Law | Voltage Dividers

Impedance V
Impedance, Z

= I

V
Resistance, R

= I

Impedance (symbol Z) is a measure of the overall opposition of a circuit to current, in other words: how much the circuit impedes the flow of current. It is like resistance, but it also takes into account the effects of capacitance and inductance. Impedance is measured in ohms, symbol .

V = voltage in volts (V) I = current in amps (A) Z = impedance in ohms ( ) R = resistance in ohms ( )

Impedance is more complex than resistance because the effects of capacitance and inductance vary with the frequency of the current passing through the circuit and this means impedance varies with frequency! The effect of resistance is constant regardless of frequency. The term 'impedance' is often used (quite correctly) for simple circuits which have no capacitance or inductance - for example to refer to their 'input impedance' or 'output impedance'. This can seem confusing if you are learning electronics, but for these simple circuits you can assume that it is just another word for resistance. Four electrical quantities determine the impedance (Z) of a circuit: resistance (R), capacitance (C), inductance (L) and frequency (f). Impedance can be split into two parts:
y y

Resistance R (the part which is constant regardless of frequency) Reactance X (the part which varies with
frequency due to capacitance and inductance)

For further details please see the section on Reactance below.

The capacitance and inductance cause a phase shift* between the current and voltage which means that the resistance and reactance cannot be simply added up to give impedance. Instead they must be added as vectors with reactance at right angles to resistance as shown in the diagram.
* Phase shift means that the current and voltage are out of step with each other. Think of charging a capacitor. When the voltage across the capacitor is zero, the current is at a maximum; when the capacitor has charged and the voltage is at a maximum, the current is at a minimum. The charging and discharging occur continually with AC and the current reaches its maximum shortly before the voltage reaches its maximum: so we say the current leads the voltage.

Reactance, X
Reactance (symbol X) is a measure of the opposition of capacitance and inductance to current. Reactance varies with the frequency of the electrical signal. Reactance is measured in ohms, symbol .

There are two types of reactance: capacitive reactance (Xc) and inductive reactance (XL). The total reactance (X) is the difference between the two:
y

X = XL - Xc

Capacitive reactance, Xc
Xc = reactance in ohms ( ) Xc = where: f = frequency in hertz (Hz) 2 fC C = capacitance in farads (F) 1

Xc is large at low frequencies and small at high frequencies. For steady DC which is zero frequency, Xc is infinite (total opposition), hence the rule that capacitors pass AC but block DC.
y y

For example: a 1F capacitor has a reactance of 3.2k for a 50Hz signal, but when the frequency is higher at 10kHz its reactance is only 16 .

Inductive reactance, XL
XL = 2 fL where: XL = reactance in ohms ( ) f = frequency in hertz (Hz) L = inductance in henrys (H)

XL is small at low frequencies and large at high frequencies. For steady DC (frequency zero), XL is zero (no opposition), hence the rule that inductors pass DC but block high frequency AC.
y

For example: a 1mH inductor has a reactance of only 0.3 for a 50Hz signal, but when the frequency is higher at 10kHz its reactance is 63 .

Input Impedance ZIN

Input impedance (ZIN) is the impedance 'seen' by anything connected to the input of a circuit or device (such as an amplifer). It is the combined effect of all the resistance, capacitance and inductance connected to the input inside the circuit or device.

It is normal to use the term 'input impedance' even for simple cases where there is only resistance and the term 'input resistance' could be used instead. In fact it is usually reasonable to assume that an input impedance is just resistance providing the input signal has a low frequency (less than 1kHz say). The effects of capacitance and inductance vary with frequency, so if these are present the input impedance will vary with frequency. The effects of capacitance and inductance are generally most significant at high frequencies. Usually input impedances should be high, at least ten times the output impedance of the circuit (or component) supplying a signal to the input. This ensures that the input will not 'overload' the source of the signal and reduce the strength (voltage) of the signal by a substantial amount.

Output Impedance ZOUT

The output of any circuit or device is equivalent to an output impedance (ZOUT) in series with a perfect voltage source (VSOURCE). This is called the equivalent circuit and it repesents the combined effect of all the voltage sources, resistance, capacitance and inductance connected to the output inside the circuit or device. Note that VSOURCE is usually not the same as the supply voltage Vs.

It is normal to use the term 'output impedance' even for simple cases where there is only resistance and the term 'output resistance' could be used instead. In fact it is usually reasonable to assume that an output impedance is just resistance providing the output signal has a low frequency (less than 1kHz say).

The equivalent circuit of any output

The effects of capacitance and inductance vary with frequency, so if these are present the output impedance will vary with frequency. The effects of capacitance and inductance are generally most significant at high frequencies. Usually output impedances should be low, less than a tenth of the load impedance connected to the output. If an output impedance is too high it will be unable to supply a sufficiently strong signal to the load because most of the signal's voltage will be 'lost' inside the circuit driving current through the output impedance ZOUT. The load could be a single component or the input impedance of another circuit.
y

Low output impedance, ZOUT << ZLOAD Most of VSOURCE appears across the load, very little voltage is 'lost' driving the output current through the output impedance. Usually this is the best arrangement. Matched impedances, ZOUT = ZLOAD Half of VSOURCE appears across the load, the other half is 'lost' driving the output current through the output impedance. This arrangement is The load can be a single component or useful in some situations (such as an the input impedance of another circuit amplifier driving a loudspeaker) because it delivers maximum power to the load. Note that an equal amount of power is wasted driving the output current through ZOUT, an efficiency of 50%. High output impedance, ZOUT >> ZLOAD Only a small portion of appears across the load, most is 'lost' driving the output current through the output impedance. This arrangement is unsatisfactory.

The output resistance of a voltage divider

Voltage dividers are widely used in electronics, for example to connect an input transducer such as an LDR to a circuit input.

For successful use the output impedance of the voltage divider should be much smaller than the input impedance of the circuit it is connected to. Ideally the output impedance should be less than a tenth of the input impedance. In the equivalent circuit of a voltage divider the output impedance is just a resistance and the term 'output resistance' could be used. ROUT is equal to the two resistances (R1 and R2) connected in parallel:
R1 R2 Output impedance, ROUT = R1 + R2

Voltage divider

The voltage source VSOURCE in the equivalent circuit is the value of the output voltage Vo when there is nothing connected to the output (and therefore no output current). It is sometimes called the 'open circuit' voltage.
Vs R2 Voltage source, VSOURCE = R1 + R2

Equivalent circuit of a voltage divider

In most voltage dividers one of the resistors will be an input transducer such as an LDR. The transducer's resistance varies and this will make both VSOURCE and ROUT vary too. To check that ROUT is sufficiently low you should work out its highest value which will occur when the transducer has its maximum resistance (this applies wherever the transducer is connected in the voltage divider).

Voltage divider with an LDR

For example: If R1 = 10k and R2 is an LDR with maximum resistance 1M , ROUT = 10k 1M / (10k + 1M) = 9.9k (say 10k ). This means it should be connected

to a load or input resistance of at least 100k .

555 and 556 Timer Circuits

Inputs | Output | Astable | Duty Cycle | Monostable | Edge-trigger | Bistable | Buffer

Next Page: Counting Circuits Also See: ICs (chips) | Capacitance | AC, DC and Electrical Signals

Introduction

Example circuit symbol (above) Actual pin arrangements (below)

The 8-pin 555 timer must be one of the most useful ICs ever made and it is used in many projects. With just a few external components it can be used to build many circuits, not all of them involve timing!

A popular version is the NE555 and this is suitable in most cases where a '555 timer' is specified. The 556 is a dual version of the 555 housed in a 14-pin package, the two timers (A and B) share the same power supply pins. The circuit diagrams on this page show a 555, but they could all be adapted to use one half of a 556. Low power versions of the 555 are made, such as the ICM7555, but these should only be used when specified (to increase battery life) because their maximum output current of about 20mA (with a 9V supply) is too low for many standard 555 circuits. The ICM7555 has the same pin arrangement as a standard 555.

The circuit symbol for a 555 (and 556) is a box with the pins arranged to suit the circuit diagram: for example 555 pin 8 at the top for the +Vs supply, 555 pin 3 output on the right. Usually just the pin numbers are used and they are not labelled with their function. The 555 and 556 can be used with a supply voltage (Vs) in the range 4.5 to 15V (18V absolute maximum). Standard 555 and 556 ICs create a significant 'glitch' on the supply when their output changes state. This is rarely a problem in simple circuits with no other ICs, but in more complex circuits a smoothing capacitor (eg 100F) should be connected across the +Vs and 0V supply near the 555 or 556. The input and output pin functions are described briefly below and there are fuller explanations covering the various circuits:
y y y y

There is more information about 555 timers and their circuits on the Electronics in Meccano website.

Astable - producing a square wave Monostable - producing a single pulse when triggered Bistable - a simple memory which can be set and reset Buffer - an inverting buffer (Schmitt trigger)

Datasheets are available from:

y y y

DatasheetArchive.com Datasheets.org.uk DatasheetCatalog.com

Inputs of 555/556
Trigger input: when < 1/3 Vs ('active low') this makes the output high (+Vs). It monitors the discharging of the timing capacitor in an astable circuit. It has a high input impedance > 2M .

Threshold input: when > 2/3 Vs ('active high') this makes the output low (0V)*. It monitors the charging of the timing capacitor in astable and monostable circuits. It has a high input impedance > 10M .
* providing the trigger input is > /3 Vs, otherwise the trigger input will override the threshold input and hold the output high (+Vs).
1

Reset input: when less than about 0.7V ('active low') this makes the output low (0V), overriding other inputs. When not required it should be connected to +Vs. It has an input impedance of about 10k . Control input: this can be used to adjust the threshold voltage which is set internally to be 2/3 Vs. Usually this function is not required and the control input is connected to 0V with a 0.01F capacitor to eliminate electrical noise. It can be left unconnected if noise is not a problem. The discharge pin is not an input, but it is listed here for convenience. It is connected to 0V when the timer output is low and is used to discharge the timing capacitor in astable and monostable circuits.

Output of 555/556
The output of a standard 555 or 556 can sink and source up to 200mA. This is more than most ICs and it is sufficient to supply many output transducers directly, including LEDs (with a resistor in series), low current lamps, piezo transducers, loudspeakers (with a capacitor in series), relay coils (with diode protection) and some motors (with diode protection). The output voltage does not quite reach 0V and +Vs, especially if a large current is flowing.

To switch larger currents you can connect a transistor. The ability to both sink and source current means that two devices can be connected to the output so that one is on when the output is low and the other is on when the output is high. The top diagram shows two LEDs connected in this way. This arrangement is used in the Level Crossing project to make the red LEDs flash alternately.
Loudspeakers A loudspeaker (minimum resistance 64 ) may be connected to the output of a 555 or 556 astable circuit but a capacitor (about 100F) must be connected in series. The output is equivalent to a steady DC of about Vs combined with a square wave AC (audio) signal. The capacitor blocks the DC, but allows the AC to pass as explained in capacitor coupling.

Piezo transducers may be connected directly to the output and do not require a capacitor in series.
Relay coils and other inductive loads Like all ICs, the 555 and 556 must be protected from the brief high voltage 'spike' produced when an inductive load such as a relay coil is switched off. The standard protection diode must be connected 'backwards' across the the relay coil as shown in the diagram.

However, the 555 and 556 require an extra diode connected in series with the coil to ensure that a small 'glitch' cannot be fed back into the IC. Without this extra diode monostable circuits may re-trigger themselves as the coil is switched off! The coil current passes through the extra diode so it must be a 1N4001 or similar rectifier diode capable of passing the current, a signal diode such as a 1N4148 is usually not suitable.

Top of page | Inputs | Output | Astable | Duty Cycle | Monostable | Edge-trigger | Bistable | Buffer

555/556 Astable
An astable circuit produces a 'square wave', this is a digital waveform with sharp transitions between low (0V) and high (+Vs). Note that the durations of the low and high states may be different. The circuit is called an astable because it is not stable in any state: the output is continually changing between 'low' and 'high'.

555 astable output, a square wave (Tm and Ts may be different)

The time period (T) of the square wave is the time for one complete cycle, but it is usually better to consider frequency (f) which is the number of cycles per second.
T = 0.7 (R1 + 2R2) C1 and f = 1.4 (R1 + 2R2) C1

T = time period in seconds (s) f = frequency in hertz (Hz) R1 = resistance in ohms ( ) R2 = resistance in ohms ( ) C1 = capacitance in farads (F) The time period can be split into two parts: T = Tm + Ts Mark time (output high): Tm = 0.7 (R1 + R2) C1 Space time (output low): Ts = 0.7 R2 C1

555 astable circuit

Many circuits require Tm and Ts to be almost equal; this is achieved if R2 is much larger than R1. For a standard astable circuit Tm cannot be less than Ts, but this is not too restricting because the output can both sink and source current. For example an LED can be

made to flash briefly with long gaps by connecting it (with its resistor) between +Vs and the output. This way the LED is on during Ts, so brief flashes are achieved with R1 larger than R2, making Ts short and Tm long. If Tm must be less than Ts a diode can be added to the circuit as explained under duty cycle below.

Choosing R1, R2 and C1 R1 and R2 should be in the range 1k to 1M . It is best to choose C1 first because capacitors are available in just a few values.
y y

555 astable frequencies

C1 R2 = 10k R1 = 1k 68kHz 6.8kHz 680Hz 68Hz 6.8Hz R2 = 100k R1 = 10k 6.8kHz 680Hz 68Hz 6.8Hz 0.68Hz
(41 per min.)

R2 = 1M R1 = 100k 680Hz 68Hz 6.8Hz 0.68Hz 0.068Hz

(4 per min.)

Choose C1 to suit the frequency range you require (use the table as a guide). 0.001F Choose R2 to give the frequency (f) 0.01F you require. Assume that R1 is much smaller than R2 (so that Tm and Ts are almost equal), then you can use: 0.1F 0.7 R2 = f C1 10F 1F

y y

Choose R1 to be about a tenth of R2 (1k min.) unless you want the mark time Tm to be significantly longer than the space time Ts. If you wish to use a variable resistor it is best to make it R2. If R1 is variable it must have a fixed resistor of at least 1k in series (this is not required for R2 if it is variable).

Astable operation With the output high (+Vs) the capacitor C1 is charged by current flowing through R1 and R2. The threshold and trigger inputs monitor the capacitor voltage and when it reaches 2/3Vs

(threshold voltage) the output becomes low and the discharge pin is connected to 0V.

The capacitor now discharges with current flowing through R2 into the discharge pin. When the voltage falls to 1/3Vs (trigger voltage) the output becomes high again and the discharge pin is disconnected, allowing the capacitor to start charging again. This cycle repeats continuously unless the reset input is connected to 0V which forces the output low while reset is 0V. An astable can be used to provide the clock signal for circuits such as counters. A low frequency astable (< 10Hz) can be used to flash an LED on and off, higher frequency flashes are too fast to be seen clearly. Driving a loudspeaker or piezo transducer with a low frequency of less than 20Hz will produce a series of 'clicks' (one for each low/high transition) and this can be used to make a simple metronome. An audio frequency astable (20Hz to 20kHz) can be used to produce a sound from a loudspeaker or piezo transducer. The sound is suitable for buzzes and beeps. The natural (resonant) frequency of most piezo transducers is about 3kHz and this will make them produce a particularly loud sound.

Duty cycle The duty cycle of an astable circuit is the proportion of the complete cycle for which the output is high (the mark time). It is usually given as a percentage.

For a standard 555/556 astable circuit the mark time (Tm) must be greater than the space time (Ts), so the duty cycle must be at least 50%:
Tm Duty cycle = Tm + Ts = R1 + 2R2 R1 + R2

To achieve a duty cycle of less than 50% a diode can be added in parallel with R2 as shown in the diagram. This bypasses R2 during the charging (mark) part of the cycle so that Tm depends only on R1 and C1: Tm = 0.7 R1 C1 (ignoring 0.7V across diode) Ts = 0.7 R2 C1 (unchanged)
Tm Duty cycle with diode = Tm + Ts = R1 + R2
555 astable circuit with diode across R2

R1

Use a signal diode such as 1N4148.

Example projects using 555 astable: Flashing LED | Dummy Alarm | Heart-shaped Badge | 'Random' Flasher

Top of page | Inputs | Output | Astable | Duty Cycle | Monostable | Edge-trigger | Bistable | Buffer

555/556 Monostable

555 monostable output, a single pulse

A monostable circuit produces a single output pulse when triggered. It is called a monostable because it is stable in just one state: 'output low'. The 'output high' state is temporary.

The duration of the pulse is called the time period (T) and this is determined by resistor R1 and capacitor C1:

time period, T = 1.1 R1 C1

555 monostable circuit with manual trigger

T = time period in seconds (s) R1 = resistance in ohms ( ) C1 = capacitance in farads (F) The maximum reliable time period is about 10 minutes.
Why 1.1? The capacitor charges to /3 = 67% so it is a bit longer than the time constant (R1 C1) which is the time taken to charge to 63%. y y y y
2

Choose C1 first (there are relatively few values available). Choose R1 to give the time period you need. R1 should be in the range 1k to 1M , so use a fixed resistor of at least 1k in series if R1 is variable. Beware that electrolytic capacitor values are not accurate, errors of at least 20% are common. Beware that electrolytic capacitors leak charge which substantially increases the time period if you are using a high value resistor - use the formula as only a very rough guide!
For example the Timer Project should have a maximum time period of 266s (about 4 minutes), but many electrolytic capacitors extend this to about 10 minutes!

Monostable operation The timing period is triggered (started) when the trigger input (555 pin 2) is less than 1 /3 Vs, this makes the output high (+Vs) and the capacitor C1 starts

to charge through resistor R1. Once the time period has started further trigger pulses are ignored.

The threshold input (555 pin 6) monitors the voltage across C1 and when this reaches 2 /3 Vs the time period is over and the output becomes low. At the same time discharge (555 pin 7) is connected to 0V, discharging the capacitor ready for the next trigger. The reset input (555 pin 4) overrides all other inputs and the timing may be cancelled at any time by connecting reset to 0V, this instantly makes the output low and discharges the capacitor. If the reset function is not required the reset pin should be connected to +Vs.

Power-on reset or trigger It may be useful to ensure that a monostable circuit is reset or triggered automatically when the power supply is connected or switched on. This is achieved by using a capacitor instead of (or in addition to) a push switch as shown in the diagram.

The capacitor takes a short time to charge, briefly holding the input close to 0V when the circuit is switched on. A switch may be connected in parallel with the capacitor if manual operation is also required. This arrangement is used for the trigger in the Timer Project.

Power-on reset or trigger circuit

Edge-triggering If the trigger input is still less than 1/3 Vs at the end of the time period the output will remain high until the trigger is greater than 1/3 Vs. This situation can occur if the input signal is from an on-off switch or sensor.

The monostable can be made edge triggered, responding only to changes of an input signal, by connecting the trigger signal through a capacitor to the trigger input. The capacitor edge-triggering circuit passes sudden changes (AC) but blocks a constant (DC) signal. For further information please see the page on capacitance. The circuit is 'negative edge triggered' because it responds to a sudden fall in the input signal.

The resistor between the trigger (555 pin 2) and +Vs ensures that the trigger is normally high (+Vs).

Example projects using 555 monostable: Adjustable Timer | Electronic 'Lock' | Lightsensitive Alarm

Top of page | Inputs | Output | Astable | Duty Cycle | Monostable | Edge-trigger | Bistable | Buffer

555/556 Bistable (flip-flop) - a memory circuit

The circuit is called a bistable because it is stable in two states: output high and output low. It is also known as a 'flip-flop'.

It has two inputs:

y

Trigger (555 pin 2) makes the output high. Trigger is 'active low', it functions when < 1/3 Vs. Reset (555 pin 4) makes the output low. Reset is 'active low', it resets when < 0.7V.

555 bistable circuit

The power-on reset, power-on trigger and edge-triggering circuits can all be used as described above for the monostable.

Example projects using 555 bistable: Quiz | Model Railway Signal

Top of page | Inputs | Output | Astable | Duty Cycle | Monostable | Edge-trigger | Bistable | Buffer

555/556 Inverting Buffer (Schmitt trigger) or NOT gate

The buffer circuit's input has a very high impedance (about 1M ) so it requires only a few A, but the output can sink or source up to 200mA. This enables a high impedance signal source (such as an LDR) to switch a low impedance output transducer (such as a lamp).

It is an inverting buffer or NOT gate because the output logic state (low/high) is the inverse of the input state:
y y

Input low (< 1/3 Vs) makes output high, +Vs Input high (> 2/3 Vs) makes output low, 0V

555 inverting buffer circuit (a NOT gate)

When the input voltage is between 1/3 and 2/3 Vs the output remains in its present state. This intermediate input region is a deadspace where there is no response, a property called hysteresis, it is like backlash in a mechanical linkage. This type of circuit is called a Schmitt trigger.
NOT gate symbol

If high sensitivity is required the hysteresis is a problem, but in many circuits it is a helpful property. It gives the input a high immunity to noise because once the circuit output has switched high or low the input must change back by at least 1/3 Vs to make the output switch back. Counting Circuits
Binary | 4-bit | BCD | Counters | Ripple/Synchronous | Reset | Freq. division | Decoders | Display drivers | Linking counters

Next Page: Quantities and Units Also See: 4000 series ICs | 74 series ICs | Logic Gates

Binary numbers
Electronic circuits count in binary. This is the simplest possible counting system because it uses just two digits, 0 and 1, exactly like logic signals where 0 represents false and 1 represents true. The terms low and high are also used for 0 and 1 respectively as shown in the table. Logic state s True False 1 High 0 Low 0V Off

Counting one, two, three, four, five in binary: 1, 10, 11, 100, 101. Binary numbers rapidly become very long as the count increases and this makes them difficult for us to read at a glance. Fortunately it is rarely necessary to read more than 4 binary digits at a time in counting circuits. In a binary number each digit represents a multiple of two (1, 2, 4, 8, 16 etc), in the same way that each digit in decimal represents a multiple of ten (1, 10, 100, 1000 etc). For example 10110110 in binary equals 182 in decimal:
Digit value: 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

+Vs On

Seen on a T-shirt:

Binary number: 1

There are 10 kinds of people - those who understand binary, and those who don't.

Decimal value: 128 + 0 + 32 + 16 + 0 + 4 + 2 + 0 = 182

Bits, bytes and nibbles Each binary digit is called a bit, so 10110110 is an 8-bit number.

A block of 8 bits is called a byte and it can hold a maximum number of 11111111 = 255 in decimal. Computers and PIC microcontrollers work with blocks of 8 bits. Two (or more) bytes make a word, for example PICs work with a 16-bit word (two bytes) which can hold a maximum number of 65535. A block of 4 bits is called a nibble (half a byte!) and it can hold a maximum number of 1111 = 15 in decimal. Many counting circuits work with blocks of 4 bits because this number of bits is required to count up to 9 in decimal. (The maximum number with 3 bits is only 7).

Hexadecimal (base 16) Hexadecimal (often just called 'hex') is base 16 counting with 16 digits. It starts with the decimal digits 0-9, then continues with letters A (10), B (11), C (12), D (13), E (14) and F (15). Each hexadecimal digit is equivalent to 4 binary digits, making conversion between the two systems relatively easy. You may find hexadecimal used with PICs and computer systems but it is not generally used in simple counting circuits.

Example: 10110110 binary = B6 hexadecimal = 182 decimal.

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4-bit numbers
The table on the right shows the 4-bit numbers and their decimal values. Binary
DCBA

Decimal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Hex
base 16

0000 0001 0010 y A = 1, the 'least significant bit' (LSB) 0011 y B=2 0100 y C=4 0101 y D = 8, the 'most significant bit' (MSB) 0110 0111 Binary Coded Decimal, BCD Binary Coded Decimal, BCD, is a special version of 4-bit binary where 1 0 0 0 the count resets to zero (0000) after the ninth count (1001). It is used 1 0 0 1 1010 by decade counters and is easily converted to display the decimal 1011 digits 0-9 on a 7-segment display. 1100 1101 Several decade counters using BCD can be linked together to separately count the decimal ones, tens, hundreds, and so on. 1 1 1 0 1111 This is much easier than attempting to convert large binary

The labels A,B,C,D are widely used in electronics to represent the four bits:

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F

numbers (such as 10110110) to display their decimal value.

Do not confuse BCD which stands for Binary Coded Decimal with the labels A,B,C,D used to represent the four binary digits; it is an unfortunate coincidence that the letters BCD occur in both!

Top of page | Binary | 4-bit | BCD | Counters | Ripple/Synchronous | Reset | Freq. division | Decoders | Display drivers | Linking

Counters
All counters require a 'square wave' clock signal to make them count. This is a digital waveform with sharp transitions between low (0V) and high (+Vs), such as the output from a 555 astable circuit.

A square wave clock signal

Most switches bounce when the contacts close giving a rapid series of pulses. Connecting a switch directly to a clock input will usually give several counts when the switch is operated once! One way to 'debounce' the switch is to make it trigger a 555 monostable circuit with a short time period (such as 0.1s) and use the monostable output to drive the clock input. The animated block diagram shows a clock signal driving a 4-bit (0-15) counter with LEDs connected to show the state of the clock and counter outputs QA-QD (Q indicates an output).

The bouncing output from a switch

A 4-bit counter and clock input

In this example counting advances on the falling-edge of the clock signal

The LED on the first output QA flashes at half the frequency of the clock LED. In fact the LED on = 1 LED off = 0 frequency of each stage of the counter is half the frequency of the previous stage. You can see this pattern too in the table above showing the 4-bit numbers.

Notice how output QA changes state every time the clock input changes from high to low (that is when the clock LED turns off), this is called the falling-edge. If you watch the counting closely you can see that QB changes on the falling-edge of QA, QC on the falling-edge of QB and so on.
You may be surprised to see the diagram drawn with the input on the right and signals flowing from right to left, the opposite way to the usual convention in electronics! Drawing counter circuits like this means

that the outputs are in the correct binary order for us to read easily and I think this is more helpful than rigidly sticking to the usual 'left to right' convention.

Ripple and synchronous counters There are two main types of counter: ripple and synchronous. In simple circuits their behaviour appears almost identical, but their internal structure is very different.

A ripple counter contains a chain of flip-flops The operation of a flip-flop with the output of each one feeding the input of Notice how the output frequency the next. A flip-flop output changes state every is half the input frequency time the input changes from high to low (on the falling-edge). This simple arrangement works well, but there is a slight delay as the effect of the clock 'ripples' through the chain of flip-flops. In most circuits the ripple delay is not a problem because it is far too short to be seen on a display. However, a logic system connected to ripple counter outputs will briefly see false counts which may produce 'glitches' in the logic system and may disrupt its operation. For example a ripple counter changing from 0111 (7) to 1000 (8) will very briefly show 0110, 0100 and 0000 before 1000! A synchronous counter has a more complex internal structure to ensure that all its outputs change precisely together on each clock pulse, avoiding the brief false counts which occur with ripple counters.

Rising-edge and falling-edge clock inputs Counting occurs when the clock input changes state.
y

Most synchronous counters count on the rising-edge which is the low to high transition of the clock signal. Most ripple counters count on the fallingedge which is the high to low transition of the clock signal.

It may seem odd that ripple counters use the falling-edge, but in fact this makes it easy to link counters because the most significant bit (MSB) of one counter can drive the clock input of the next. This works because the next bit must change state when the previous bit changes from high to low - the point at which a carry must occur to the next bit. Synchronous counters usually have carry out and carry in pins

for linking counters without introducing any ripple delays.

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Resetting a counter
Counters can be reset to zero before their maximum count by connecting one (or more) of their outputs to their reset input, using an AND gate to combine outputs if necessary.

If the reset input is 'active-low' a NOT or NAND gate will be required to produce a low output at the desired count. If you see a line drawn above reset it means it is active low, for example: (say 'resetbar'). The reset function normally occurs immediately and you should reset on the next count above the maximum you require. For example to count 0-5 (0000-0101) you should reset on 6 (0110). Some synchronous counters have a synchronous reset which occurs on the next clock pulse rather than immediately. This is important because you must reset on the maximum count you require. For example to count 0-5 (0000-0101), reset on 5 (0101).
Presetting Some counters can be preset by presenting a number to their inputs A-D and activating a preset input to load the number into the counter. By making inputs A-D all low you can also use this to reset the counter to zero.

Frequency division Counters can be used to reduce the frequency of an input (clock) signal. Each stage of a counter halves the frequency, so for a 4-bit (0-15) counter QA is 1/2, QB is 1/4, QC is 1/8 and QD is 1/16 of the clock frequency. Division by numbers that are not powers of 2 is possible by resetting counters.

Frequency division is one of the main purposes of counters with more than 4 bits and their outputs are usually labelled Q1, Q2 and so on. Qn is the nth stage of the counter, representing 2n. For example Q4 is 24 = 16 (1/16 of clock frequency) and Q12 is 212 = 4096 (1/4096 of clock frequency).

Top of page | Binary | 4-bit | BCD | Counters | Ripple/Synchronous | Reset | Freq. division | Decoders | Display drivers | Linking

Decoders
The most popular type is a 1-of-10 decoder which contains a network of logic gates to make one of its ten outputs Q0-9 become high (or low) in response to the BCD (binary coded decimal) inputs A-D. For example an input of binary 0101 (=5) will activate output Q5.

Decoders can be used for a simple counting display and for switching LEDs in sequences. The outputs must never be directly connected together, but diodes can be used to combine them as shown in the diagram. For example using diodes to combine the 2nd (Q1) and 4th (Q3) outputs will make an LED flash twice followed by a longer gap. The top diagram shows this for a decoder where the outputs become low when activated (such as the 7442), and the bottom diagram for a decoder where the outputs become high when activated (such as the 4028).

Top of page | Binary | 4-bit | BCD | Counters | Ripple/Synchronous | Reset | Freq. division | Decoders | Display drivers | Linking

7-segment display drivers

The inputs A-D of a display driver are connected to the BCD (binary coded decimal) outputs QA-D from a decade counter. A network of logic gates inside the display driver makes its outputs a-g become high or low as appropriate to light the required segments a-g of a 7-segment display. A resistor is required in series with each segment to protect the LEDs, 330 is a suitable value for many displays with a 4.5V to 6V supply. Beware that these resistors are sometimes omitted from circuit diagrams!

There are two types of 7-segment displays:

y

Common Anode (CA or SA) with all the LED anodes connected together. These need a display driver with outputs which become low to light each segment, for example the 7447. Connect the common anode to +Vs. Common Cathode (CC or SC) with all the cathodes connected together. These need a display driver with outputs which become high to light each segment, for example the 4511. Connect the common cathode to 0V.

Decade counter with display driver and 7-segment display

The common anode/cathode is often available on 2 pins. Displays also have a decimal point (DP) but this is not controlled by the display driver. The segments of larger displays have two LEDs in series. For display connections please see your supplier's catalogue or manufacturer's datasheet. Multiplexing If there are many 7-segment display digits multiplexing is usually used. This is a system of switching so that of all the decade counters share a single display driver which is connected to all of the displays. The output of each counter is connected in turn to the inputs of the display driver and at the same time the common anode/cathode of the corresponding 7-segment display is connected so that only one display lights at a time.The switching is done very rapidly (typically 400 - 1000Hz) and the segment current is larger than normal so the display appears continuous and of normal brightness. Multiplexing requires ICs to do the switching, but the complete circuit has fewer ICs than having one display driver for each display.

Top of page | Binary | 4-bit | BCD | Counters | Ripple/Synchronous | Reset | Freq. division | Decoders | Display drivers | Linking

Linking Counters

Counters may be linked together in a chain to count larger numbers. It may seem tempting to use a 12-bit or 14-bit counter, but it is not practical to convert their large binary numbers to decimal. You should use a chain of decade (0-9) counters which use BCD (binary coded decimal) to make the conversion to decimal very easy: the first counts the units, the second counts the tens, the third the hundreds and so on.

Some dual counter ICs are available with two separate counters on the same IC, the two counters must be linked externally if required (there is no internal link). The way that counters are linked depends on the nature of the counter. The diagrams below show the general arrangements for standard ripple and synchronous counters but it is important to read the detailed information for particular counters, consulting a datasheet if necessary.
Linking ripple counters The diagram below shows how to link standard ripple counters. Notice how the highest output QD of each counter drives the clock (CK) input of the next counter. This works because ripple counters have clock inputs that are 'active-low' which means that the count advances as the clock input becomes low, on the falling-edge.

Remember that with all ripple counters there will be a slight delay before the later outputs respond to the clock signal, especially with a long counter chain. This is not a problem in simple circuits driving displays, but it may cause glitches in logic systems connected to the counter outputs.

Linking synchronous counters The diagram below shows how to link standard synchronous counters. Notice how all the clock (CK) inputs are linked, and carry out (CO) is used to feed the carry in (CI) of the next counter. This ensures that the entire counter chain is synchronous, with every output changing at the same time. Carry in (CI) of the first counter should be made low or high to suit the particular counter IC being used.

Quantities and Units in Electronics

Next Page: Books about Electronics

Quantity Symbol Unit Symbol

Voltage Current Charge Resistance Capacitance Inductance Reactance Impedance Power Energy Time Frequency V I Q R C L X Z P E t f volt amp* coulomb ohm farad henry ohm ohm watt joule second hertz W J s Hz F H V A C

Usual

Unit

* strictly the unit is ampere, but this is

Quantities
The table shows electrical quantities which are used in electronics.

almost always shortened to amp.

The relationship between quantities can be written using words or symbols (letters), but symbols are normally used because they are much shorter; for example V is used for voltage, I for current and R for resistance: As a word equation: voltage = current resistance The same equation using symbols: V = I R To prevent confusion we normally use the same symbol (letter) for each quantity and these symbols are shown in the second column of the table. Please click on the quantities in the table for further information.

Prefix Symbol Value

milli micro nano pico kilo mega giga m n p k M G 10-3 = 0.001 10-6 = 0.000 001 10-9 = 0.000 000 001 10-12 = 0.000 000 000 001 103 = 1000 106 = 1000 000 109 = 1000 000 000

Prefix

Units

tera

1012 = 1000 000 000 000

The first table shows the unit (and unit symbol) which is used to measure each quantity. For example: Charge is measured in coulombs and the symbol for a coulomb is C.

Some of the units have a convenient size for electronics, but most are either too large or too small to be used directly so they are used with the prefixes shown in the second table. The prefixes make the unit larger or smaller by the value shown. Some examples: 25 mA = 25 10-3 A = 25 0.001 A = 0.025 A 47F = 47 10-6 F = 47 0.000 001 F = 0.000 047 F 270k = 270 103 = 270 1000 = 270 000

Why not change the units to be better sizes? It might seem a good idea to make the farad (F) much smaller to avoid having to use F, nF and pF, but if we did this most of the equations in electronics would have to have factors of 1000000 or more included as well as the quantities. Overall it is much better to have the units with their present sizes which are defined logically from the equations.

In fact if you use an equation frequently you can use special sets of prefixed units which are more convenient... For example: Ohm's Law, V = I R the standard units are volt (V), amp (A) and ohm ( ), but you could use volt (V), milliamp (mA) and kilo-ohm (k ) if you prefer.
Take care though, you must never mix sets of units: using V, A and k wrong values. in Ohm's Law would give you

Series and Parallel Connections

Next Page: Voltage and Current Also see: Circuit Symbols and Circuit Diagrams

Connecting Components
There are two ways of connecting components:

In series
so that each component has the same current.

The battery voltage is divided between the two lamps Each lamp will have half the battery voltage if the lamps are identical.

In parallel
so that each component has the same voltage.

Both lamps have the full battery voltage across them. The battery current is divided between the two lamps.

Most circuits contain a mixture of series and parallel connections

The terms series circuit and parallel circuit are sometimes used, but only the simplest of circuits are entirely one type or the other. It is better to refer to specific components and say they are connected in series or connected in parallel.

For example: the circuit on the right shows a resistor and LED connected in series (on the right) and two lamps connected in parallel (in the centre). The switch is connected in series with the two lamps. See Lamps in Parallel below for another example.

Lamps in Series
If several lamps are connected in series they will all be switched on and off together by a switch connected anywhere in the circuit. The supply voltage is divided equally between the lamps

(assuming they are all identical). If one lamp blows all the lamps will go out because the circuit is broken.

Christmas Tree Lights The lamps on a Christmas tree are connected in series.

Normally you would expect all the lamps to go out if one blew, but Christmas tree lamps are special! They are designed to short circuit (conduct like a wire link) when they blow, so the circuit is not broken and the other lamps remain lit, making it easier to locate the faulty lamp. Sets also include one 'fuse' lamp which blows normally. If there are 20 lamps and the mains electricity voltage is 240V, each lamp must be suitable for a 12V supply because the 240V is divided equally between the 20 lamps: 240V 20 = 12V.
WARNING! The Christmas tree lamps may seem safe because they use only 12V but they are connected to the mains supply which can be lethal. Always unplug from the mains before changing lamps. The voltage across the holder of a missing lamp is the full 240V of the mains supply! (Yes, it really is!)

Lamps in Parallel
If several lamps are connected in parallel each one has the full supply voltage across it. The lamps may be switched on and off independently by connecting a switch in series with each lamp as shown in the circuit diagram. This arrangement is used to control the lamps in buildings.

This type of circuit is often called a parallel circuit but you can see that it is not really so simple - the switches are in series with the lamps, and it is these switch and lamp pairs that are connected in parallel.

Switches in Series
If several on-off switches are connected in series they must all be closed (on) to complete the circuit.

The diagram shows a simple circuit with two switches connected in series to control a lamp. Switch S1 AND Switch S2 must be closed to light the lamp.

Switches in Parallel
If several on-off switches are connected in parallel only one needs to be closed (on) to complete the circuit.

The diagram shows a simple circuit with two switches connected in parallel to control a lamp. Switch S1 OR Switch S2 (or both of them) must be closed to light the lamp.

Voltage and Current

This Page: Voltage | Current | ... in Series and Parallel Next Page: Meters Also See: Multimeters | Ohm's Law

Voltage and Current are vital to understanding electronics, but they are quite hard to grasp because we can't see them directly.

Voltage is the Cause, Current is the Effect

Voltage attempts to make a current flow, and current will flow if the circuit is complete. Voltage is sometimes described as the 'push' or 'force' of the electricity, it isn't really a force but this may help you to imagine what is happening. It is possible to have voltage without current, but current cannot flow without voltage.

Voltage and Current

The switch is closed making a complete circuit so current can flow.

Voltage but No Current

The switch is open so the circuit is broken and current cannot flow.

No Voltage and No Current

Without the cell there is no source of voltage so current cannot flow.

Voltage, V
y

y y y y y y

Voltage is a measure of the energy carried by the charge. Strictly: voltage is the "energy per unit charge". The proper name for voltage is potential difference or p.d. for short, but this term is rarely used in electronics. Voltage is supplied by the battery (or power supply). Voltage is used up in components, but not in wires. We say voltage across a component. Voltage is measured in volts, V. Voltage is measured with a voltmeter, connected in parallel. The symbol V is used for voltage in equations.

Connecting a voltmeter in parallel

Voltage at a point and 0V (zero volts)

Voltage is a difference between two points, but in electronics we often refer to voltage at a point meaning the voltage difference between that point and a reference point of 0V (zero volts).

Zero volts could be any point in the circuit, but to be consistent it is normally the negative terminal of the

battery or power supply. You will often see circuit diagrams labelled with 0V as a reminder.
You may find it helpful to think of voltage like height in geography. The reference point of zero height is the mean (average) sea level and all heights are measured from that point. The zero volts in an electronic circuit is like the mean sea level in geography.

Zero volts for circuits with a dual supply Some circuits require a dual supply with three supply connections as shown in the diagram. For these circuits the zero volts reference point is the middle terminal between the two parts of the supply.

On complex circuit diagrams using a dual supply the earth symbol is often used to indicate a connection to 0V, this helps to reduce the number of wires drawn on the diagram. The diagram shows a 9V dual supply, the positive terminal is +9V, the negative terminal is -9V and the middle terminal is 0V.

Current, I
y y y y y

Current is the rate of flow of charge. Current is not used up, what flows into a component must flow out. We say current through a component. Current is measured in amps (amperes), A. Current is measured with an ammeter, connected in series.
To connect in series you must break the circuit and put the ammeter acoss the gap, as shown in the diagram.

The symbol I is used for current in equations.

Why is the letter I used for current? ... please see FAQ.

1A (1 amp) is quite a large current for electronics, so mA (milliamps) are often used. m (milli) means "thousandth":

1mA = 0.001A, or 1000mA = 1A

Connecting an ammeter in series The need to break the circuit to connect in series means that ammeters are difficult to use on soldered circuits. Most testing in electronics is done with voltmeters which can be easily connected without disturbing circuits.

Voltage and Current for components in Series

Voltages add up for components connected in series. Currents are the same through all components connected in series.

In this circuit the 4V across the resistor and the 2V across the LED add up to the battery voltage: 2V + 4V = 6V. The current through all parts (battery, resistor and LED) is 20mA.

Voltage and Current for components in Parallel

Voltages are the same across all components connected in parallel. Currents add up for components connected in parallel.

In this circuit the battery, resistor and lamp all have 6V across them. The 30mA current through the resistor and the 60mA current through the lamp add up to the 90mA current through the battery.

Power and Energy

Power | Calculations | Overheating | Energy

Next Page: AC, DC and Electrical Signals Also See: Voltage and Current | Resistance | Ohm's Law

What is power?
Power is the rate of using or supplying energy:

Power = Energy

Power is measured in watts (W)

Time

Energy is measured in joules (J) Time is measured in seconds (s)

Electronics is mostly concerned with small quantities of power, so the power is often measured in milliwatts (mW), 1mW = 0.001W. For example an LED uses about 40mW and a bleeper uses about 100mW, even a lamp such as a torch bulb only uses about 1W. The typical power used in mains electrical circuits is much larger, so this power may be measured in kilowatts (kW), 1kW = 1000W. For example a typical mains lamp uses 60W and a kettle uses about 3kW.

Calculating power using current and voltage

There are three ways of writing an equation for power, current and voltage:

P
Power = Current Voltage so

P
or

P=IV

or

I= V

V= I

where:

P = power in watts (W) V = voltage in volts (V) I = current in amps (A)

or:

P = power in milliwatts (mW) V = voltage in volts (V) I = current in milliamps (mA)

You can use the PIV triangle to help you remember the three versions of the power equations. Use it in the same way as the Ohm's Law triangle. For most electronic circuits the amp is too large, so we often measure current in milliamps (mA) and power in milliwatts (mW). 1mA = 0.001A and 1mW = 0.001W.

P I V

Calculating power using resistance and current or voltage

Using Ohm's Law V = I R we can convert P = I V to:

P = I R where: P = power in watts (W)

or

P I R
PIR triangle

V P R

P = V / R

I = current in amps (A) R = resistance in ohms ( ) V = voltage in volts (V)

VPR triangle

Wasted power and overheating

Normally electric power is useful, making a lamp light or a motor turn for example. However, electrical energy is converted to heat whenever a current flows through a resistance and this can be a problem if it makes a device or wire overheat. In electronics the effect is usually negligible, but if the resistance is low (a wire or low value resistor for example) the current can be sufficiently large to cause a problem.

You can see from the equation P = I R that for a given resistance the power depends on the current squared, so doubling the current will give 4 times the power.

Resistors are rated by the maximum power they can have developed in them without
damage, but power ratings are rarely quoted in parts lists because the standard ratings of 0.25W or 0.5W are suitable for most circuits. Further information is available on the Resistors page.

Wires and cables are rated by the maximum current they can pass without
overheating. They have a very low resistance so the maximum current is relatively large. For further information about current rating please see the Connectors and Cables page.

Energy
The amount of energy used (or supplied) depends on the power and the time for which it is used:

Energy = Power Time

A low power device operating for a long time can use more energy than a high power device operating for a short time. For example:
y y

A 60W lamp switched on for 8 hours uses 60W 8 3600s = 1728kJ. A 3kW kettle switched on for 5 minutes uses 3000W 5 60s = 900kJ.

The standard unit for energy is the joule (J), but 1J is a very small amount of energy for mains electricity so kilojoule (kJ) or megajoule (MJ) are sometimes used in scientific work. In the home we measure electrical energy in kilowatt-hours (kWh). 1kWh is the energy used by a 1kW power appliance when it is switched on for 1 hour:

1kWh = 1kW 1 hour = 1000W 3600s = 3.6MJ For example:

y y

A 60W lamp switched on for 8 hours uses 0.06kW 8 = 0.48kWh. A 3kW kettle switched on for 5 minutes uses 3kW 5/60 = 0.25kWh.

AC, DC and Electrical Signals

Alternating Current (AC) | Direct Current (DC) | Properties of signals | RMS values

Next Page: Oscilloscopes (CROs) Also See: Diodes | Power Supplies

AC means Alternating Current and DC means Direct Current. AC and DC are also used when referring to voltages and electrical signals which are not currents! For example: a 12V AC power supply has an alternating voltage (which will make an alternating current flow). An electrical signal is a voltage or current which conveys information, usually it means a voltage. The term can be used for any voltage or current in a circuit.

Alternating Current (AC)

Alternating Current (AC) flows one way, then the other way, continually reversing direction.

AC from a power supply

This shape is called a sine wave.

An AC voltage is continually changing between positive (+) and negative (-). The rate of changing direction is called the frequency of the AC and it is measured in hertz (Hz) which is the number of forwardsbackwards cycles per second. Mains electricity in the UK has a frequency of 50Hz.

This triangular signal is AC because it changes between positive (+) and negative (-).

See below for more details of signal properties. An AC supply is suitable for powering some devices such as lamps and heaters but almost all electronic circuits require a steady DC supply (see below).

Direct Current (DC)

Steady DC
from a battery or regulated power supply, this is ideal for electronic circuits.

Direct Current (DC) always flows in the same direction, but it may increase and decrease.

A DC voltage is always positive (or always negative), but it may increase and decrease. Electronic circuits normally require a steady DC supply which is constant at one value or a smooth DC supply which has a small variation called ripple. Cells, batteries and regulated power supplies provide steady DC which is ideal for electronic circuits. Power supplies contain a transformer which converts the mains AC supply to a safe low voltage AC. Then the AC is converted to DC by a bridge rectifier but the output is varying DC which is unsuitable for electronic circuits.
Smooth DC
from a smoothed power supply, this is suitable for some electronics.

Varying DC
from a power supply without smoothing, this is not suitable for electronics.

Some power supplies include a capacitor to provide smooth DC which is suitable for less-sensitive electronic circuits, including most of the projects on this website. Lamps, heaters and motors will work with any DC supply. Please see the Power Supplies page for further information. Power supplies are also covered by the Electronics in Meccano website.

Properties of electrical signals

An electrical signal is a voltage or current which conveys information, usually it means a voltage. The term can be used for any voltage or current in a circuit.

The voltage-time graph on the right shows various properties of an electrical signal. In addition to the properties labelled on the graph, there is frequency which is the number of cycles per second. The diagram shows a sine wave but these properties apply to any signal with a constant shape.

y y y y

Amplitude is the maximum voltage reached by the signal. It is measured in volts, V. Peak voltage is another name for amplitude. Peak-peak voltage is twice the peak voltage (amplitude). When reading an oscilloscope trace it is usual to measure peak-peak voltage. Time period is the time taken for the signal to complete one cycle. It is measured in seconds (s), but time periods tend to be short so milliseconds (ms) and microseconds (s) are often used. 1ms = 0.001s and 1s = 0.000001s. Frequency is the number of cycles per second. It is measured in hertz (Hz), but frequencies tend to be high so kilohertz (kHz) and megahertz (MHz) are often used. 1kHz = 1000Hz and 1MHz = 1000000Hz.
1 frequency = time period and time period = frequency 1

Mains electricity in the UK has a frequency of 50Hz, so it has a time period of 1/50 = 0.02s = 20ms.

Root Mean Square (RMS) Values

The value of an AC voltage is continually changing from zero up to the positive peak, through zero to the negative peak and back to zero again. Clearly for most of the time it is less than the peak voltage, so this is not a good measure of its real effect.

Instead we use the root mean square voltage (VRMS) which is 0.7 of the peak voltage (Vpeak):
VRMS = 0.7 Vpeak and Vpeak = 1.4 VRMS

These equations also apply to current. They are only true for sine waves (the most common type of AC) because the 0.7 and 1.4 are different values for other shapes.

The RMS value is the effective value of a varying voltage or current. It is the equivalent steady DC (constant) value which gives the same effect. For example a lamp connected to a 6V RMS AC supply will light with the same brightness when connected to a steady 6V DC supply. However, the lamp will be dimmer if connected to a 6V peak AC supply because the RMS value of this is only 4.2V (it is equivalent to a steady 4.2V DC). You may find it helps to think of the RMS value as a sort of average, but please remember that it is NOT really the average! In fact the average voltage (or current) of an AC signal is zero because the positive and negative parts exactly cancel out!
What do AC meters show, is it the RMS or peak voltage? AC voltmeters and ammeters show the RMS value of the voltage or current. DC meters also show the RMS value when connected to varying DC providing the DC is varying quickly, if the frequency is less than about 10Hz you will see the meter reading fluctuating instead. What does '6V AC' really mean, is it the RMS or peak voltage? If the peak value is meant it should be clearly stated, otherwise assume it is the RMS value. In everyday use AC voltages (and currents) are always given as RMS values because this allows a sensible comparison to be made with steady DC voltages (and currents), such as from a battery.

For example a '6V AC supply' means 6V RMS, the peak voltage is 8.6V. The UK mains supply is 230V AC, this means 230V RMS so the peak voltage of the mains is about 320V!
So what does root mean square (RMS) really mean? First square all the values, then find the average (mean) of these square values over a complete cycle, and find the square root of this average. That is the RMS value. Confused? Ignore the maths (it looks more complicated than it really is), just accept that RMS values for voltage and current are a much more useful quantity than peak values.

Oscilloscopes (CROs)
Setting up | Connecting | Measuring | Timebase | Y amplifier | AC/GND/DC

Next Page: Power Supplies Also See: AC, DC and Electrical Signals

An oscilloscope is a test instrument which allows you to look at the 'shape' of electrical signals by displaying a graph of voltage against time on its screen. It is like a voltmeter with the valuable extra function of showing how the voltage varies with time. A graticule with a 1cm grid enables you to take measurements of voltage and time from the screen. The graph, usually called the trace, is drawn by a beam of electrons striking the phosphor coating of the screen making it emit light, usually green or blue. This is similar to the way a television picture is produced. Oscilloscopes contain a vacuum tube with a cathode (negative electrode) at one end to emit electrons and an anode (positive electrode) to accelerate them so they move rapidly down the tube to the screen. This arrangement is called an electron gun. The tube also contains electrodes to deflect the electron beam up/down and left/right.

Circuit symbol for an oscilloscope

Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)

Photograph Rapid Electronics

The electrons are called cathode rays because they are emitted by the cathode and this gives the oscilloscope its full name of cathode ray oscilloscope or CRO. A dual trace oscilloscope can display two traces on the screen, allowing you to easily compare the input and output of an amplifier for example. It is well worth paying the modest extra cost to have this facility.
Precautions
y y

An oscilloscope should be handled gently to protect its fragile (and expensive) vacuum tube. Oscilloscopes use high voltages to create the electron beam and these remain for some time after switching off - for your own safety do not attempt to examine the inside of an oscilloscope!

Setting up an oscilloscope
Oscilloscopes are complex instruments with many controls and they require some care to set up and use successfully. It is quite easy to 'lose' the trace off the screen if controls are set wrongly!

There is some variation in the arrangement and labelling of the many controls so the following instuctions may need to be adapted for your instrument.
1. Switch on the oscilloscope to warm up (it takes a minute or two). 2. Do not connect the input lead at this stage. 3. Set the AC/GND/DC switch (by the Y INPUT) to DC. 4. Set the SWP/X-Y switch to SWP (sweep). 5. Set Trigger Level to AUTO. 6. Set Trigger Source to INT (internal, the y input). 7. Set the Y AMPLIFIER to 5V/cm (a moderate value). This is what you should see 8. Set the TIMEBASE to 10ms/cm (a moderate after setting up, when there speed). is no input signal connected 9. Turn the timebase VARIABLE control to 1 or CAL. 10. Adjust Y SHIFT (up/down) and X SHIFT (left/right) to give a trace across the middle of the screen, like the picture. 11. Adjust INTENSITY (brightness) and FOCUS to give a bright, sharp trace. 12. The oscilloscope is now ready to use!
Connecting the input lead is described in the next section.

Further information on the controls: Timebase | Y amplifier | AC/GND/DC switch

Connecting an oscilloscope

Construction of a co-axial lead

The Y INPUT lead to an oscilloscope should be a coaxial lead and the diagram shows its construction. The central wire carries the signal and the screen is connected to earth (0V) to shield the signal from electrical interference (usually called noise).

Most oscilloscopes have a BNC socket for the y input and the lead is connected with a push and twist action, to disconnect you need to twist and pull. Oscilloscopes used in schools may have red and black 4mm sockets so that ordinary, unscreened, 4mm plug leads can be used if necessary. Professionals use a specially designed lead and probes kit for best results with high frequency signals and when testing high resistance circuits, but this is not essential for simpler work at audio frequencies (up to 20kHz).

Oscilloscope lead and probes kit

Photograph Rapid Electronics

An oscilloscope is connected like a voltmeter but you must be aware that the screen (black) connection of the input lead is connected to mains earth at the oscilloscope! This means it must be connected to earth or 0V on the circuit being tested.

The trace of an AC signal with the oscilloscope controls correctly set

Obtaining a clear and stable trace Once you have connected the oscilloscope to the circuit you wish to test you will need to adjust the controls to obtain a clear and stable trace on the screen:
y

The Y AMPLIFIER (VOLTS/CM) control determines the height of the trace. Choose a setting so the trace occupies at least half the screen height, but does not disappear off the screen. The TIMEBASE (TIME/CM) control determines the rate at which the dot sweeps across the screen. Choose a setting so the trace shows at least one cycle of the signal across the screen.
Note that a steady DC input signal gives a horizontal line trace for which the timebase setting is not critical.

The TRIGGER control is usually best left set to AUTO.

If you are using an oscilloscope for the first time it is best to start with an easy signal such as the output from an AC power pack set to about 4V.

Further information on the controls: Timebase | Y amplifier | AC/GND/DC switch

Measuring voltage and time period

The trace on an oscilloscope screen is a graph of voltage against time. The shape of this graph is determined by the nature of the input signal.

In addition to the properties labelled on the graph, there is frequency which is the number of cycles per second. The diagram shows a sine wave but these properties apply to any signal with a constant shape.

y y y

Amplitude is the maximum voltage reached by the signal.

It is measured in volts, V. Peak voltage is another name for amplitude. Peak-peak voltage is twice the peak voltage (amplitude). When reading an oscilloscope trace it is usual to measure peak-peak voltage.

Time period is the time taken for the signal to complete one cycle.
It is measured in seconds (s), but time periods tend to be short so milliseconds (ms) and microseconds (s) are often used. 1ms = 0.001s and 1s = 0.000001s. Frequency is the number of cycles per second. It is measured in hertz (Hz), but frequencies tend to be high so kilohertz (kHz) and megahertz (MHz) are often used. 1kHz = 1000Hz and 1MHz = 1000000Hz. 1 frequency = time period and time period = frequency 1

Voltage Voltage is shown on the vertical y-axis and the scale is determined by the Y AMPLIFIER (VOLTS/CM) control. Usually peak-peak voltage is measured because it can be read correctly even if the position of 0V is not known. The amplitude is half the peak-peak voltage.
If you wish to read the amplitude voltage directly you must check the position of 0V (normally halfway up the screen): move the AC/GND/DC switch to GND (0V) and use Y-SHIFT (up/down) to adjust the position of the trace if necessary, switch back to DC afterwards so you can see the signal again.

The trace of an AC signal

Voltage = distance in cm volts/cm Example: peak-peak voltage = 4.2cm 2V/cm = 8.4V amplitude (peak voltage) = peak-peak voltage = 4.2V
Time period Time is shown on the horizontal x-axis and the scale is determined by the TIMEBASE (TIME/CM) control. The time period (often just called period) is the time for one cycle of the signal. The frequency is the number of cyles per second, frequency = 1/time period
Ensure that the variable timebase control is set to 1 or CAL (calibrated) before attempting to take a time reading.

Y AMPLIFIER: 2V/cm TIMEBASE: 5ms/cm

Example measurements: peak-peak voltage = 8.4V amplitude voltage = 4.2V time period = 20ms frequency = 50Hz

Time = distance in cm time/cm Example: time period = 4.0cm 5ms/cm = 20ms

and frequency = 1/time period = 1/20ms = 50Hz

Timebase (time/cm) and trigger controls

The oscilloscope sweeps the electron beam across the screen from left to right at a steady speed set by the TIMEBASE control. Each setting is labelled with the time the dot takes to move 1cm, effectively it is setting the scale on the x-axis. The timebase control may be labelled TIME/CM.

At slow timebase settings (such as 50ms/cm) you can see a dot moving across the screen but at faster settings (such as 1ms/cm) the dot is moving so fast that it appears to be a line. The VARIABLE timebase control can be turned to make a fine adjustment to the speed, but it must be left at the position labelled 1 or CAL (calibrated) if you wish to take time readings from the trace drawn on the screen. The TRIGGER controls are used to maintain a steady trace on the screen. If they are set wrongly you may see a trace drifting sideways, a confusing 'scribble' on the screen, or no trace at all! The trigger maintains a steady trace by starting the dot sweeping across the screen when the input signal reaches the same point in its cycle each time. For straightforward use it is best to leave the trigger level set to AUTO, but if you have difficulty obtaining a steady trace try adjusting this control to set the level manually.

Slow timebase, no input

You can see the dot moving

Fast timebase, no input

The dot is too fast to see so it appears to be a line

Y amplifier (volts/cm) control

The oscilloscope moves the trace up and down in proportion to the voltage at the Y INPUT and the setting of the Y AMPLIFIER control. This control sets the voltage represented by each centimetre (cm) on the the screen, effectively it is setting the scale on the y-axis. Positive voltages make the trace move up, negative voltages make it move down.

The y amplifier control may be labelled Y-GAIN or VOLTS/CM.

Varying DC (always positive)

The input voltage moving the dot up and down at the same time as the dot is swept across the screen means that the trace on the screen is a graph of voltage (y-axis) against time (x-axis) for the input signal.

The AC/GND/DC switch

The normal setting for this switch is DC for all signals, including AC!

Switching to GND (ground) connects the y input to 0V and allows you to quickly check the position of 0V on the screen (normally halfway up). There is no need to disconnect the input lead while you do this because it is disconnected internally. Switching to AC inserts a capacitor in series with the input to Switching to GND allows you to quickly check the position block out any DC signal present and pass only AC signals. of 0V (normally halfway up). This is used to examine signals showing a small variation around one constant value, such as the ripple on the output of a smooth DC supply. Reducing the VOLTS/CM to see more detail of the ripple would normally take the trace off the screen! The AC setting removes the constant (DC) part of the signal, allowing you to view just the varying (AC) part which can now be examined more closely by reducing the VOLTS/CM. This is shown in the diagrams below:
Displaying a ripple signal using the AC switch

Switch in normal DC position. Switch moved to AC position. The ripple is difficult to see, The constant (DC) part of the but if VOLTS/CM is reduced signal is removed, leaving just the ripple (AC) part. to enlarge it the trace will disappear off the screen!

VOLTS/CM reduced to enlarge the ripple. The ripple can now be examined more closely.