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Antennas
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Grading policy.
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Office hour: 2:10 ~ 3:00 pm, Thursday. Textbook: Warren L. Stutzman and Gary A. Thiele, Antenna Theory and Design, 2nd Ed. Matlab programming may be needed. Contents
Electromagnetics and Antenna Fundamentals Simple Antennas Arrays Resonant Antennas Broadband Antennas Aperture Antennas Antenna Synthesis
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Overview of Antennas
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Antenna performance parameters
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Radiation pattern: Angular variation of radiation power or field strength around the antenna, including: directive, single or multiple narrow beams, omnidirectional, shaped main beam.
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Directivity
direction of the pattern maximum to the average power density at the same distance from the antenna.
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Gain
the antenna.
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Impedance Bandwidth
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Antenna types
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Electrically small antennas: The extent of the antenna structure is much less than a wavelength. Properties
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very low directivity Low input resistance High input reactance Low radiation efficiency
Examples
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Resonant antennas: The antenna operates weel as a single of selectd narrow frequency bands. Properties
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Examples
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Low to moderate gain Constant gain Real input impedance Wide bandwidth
Examples
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Aperture antennas: Has a phsical aperture (opening) through which waves flow. Properties
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Examples
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Horn Reflector
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Maxwell Equations
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Important Laws in Electromagnetics
Coulombs Law Gausss Law Amperes Law Ohms Law Kirchhoffs Law Biot-Savart Law Faradays Law
James Clerk Maxwell 1831-1879
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: electric flux density : electric current density : magnetic flux density : electric charge density : magnetic charge density : permittivity : permeability
Constituent Relationship
Continuity Equations
Boundary Conditions
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Time-Harmonic Fields
Time-harmonic: : a real function in both space and time. : a real function in space. : a complex function in space. A phaser. Thus, all derivative of time becomes . For a partial deferential equation, all derivative of time can be replace with , and all time dependence of can be removed and becomes a partial deferential equation of space only. Representing all field quantities as , then the original Maxwells equation becomes
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Power Relationship
Poynting vector:
! Solution of Maxwells Equations Note all the field and source quantities are functions of space only. The wave equations of potentials becomes
, where is called the wave number. The above equations are called nonhomogeneous Helmholtzs equations. The Lorentz condition becomes Also
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The wave functions for electric and magnetic fields in source free region becomes
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Therefore
Since
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We have . And
As
or
, then
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E-plane pattern: plane containing E-fields. H-plane pattern: plane containing H-fields. Radiated power,
To sum up, at far field 1. Spherical TEM waves. 2. Wave impedance equal the intrinsic impedance . 3. Real power flow.
For a general straight line source located at origin, . At far field, and , thus
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2. 3.
Example 1-1
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Examples Ideal dipole: Line current: Main lobe (major lobe, main beam) Side lobe (minor lobe) Maximum side lobe level: Half-power beamwidth: Pattern types: Broadside, Intermediate, Endfire.
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Directivity
Directivity:
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or
Radiation efficiency:
Referenced Gain: dBi: referenced to isotropic antenna. dBd: referenced to dipole antenna. Antenna Impedance
Ideal dipole: When the conductor is thinker than skin depth where
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Considering the effect of continuity at the end of the dipole, use triangular current distribution
Example 1-5
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Polarization
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Half-wave Dipole
Monopole
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Example 2-1
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For ideal dipole receiving antenna and polarization match. When Maximum power transfer: Power density: Maximum effective aperture For a dipole In general, Effective aperture: or
Available power:
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In general, Aperture efficiency: aperture size. Communication Links , where is the physical
Power delivered to the load : polarization mismatch factor, : impedance mismatch factor, In dB form
or
where dBm is power in decibels above a milliwatt. EIRP: effective (equivalent) isotropically radiated power ERP: effective radiated power by a half-dipole
Example 2-3
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Arrays
Phased array: electronic scan. Radars, smart antennas. Active array: each antenna element is powered individually. Passive array: all antenna elements are powered by one source. Array type by positioning: 1. Linear arrays, 2. Planar arrays, 3. Conformal arrays. Array Factor
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In general the radiation pattern is where is the excitation current of n-th antenna, location vector, and the field pattern. If all antenna elements are the same AF is called array factor. It is determine only by two parameters: the excitations and the locations of the antennas. Equal Space Linear Array the
where
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, or
Similar\y, half power beamwidth broadside. BWFN of Endfire Array First null occurs when
near
, or
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Main beam
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Single Mainbeam Oridinary Endfire Array Oridinary Endfire: main beam at exactly or Range of : Half-width of a grating lobe: Choose lobe, or
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Hansen-Woodyard Endfire Array Purpose: increase directivity by increasing to reduce the visible region of the main beam. Formula:
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Pattern Multiplication Example 3-8 Two-Collinear, Half-Wavelength Spaced Short Dipoles Parameters:
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Since
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For
and
For boradside, isotropic array For ordinary endfire, isotropic array For Hansen-Woodyard endfire, isotropic array
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Nonuniformly Excited, Equally Spaced Linear Arrays Let , then the array factor
is a polynomial of 1. Binomial distribution: Properties: no sidelobe, broader beam width, lower directivity. 2. Dolph-Chebyshev distribution: Properties: equal sidelobe levels, narrower beam width, higher directivity. Sidelobe level can be specified.
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where is the current amplitude of k-th element, the position, and . For equal space, broadside array, , , we have
Furthermore, if
, we have
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Issue of Array 1. Mutual Coupling a. Effect impedances b. Effect radiation patterns c. Scan Blindness Feed network a. Increase loss b. Effect bandwidth c. Increase space
2.
Feed Network
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where
Thus,
where
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