Properties of Malaysian Fired Clay Bricks and Their Evaluation With International Masonry Specifications

PROPERTIES OF MALAYSIAN FIRED CLAY BRICKS AND THEIR
EVALUATION WITH INTERNATIONAL MASONRY SPECIFICATIONS

A CASE STUDY
ZAINAB ARMAN ALI
UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA
PROPERTIES OF MALAYSIAN FIRED CLAY BRICKS AND THEIR

EVALUATION WITH INTERNATIONAL MASONRY SPECIFICATIONS
A CASE STUDY
ZAINAB BINTI ARMAN ALI
A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the

requirements for the award of the Degree of
Master of Engineering (Structure and Materials)
Faculty of Civil Engineering

Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
MAY 2005
iii
This thesis is dedicated to the people very dear to my heart:

my late parents, Arman Ali Hj Mohibullah and Zabedah Hamzah
my husband, Ayob Sharif
and my children
Amlina, Aliza, Alira, Afandi Akmal, Alia Atika and Arfa Adlina
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author wish to acknowledge the guidance, advice and assistance

given by her supervisor, Associate Professor Dr. Faridah Shafii and to thank her
for her encouragement and friendship, without which this thesis would not be
possible. The author is also greatly thankful to her for the limitless time she spent
in helping through with the writing of the thesis.
The author would like to acknowledge the support awarded by the
Government of Malaysia under the IRPA scheme in funding this research.
Appreciation is also due to Claybricks & Tiles Sdn Berhad for its contribution in
providing the bricks used in this research.
To the staff of concrete laboratory of the Civil Engineering Faculty of
UTM, thanks are due to the technicians, Ros, Amirul and Shahrul for helping
with works in the laboratory and sampling activity at the factory. Special thanks
are conferred to dear friends at the Faculty of Civil Engineering especially Zaiton
Haron who had given the author a lot of encouragement and motivation at the
beginning of the research. The author is also grateful to Dr. Zalina Daud of the
Science Faculty of UTM for her assistance in enlightening the mathematics of
statistics and Encik Yasin for his help in the Chemistry Laboratory.
Last but not least the author would like to thank all members of her family
especially the children who had given a hand on some computations and
computer skills.
ABSTRACT
The research examined and assessed the properties of Malaysian fired clay
bricks to provide information for the development and revision of Malaysian
Standard MS 76:1972. Some laboratory investigations on bricks were conducted in
conjunction with the use of various masonry standards to evaluate the compressive
strength, dimensional tolerances, water absorption, initial rate of suction,
efflorescence, density and soluble salt content. The test methods were mostly based
on MS 76:1972 and BS 3921:1985 and in some cases new testing approaches were
adopted to assess new property requirements not catered in existing masonry
specifications. The analysis on random samples indicated the acceptance of the use
of a normal probability theory even for data with values of coefficient of variation
close to 30%. In the case where the coefficient of variation exceeded 30 % the lognormal probability function applies. The statistical control charts traced data
homogeneity for the population and data lying beyond the 5 % confidence limit,
which were not accounted for in the analysis. The compressive strengths of facing
bricks ranged from about 40 N/mm2 to 50 N/mm2 with lower values for common
bricks, i.e. 30 N/mm2 to 40 N/mm2. These ranges of compressive strengths fall in the
top range specified in Singapore Standard, SS 103:1974. The compressive strengths
specified in ASTM were based on dry curing whilst British Standard, Singapore
Standard and Malaysian Standard were tested in saturated conditions. Curing
methods affect compressive strength with air curing giving higher values. Water
absorption for the bricks under investigation range from 10 % to 12 % and therefore
do not fit in the category of Engineering A or B of MS 76:1972 and BS 3921:1985,
however satisfy the requirements for the categories of SW (severe weathering)
bricks in ASTM. The dimensions satisfy the tolerances given in BS 3921:1985
except for the height. However, the dimensional tolerance fits the T1 category of the
European Standard EN 771-1. The initial rate of suction for the bricks ranged from
1.4 to 2.0 kg/min/m2 indicating high suction property thus implying the necessity of
wetting bricks before laying. Efflorescence does not seem to be a major problem
hence these bricks could be satisfactorily used for facing construction purposes
without resulting in salt deposition on the surfaces. The range of density (1760 to
1800 kg/m3) exhibited by the bricks satisfy the sound insulation requirements
specified in the United Kingdom Building Regulations. In this research a method of
predicting the compressive strength of bricks when laid in the different orientations
was derived. This is a useful means of estimating the compressive strength of brick
in practice where test are only conducted on the bed face. The research also
highlighted a method of estimating the porosity of bricks for values of known water
absorption.
vi
ABSTRAK
Penyelidikan ini mengkaji dan menilai sifat-sifat kejuruteraan bata tanah liat
bakar negara bagi membekalkan maklumat yang diperlukan untuk pembangunan
Standard Malaysia MS 76:1972. Beberapa ujian makmal ke atas bata telah
dijalankan selaras dengan penggunaan beberapa standard masonry untuk
menganalisis kekuatan mampatan, toleransi pendimensian, penyerapan air, kadar
resapan awal, ketumpatan, kesan peroi dan kandungan garam larut. Sebahagian
besar ujian-ujian ini adalah berdasarkan kaedah MS 76:1972 dan BS 3921:1985
manakala pendekatan ujian semasa juga digunakan bagi menganalisis ciri-ciri baru
yang tidak terkandung dalam spesifikasi sedia ada. Analisis sampel yang dipilih
secara rawak menunjukkan penerimaan penggunaan teori kebarangkalian normal
walaupun untuk data di mana nilai pekali perubahan menghampiri 30 %. Bagi kes
dimana nilai pekali perubahan melebihi 30 %, fungsi kebarangkalian log-normal
digunakan. Carta kawalan statistik digunakan untuk mengesan kehomogenan data
dan data melampaui 5 % had keyakinan yang tidak diambil kira di dalam analisis.
Kekuatan mampatan bata permukaan adalah antara 40 hingga 50 N/mm2 manakala
bata biasa mempunyai nilai lebih rendah iaitu 30 hingga 40 N/mm2. Julat kekuatan
mampatan ini tergulung dalam kategori tertinggi Standard Singapura, SS 103: 1974.
Kekuatan mampatan dalam spesifikasi ASTM adalah berdasarkan bata diawet udara.
Berbeza dengan Standard British, Singapura dan Malaysia, di mana bata di uji
dalam keadaan tepu. Pengawetan udara memberikan nilai yang lebih tinggi.
Penyerapan air adalah antara 10 hingga 12 %. Nilai ini tidak menepati keperluan MS
76:1972 dan BS 3921:1985 untuk kategori bata kejuruteraan A dan B. Walau
bagaimanapun ia memenuhi syarat yang ditentukan dalam spesifikasi ASTM bagi
bata jenis SW (terdedah pada kesan cuaca yang teruk). Dimensi bata dapat
memenuhi keperluan toleransi pendimensian bagi standard BS 3921: 1985, kecuali
ketinggiannya. Di bandingkan dengan Standard Eropah EN 771-1 pula, didapati ia
menepati kategori T1. Kadar resapan awal bata ialah dari 1.4 hingga 2.0 kg/min/m2,
menunjukkan ciri resapan yang tinggi, oleh itu bata perlu dibasahkan sebelum
diikat. Bata tidak menghadapi masalah peroi, jadi ia boleh digunakan sebagai bata
permukaan tanpa berlaku pemendapan garam di permukaannya. Julat ketumpatan
bata ialah 1760 hingga 1800 kg/m3, sesuai bagi penggunaan dinding bangunan
dengan nilai rintangan kebisingan memenuhi spesifikasi kanun bangunan di United
Kingdom. Dalam penyelidikan ini kaedah untuk meramalkan kekuatan mampatan
bata apabila disusun dengan orientasi yang berlainan telah dapat dihasilkan. Kaedah
ini berguna bagi menganggarkan kekuatan mampatan bata secara praktikal dimana
ujian mampatan hanya dilakukankan di permukaan atas bata. Kajian ini juga
menerangkan kaedah menganggarkan keliangan bata daripada nilai penyerapan
airnya.
vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER
TITLE
PAGE
TITLE PAGE
DECLARATION
ii
DEDICATION
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
iv
ABSTRACT
ABSTRAK
vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
vii
LIST OF TABLES
xiii
LIST OF FIGURES
xviii
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS
xxi
LIST OF APPENDICES
xxii
INTRODUCTION
1.1
History and Development of Masonry
1.2
Manufacturing of Clay Bricks
1.3
Construction Requirements for Masonry and
the Needs for Specification
viii
1.4
Masonry Standardisation and International
Development
1.5
Defining the Contents for Standard
Specifications
1.6
Research Problem
1.7
Aim and Objectives of the Research
1.8
Scope of Work
1.9
Layout of Thesis
10
LITERATURE REVIEW
12
2.1
Introduction
12
2.2
Compressive Strength
12
2.2.1
Strengths Variability
12
2.2.2
Brick Strength and Masonry Strength
13
2.2.3
Effects of Brick Type and Geometry
15
2.2.4
Effects of Test Methods and
15
Measurements
2.3
Dimensional Tolerance
17
2.4
Water absorption
19
2.5
Initial Rate of Suction
22
2.6
Soluble Salt Content and Efflorescence
24
Effects
2.7
Density
24
2.8
Brick Specifications in International
26
Standards
2.8.1
Compressive Strengths
26
2.8.2
Water Absorption
28
ix
2.9
2.8.3
Initial Rate of Suction (IRS)
29
2.8.4
30
2.8.5
Efflorescence
33
2.8.6
Soluble Salt Content
35
Test Methods and Measurements in
37
International Standards
2.9.1
Methods of Sampling for Tests in
37
International Standards
2.10
3
2.9.2
38
2.9.3
Water Absorption
39
2.9.4
41
2.9.5
41
2.9.6
Efflorescence
42
Conclusions
LABORATORY TESTS ON PHYSICAL
49
54
PROPERTIES OF BRICKS
3.1
Introduction
54
3.2
Sampling of Bricks
54
3.3
Testing Programme
55
3.4
58
3.5
Density
61
3.6
63
3.7
Water Absorption (5-hours boiling test)
66
3.8
67
3.9
72
3.10
Efflorescence
79
x
4
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF TEST SPECIMENS
81
4.1
Introduction
81
4.2
General Approach for Analysing Sample
81
4.2.1
Description of Data
82
4.2.2
Histograms and Normal Distribution
84
Curve
4.2.3
Log-normal Distribution Curve
86
4.2.4
Derivation of Population Estimates
87
4.2.5
Hypothesis Testing
89
4.2.5.1
89
Analysis of Variance
(ANOVA)
4.2.5.2
4.3
Control Charts
Application of Statistical Methods for
90
93
Samples Under Investigation

4.3.1
Description and Presentation of
96
Sample Data
4.3.2
Test for Data Homogeneity
103
4.3.3
Determination of Sample Variance
105
Using the ANOVA

4.3.4
4.4
Estimates of Population Mean
Conclusions
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
107
107
110
5.1
Introduction
110
5.2
110
5.3
125
xi
5.3.1
Overall Dimension of 24 Bricks
125
5.3.2
Dimension of Individual Brick for
125
Length, Width and Height
5.4
Water Absorption
135
5.5
138
5.6
Density
142
5.7
Efflorescence
146
5.8
146
APPLICATION OF RESEARCH FINDINGS

6.1
Relationship of Aspect Ratio to Compressive
148
148
Strength
6.2
Relationship of Water Absorption to Porosity
151
and Compressive Strength
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
154
FOR FURTHER WORK

7.1
Conclusions
154
7.2
General Conclusions
154
7.3
Detailed Conclusions
155
7.3.1
155
7.3.2
Water Absorption
156
7.3.3
157
7.3.4
157
7.3.5
156
7.3.6
Density
158
xii
7.4
Recommendations for Further Work
158
REFERENCES
161
APPENDICES
165
xiii
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE
2.1
TITLE
Compressive strengths of bricks tested in different
PAGE
16
orientations (Hendry, 1997)

2.2
Aspect Ratio Factor (Ka)
17
2.3
Limits of durability indices (Surej et al., 1998)
21
2.4
Characteristic flexural strengths and levels of water
21
absorption (BS 5628 Pt. 1, 1985)

2.5
Typical sound insulation values of masonry walls
25
(Curtin et al., 1995)

2.6
Classification of bricks by compressive strength and
26
water absorption (BS 3921:1985)

2.7
Physical requirements for building bricks (ASTM C
27
62-89a, 1990)
2.8
Characteristic compressive strength in accordance to
27
Australian Standard (AS 1225:1984)

2.9
Dimensional tolerance based on measurement of 24
30
bricks and coordinating and work size in accordance to

British Standard (BS 3921:1985)
2.10
Dimensional tolerance in accordance to Australian
31
Standard (AS 1225 1984)

2.11
Dimensional tolerance of facing bricks in accordance
32
to ASTM C 216-90a (1990)

2.12
Dimensional tolerance for mean value of work size in

accordance to European Standard (prEN 771-1, 2000)
33
xiv
2.13
Dimensional tolerance for range of work size in
33
accordance to European Standard (prEN 771-1)

2.14
Classification of bricks in accordance to dimensional
33
deviation limits in Singapore Standard (SS103: 1974)

2.15
Levels of efflorescence in British Standard (BS
34
3921:1985)
2.16
Levels of efflorescence for the Australian Standard
35
(AS 1225 1984)

2.17
Levels of efflorescence in Singapore Standard
35
(SS103: 1974)
2.18
Maximum salt content for the low category (L) in
36
accordance to British Standard (BS 3921:1985)

2.19
Soluble salt content categories in accordance to
37
European Standard (prEN 771-1)

2.20
Sample size for tests in international standards
38
2.21
Comparison of water absorption from 5-hr boiling and
40
the 24-hr cold immersion tests using whole brick and

brick lumps (Khalaf and DeVenny, 2002)
2.22
Test methods and measurements for compressive
43
strength in international standards

2.23
Test methods and measurements for water absorption
44
in international standards
2.24
Test methods and measurements for initial rate of
45
suction in international standards

2.25
Test methods and measurements for dimensional
46
tolerance in international standards

2.26
Test methods and measurement for efflorescence in
48
international standards
3.1
Testing programme
56
3.2
Overall dimensions of 24 bricks
58
3.3
Individual brick measurement of length, width, and
59
height for all batches.

3.4
Density of bricks for Batch 1
62
xv
3.5
Initial rate of suction in samples for Batch 1
65
3.6
Water absorption of bricks for Batch 1
67
3.7
Compressive strength of common bricks tested on bed
70
face
3.8
Compressive strength of facing bricks tested on bed
71
face
3.9
Compressive strength of facing bricks tested on the
72
stretcher face
3.10
Compressive strength of facing bricks tested on the
72
header face.
3.11
Percentage of sulphate content in samples for all
73
batches
3.12
Standard calibration for calcium
75
3.13
Percentage of calcium in samples for all batches
76
3.14
Standard calibration for sodium and potassium
76
3.15
Percentage of potassium in samples for all batches
77
3.16
Percentage of sodium in samples for all batches
78
3.17
Standard calibration for magnesium
78
3.18
Percentage of magnesium in samples for all batches
79
4.1
Components of variance from ANOVA
90
4.2
Water absorption of specimens in each sample for
98
facing brick
4.3
Frequency distribution of data for facing bricks
99
4.4
Normal and log-normal curve fit for water absorption
100
4.5
Normal and log-normal curve fit for compressive
101
strengths of common bricks

4.6
Comparisons of 33 percentile values from normal and
103
log-normal curve for compressive strength of common

brick
4.7
Probability that x will not be exceeded
103
4.8
Sample means and ranges for water absorption
104
xvi
4.9
Control limits for means and ranges for water
104
absorption
4.10
Samples accounted for in the estimate of population
106
mean for water absorption

4.11
ANOVA and components of variance for water
106
absorption
5.1
Compressive strength of specimens in each sample for
111
facing bricks tested on bed face

5.2
112
facing bricks tested on stretcher face

5.3
112
facing bricks tested on header face

5.4
Normal curve fit for compressive strength of facing
113
bricks tested on bed and stretcher face

5.5
Log-normal curve fit for compressive strength of
114
facing brick tested on header face

5.6
ANOVA and variance components for compressive
117
strengths of facing bricks tested on bed, stretcher and

header faces
5.7
Compressive strength of facing brick when tested on
120
bed face as computed from net areas

5.8
Compressive strength of facing and common bricks
122
and standard requirements

5.9
123
common bricks
5.10
Overall measurement of length, width and height of 24
126
bricks and individual brick dimensional deviations

from work size
5.11
Dimensional deviations of brick from work size and

comparisons with values of dimensional tolerance for
BS 3921:1985 and prEN 771-1
128
xvii
5.12
Individual brick dimensions for length, width and
130
height in all samples

5.13
Mean dimensions of individual length, width and
135
height of brick compared with British Standard (BS

3921:1985)
5.14
Water absorption of specimens in each sample for
135
facing bricks
5.15
Comparison of water absorption with limits specified
137
by British Standard and ASTM

5.16
Relationship between characteristic flexural strengths
138
and levels of water absorption (BS 5628 Pt. 1)

5.17
Computed values for initial rate of suction of
139
specimens for facing bricks based on gross area of

immersion
5.18
Computed values for initial rate of suction of
142
specimens of facing bricks based on net area of

immersion
5.19
Density of specimens in each sample for facing bricks
143
5.20
Density of bricks for walls and walls with plaster finish
145
(Building regulations of the UK)

5.21
145

5.22
Percentage of soluble salts in samples from all batches
146
6.1
Relationship between bricks compressive strength,
152
water absorption and porosity (Khalaf, 2002)
xviii
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURES
2.1
TITLE
Mean compressive strength of walls against brick
PAGE
14
strength for 102mm thick brickwork in various mortars

2.2
Expansion of kiln-fresh bricks due to absorption of
19
moisture from atmosphere

2.3
Relationship of flexural strength of brickwork with
22
water absorption of bricks in plane of failure (a) and (c)

parallel to bed joints and (b) and (d) perpendicular to
bed joints (Morton, 1986)
3.1
Sequence of testing
56
3.2
Overall Measurement of (a) length, (b) width
60
and (c) height for 24 bricks

3.3
Apparatus for the measurement of density
63
3.4
Apparatus for measuring the initial rate of suction
65
3.5
Apparatus for water absorption test
66
3.6
Compressive machine -Tonipact 3000
69
3.7 a
Bricks tested on bed face
69
3.7 b
Bricks tested on stretcher face
69
3.7 c
Bricks tested on header face
70
3.8
A schematic diagram of an atomic absorption
74
spectrometer (Hammer, 1996)

3.9
Calibration curve for detection of calcium
75
3.10
Calibration curve for detection of sodium and
77
potassium
3.11
Calibration curve for detection of magnesium
78
xix
3.12
Efflorescence test
80
4.1
Mean, median and mode in a distribution skewed to the
84
right.
4.2
Areas under normal probability curve
88
4.3
T-distribution curves for various values of n (Chatfield,
89
1978)
4.4
Control charts for sample means and ranges (Neville,
93
1985)
4.5
Process of statistical analysis
95
4.6
Histogram, normal curve and log-normal curve, for
99
water absorption of bricks

4.7
Histogram, normal and log-normal curve for
103
compressive strength of common bricks (c.v.

approaching 30%)
4.8
Control chart for means values of water absorption
105
4.9
Control chart for ranges of water absorption.
105
5.1
Histogram, normal and log-normal curve for
115
compressive strength of facing bricks tested on (a) bed

face (b) stretcher face (c) header face
5.2
Control charts of mean values and ranges for
116
compressive strengths tested on (a) bed face (b)

stretcher face (c) header face
5.3
Relationship between compressive strength and h/t
119
ratio of bricks
5.4
Relationship between the computed compressive
121
strength (based on net loaded area of bed face) to h/t

ratio
5.5
Histogram and normal curve for compressive strength
123
of common bricks
5.6
Control charts of mean values and ranges of samples
125
for compressive strength of common bricks

5.7
Comparison of overall dimensions of (a) length (b)
127
xx
width and (c) height with allowable range of British
and Singapore Standard
5.8
Histogram and normal curve for individual dimensions
133
of length, width and height of bricks

5.9
Control charts for mean values and ranges of samples
134
for (a) length (b) width and (c) height of bricks

5.10
The histogram and the normal curve fit for water
136
absorption of bricks
5.11
Control chart of mean values and ranges of samples
137
for water absorption of bricks

5.12
Histogram and normal curve fit for IRS based on gross
140
area of immersion
5.13
Control charts for means and ranges for IRS based on
140
gross area of immersion

5.14
Histogram and normal curve fit for density of bricks
144
5.15
Control charts for mean values and ranges of samples
144
for density of bricks

6.1
Relationship between compressive strength and h/t
149
ratio of bricks
6.2
Orientations of bricks in a brick laying (a) header face
149
(b) bed face and (c) stretcher face.

6.3
Relationship of water absorption with porosity from
152
Table 6.1
6.4
Relationship of porosity with compressive strength

from Table 6.1
152
xxi
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS
ANOVA
analysis of variance
Mpa
Megapascals
AS
Australian Standard
ASTM
American Standard of Testing Materials
BS
British Standard
c.v.
Coefficient of variation
df
Degree of Freedom
EN
European standard
MS
Malaysian Standard
MS
Mean of Squares
Sample size
N.H.
Null Hypothesis
NZS
New Zealand Standard
Range
Sample standard deviation
SS
Sum of squares
Std. dev.
Standard deviation
Var
Variance
Coefficient of variation
Mean of sample means
Population mean
Population standard deviation
s2
Sample variance
Sample mean
xxii
LIST OF APPENDICES
APPENDIX
A1.
TITLE
Results of Tests Specimens for Dimensional
PAGE
166
Tolerance of Individual Bricks

A2.
Results of Test Specimens for Density of Bricks
170
A3.
Results of Tests Specimens for Initial Rate
175
of Suction of Bricks
A4.
Results of Tests Specimens for Water Absorption
183
of bricks
A5.
Results of Tests Specimens for Compressive
188
Strength of Bricks
B.
Statistical Tables
200
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1
History and Development of Masonry

The history of civilisation is synonymous to the history of masonry. Mans
first civilisation, which started about 6000 years ago, was evident by the remains of
the Mesopotamians masonry heritage. During those days masonry buildings were
constructed from any available material at hand. The Mesopotamians used bricks,
made from alluvial deposits of the nearby River Euphrates and Tigris to build their
cities beside these two rivers. Where civilisation existed in the vicinity of mountains
or rocky outcrops, stone was used. The Egyptians pyramids that existed along the
rocky borders of the Nile valley were examples of such stone masonry. In the
Eastern civilisation remains of historical masonry is the reputed Great Wall of
China, which is considered as one of the seven construction wonders in the world.
The materials used in the construction varied from tamped earth between timbers
and adobe i.e. sun-dried bricks to local stones and kiln-fired bricks. The part of the
wall that remains until today is mainly those made of bricks and granite.
The early forms of masonry application in Malaysia dated back about 350
years ago with the construction of the Stadthuys in Malacca, built by the Dutch in
1650. A more modern form of masonry construction was initiated by the British who
colonised the then Malayan Peninsula. Brickwork buildings were at that time built
specially for government offices, quarters and residential. The administrative block,
2
Sultan Abdul Samad building built in 1894 and given a face-lift during the Fourth
Malaysian Plan (1981 1985) is an example of a masonry heritage, which stands as
a remarkable landmark of Kuala Lumpur.
In its early forms masonry structures were built without any structural
calculations. Units of masonry consisting of stones or bricks were either stacked dry
or bonded with any adhesive material to form structures and self weight being used
to stabilise the construction. The Great Wall of China for example, stood at 6.5
meters wide at the base and 5.8 meters at the top, constructed at this massive scale
mainly for stability.
With the advancement of engineering technologies and manufacturing the
development of masonry units and their applications have extended beyond the
conventional approaches and processes leading to a more efficient design and
economy. Situations where considerable lateral forces have to be resisted, the low
tensile strength of bricks could be overcome by using reinforced masonry.
Construction where greater span lengths is desired, post tensioned bricks are used,
making it possible for bricks to be used in large single cell buildings.
1.2
Manufacturing of Clay Bricks

Clay brick is the most extensively used type of masonry units throughout the
world. Its widespread use is mainly due to the availability of clay and shale in most
countries. Its durability and aesthetics appeal also contribute to its extensive
application in both load bearing and non-load bearing structures.
Manufacturing techniques for the production of clay bricks have changed
from the initially hand moulded processes to modern mechanisation. At present
bricks are formed either by the process of extrusion, moulding or dry pressing.
These advance techniques of manufacturing allow greater flexibility in its design;
with a more efficient and varied burning process a wide range of products can be
manufactured. Longer burning processes also tend to produce denser units thus
3
allowing its use for load bearing purposes. Other variations including appearance,
colours, textures, sizes and physical properties could be designed accordingly to the
type of bricks to be produced and its application.
1.3
Construction Requirements for Masonry and the Needs for Specification

Due to the varying manufacturing process and the raw materials, bricks
produced could have a wide range of variability in its appearance and physical
properties making brick a versatile building unit in construction. Bricks are of great
importance for load bearing walls in low and medium rise buildings and for nonload bearing walls as cladding for buildings. It serves several functions including
structure, fire protection, thermal and sound insulation, weather protection and
subdivision of space.
The several functions of bricks and the availability of a variety of bricks that
are able to serve the different construction requirements therefore require an
efficient and consistent guideline in achieving a safe, efficient and economical
design. This is often dictated by specifications and standards.
Load bearing brickworks, besides functioning as subdivision of space should
also have the load carrying capacity, necessary thermal and acoustics insulation as
well as fire and weather protection. Consequently, bricks in load bearing
applications should have adequate strength so that it could safely carry the loads
imposed by the structure and be able to meet the other physical requirements
specified in standards. On the other hand, non-load bearing brickworks are nonstructural, which are designed not to carry load and therefore consideration for
strength is of less importance compared to the requirements needed in load-bearing
masonry.
A damp-proof-course in brick walls at ground floor level prevent moisture
from the ground rising through the bricks and mortar and causing dampness in the
lower parts of the ground floor walls. For this reason bricks used as damp-proof-
4
course must be sufficiently impermeable and this could be ascertain through its
water absorption property.
Facial bricks are mostly produced as quality bricks with high compressive
strength and low water absorption as they can be efficiently applied as structural
bricks with aesthetics quality for use in external walls. These bricks should also
possess other physical requirements essential in good brickwork practices.
1.4
Masonry Standardisation and International Developments

The earliest standard was for weights and measures, which could be traced
back to the ancient civilisation of Babylon and early Egypt (IEEE, 2001). However,
the importance of standardisation was only fully realised until during the industrial
revolution of early nineteenth century.
As for masonry, standards had evolved through research discoveries and the
experience acquired over the years in the use of masonry. Each masonry standard is
different and unique for any country as it incorporates the national requirements. As
such the brick specifications for Australia, America, Britain differs. However, the
basic approach may be similar, to some extent. These standards were developed
more than several decades ago and used the prescriptive approach.
The trend towards globalisation requires harmonisation of standards and this
is evident with the European Standard (EN), which was established to encourage
trade between the European member states and the EN 771 became the new standard
thus setting new specifications of masonry units for Europe.
5
1.5
Defining the Contents for Standard Specifications

The international masonry standards define specifications by consideration
of the parameters described in the foregoing paragraph.

With respect to the mechanical properties of bricks, the most important is
compressive strength, which as well as being direct importance to the strength of a
wall, serves as a general index to the characteristics of the bricks. It is measured by
a standardised test, the results rely to a certain degree on the standard procedures
and conditions for testing prescribed in standards.
Bricks vary in their dimensions due to the variable shrinkage occurring
during and after manufacturing. This dimensional variability should be a minimum
in facing brickwork to ensure even joints for an aesthetically pleasant wall.
Water absorption of brick, which indicates bricks permeability, is dependent
on its porosity. Porous bricks will allow water to penetrate a wall more easily thus
contributing to problems of water seepage in masonry walls. This is an important
factor to be considered in masonry materials especially for tropical regions where
there is abundance of rain. In temperate countries, water absorption property of a
brick is used in standards in defining bricks durability in terms of its resistance to
freezing and thawing.
The initial rate of suction, which is the amount of water sucks by the brick
from mortar during laying, affects the bond between bricks and mortar in a
brickwork and is a required parameter in design of flexural walls. Optimum bond
strength could be achieved by ensuring the initial rate of suction is within the
specified limits in standards.
The other property, which is known to affect the appearance of a wall and
therefore critical in facing bricks is the effects of efflorescence. The whitish salts
deposits that appear on bricks surfaces are called efflorescence. Efflorescence is
caused by the presence of soluble salt in the bricks and water as the carrier, which
transport the salts to bricks surfaces.
6
The content of detrimental soluble salts in bricks also affects the durability of
brickwork. For example, if the amount of water-soluble sulphate exceeds the
allowable, sulphate attack will occur which will cause the disintegration of
brickwork and thus affecting its durability.
The various standards adopt different methods of measurement for
evaluating the properties of bricks. Limits may be specified to provide guidelines in
achieving satisfactory results of the final construction.
The Malaysian standard MS 76:1972 was a mere adoption of BS 3921,
excluding certain properties not relevant to Malaysian requirements, and therefore
limiting to a number of main properties only. With the advent of highly technical
manufacturing techniques and subsequently the presence of new range materials,
materials may have to be tested for additional physical and chemical properties, to
ensure its best performance after laid on construction site.
An improvement of Malaysian Standard is essential to cater with current
technical requirements and ensuring effectiveness of masonry applications. This
entailed investigations on brick properties before any recommendations could be
made on the materials and limits set to achieve satisfactory results in construction.
The research examine the various masonry specifications including
Malaysian Standard in an attempt to establish a better understanding of the various
standards and in deriving recommendations for Malaysian applications relating to
new technical requirements.
1.6
Research Problem
The development of the existing Malaysian standard MS 76:1972
(Specification for bricks and blocks of fired brickearth, clay or shale) were based on
BS 3921:Part 2:1969 (Specification for Bricks and blocks of fired brick-earth, clay
or shale). The British Standard had been revised twice, the latter versions being BS
7
3921:1974 and the existing BS 3921:1985. The revisions incorporate significant
details pertaining to material requirements and construction practices. Some of the
significant changes in existing British Standard BS 3921:1985 (British standard
specification for clay bricks) include bricks classifications, designations for
durability and new requirements on physical properties and revision of testing
methods.
The shift of British standard to European standard and eventual withdrawal
of the British Standard, therefore requires the Malaysian Standard to be revised
accordingly to suit to current market products and requirements for masonry
applications. Subsequently a research is necessary to study the various international
masonry specifications in providing a detailed understanding of the specifications
requirements, before recommendations be made to improve the existing brick
specification for Malaysia. These efforts will also facilitate the development of a
national standard capable of complying with standard global requirements.
In producing a national brick specification, data on local brick performance
are required to guide and support the new set of recommendations proposed for the
new standard.
The Malaysian Standard MS 76:1972 requires some essential amendments to
its specification to cater for present masonry application. For example, the existing
specification does not require any limit of salt content for ordinary quality facing
and common bricks, which are meant for external applications. Limits of soluble salt
content in bricks are essential as a preventive measures for salt deposition and
detrimental chemical reaction, which could damage the appearance of facial
brickwork construction. Investigation on the initial rate of suction property for
Malaysian bricks is crucial as this property, which is at present not included in the
specification, is an important criterion in structural brickwork design and
calculations.
The supplementation of data relating to local bricks performance is essential
to guide and support the new recommendations proposed for the improved
standard mentioned above.
8
1.7
Aim and Objectives of the Research

The aim of the research is to establish a detailed understanding of brick
properties through some laboratories investigations in conjunction with use of

various masonry standards to assess the material performance. The results of these
work supplemented with statistical studies and reviews of past research provides a
useful guidance to brick properties for local production. These work will also
provide data pertaining to current production of bricks which may be considered
significant to any revision or amendment made to the existing Malaysian Standard
for masonry MS 76:1972, currently under revision.
The objectives of the research are:
(i)
To conduct an experimental investigation on compressive strength,

dimensional tolerances, density, initial rate of suction, water
absorption, efflorescence and soluble salt content of facing bricks.
(ii)
To examine the compressive strength of common bricks.
(iii)
To examine the compressive strengths of bricks tested in various

orientations as recommended by Australian/New Zealand and
European standard. Thus establish the relationship between the aspect
ratio (h/t) and compressive strength of bricks.
(iv)
To study the density of bricks and its relation to acoustics properties

of masonry.
(v)
To examine the statistics of locally manufactured bricks and the

respective control charts representing the population of bricks under
study.
(vi)
To establish the relationship of water absorption, porosity and

compressive strength of bricks and to predict compressive strength
from known values of water absorption and porosity.
The studies were conducted through laboratory investigations of local bricks

and literatures establishing the state-of-the art of previous works and references to
international specification of masonry.
1.8
Scope of Work
The research is a case study, which dealt with the investigation of fired clay
facing and common bricks from a local manufacturer. The bricks were tested under
laboratory conditions as specified by the respective standards. The brick properties
examined were confined to studies on compressive strength, dimensional tolerance,
density, initial rate of suction, water absorption, efflorescence and soluble salt
content. Majority of the tests were based on the Malaysian Standard MS 76:Part 2
1972, which is basically an adoption of British Standard, BS 3921:1969. Since then
the British Standard for masonry has been revised several times to accommodate
changes for current needs.
Other standards used in the study were ASTM (American society for testing
and material), Australian/New Zealand standard, Singapore standard and European
standard. These standards formed the major references for comparisons of the
applications and methods of testing and determining the bricks properties
investigated in this programme. They form the major references for discussions in
this thesis.
Studies on bricks density are new to masonry and this was included in this
research in aligning with the new recommendations specified by the European
Standard.
The outcomes of the laboratory investigations were based on a local brick
manufacturer and therefore the results are inconclusive to suggest a representation of
the national population, however provides some guides to the properties of
Malaysian clay bricks.
10
1.9
Layout of Thesis
Chapter II describes the significance of physical and chemical properties of
bricks and its effects upon masonry behaviour. A review was conducted to examine
the various international masonry specifications, the recommended methods of
testing and measurements and comparisons between them. A considerable amount of
attention was given to the studies on masonry specifications by Malaysian Standard,
British Standard, and the Eurocode. Comparisons were also made by referring to
Australian/New Zealand Standard and ASTM. The limitations and advantages of the
various standards were highlighted and these form the basis of knowledge for the
work carried out in this thesis and where possible recommended for future standard
development.
Chapter III describes the laboratory works to identify the physical and
chemical properties of local clay bricks in providing data for Malaysian bricks. The
compressive strength, density, dimensions, water absorption, initial rate of suction,
efflorescence and salt content were investigated mainly using British Standard and
in specific cases other standards were also used. The British Standard is regarded as
the main reference used in this research as it is used widely in practice in Malaysia.
Chapter IV presents the statistical analysis of bricks properties investigated
in Chapter III. The descriptive statistics of data were computed and the graphical
distribution of data shown by histograms and normal curves. The application of
control charts was presented for testing data homogeneity. The analysis of variance,
ANOVA was used to derive the components of variances in samples, which in turn
will be used to calculate the bricks population mean.
Chapter V presents the experimental and statistical results for the bricks
properties investigated in the programme. The results for every parameter were
discussed and compared to previous research works and specification requirements
set by existing international standards.
11
Chapter VI presents a method of predicting compressive strength and
porosity properties of bricks based on the findings of work carried out in this thesis.
Chapter VII presents the conclusions of the works and recommendations for
future studies.
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1
Introduction
The properties of bricks affect the appearance and the quality of masonry
construction. Therefore, emphasis has been given by codes and standards to specify
the properties of units and component materials, in order to achieve the designated
durability, quality and strength.
This chapter presents works conducted on bricks for specifications
development and standardisations. Evaluation of bricks made on compressive
strengths, absorption properties, initial rate of suction, dimensional deviations,
efflorescence effects, soluble salt content and density i.e. the parameters contributing
to specification development.
2.2
2.2.1
Strengths Variability
The compressive strengths of bricks vary considerably with the material used
in manufacturing and the duration and degree of burning. Bricks compressive
13
strengths can be defined into three levels i.e. the high strength engineering bricks
with compressive strength ranging from 55 to 69 N/mm2, the medium strength
bricks range from 27 to 48 N/mm2 and the low strength brick range from
approximately 14 to 25 N/mm2 (Lenczner, 1972). Due to these considerable
variations, strengths of bricks are classified accordingly to its application in
construction. Bricks with compressive strengths of approximately 5 N/mm2 are
sufficient for the construction of low-rise buildings like dwelling houses
(Hendry et al., 1981). For high-rise structures, engineering bricks and those of high
compressive strengths should be used (Hendry, 2001).
The compressive strengths of bricks were associated with materials and
manufacturing features as highlighted by Grimm (1975). Additionally, the
compressive strength can be generally higher for the following cases:
2.2.2
Units made of shale by the stiff mud process
Burned at high temperatures
Cored less than 35% of its gross area with no sharp re-entrant corners
Units with small heights
Brick Strength and Masonry Strength

Compressive strength of a brick is important as an indicator of masonry
strength and as a result, brick strength has become an important requirement in

brickwork design. A considerable amount of past research and studies on masonry
(Hendry, 1990, Lenczner, 1972, Sahlin, 1971,) indicated that stronger bricks
contribute to greater brickwork strength.
Brickwork is strongest in compression and research shows that the
compressive behaviour of brickwork depends on the strength of brick and mortar.
However there is no suggestion of a direct relationship between the individual
component strength and the resultant masonry strength. The complex nature of
14
analysis for masonry (composite material) contributes to the difficulties in
establishing such relationship.
Some existing work based on the analysis of experimental data conducted on
102.5 mm and 215 mm thick walls (Hendry and Malek, 1990) showed that the
compressive strength of walls (f) could be estimated by the following equations:
For wall thickness of 102.5 mm
f = 1.242 f b
0.531
For wall thickness of 215.0 mm
f = 0.334 fb
0.778
fm
fm
0.208
0.234
(2.1)
(2.2)
Where,
fb and fm are the brick and mortar compressive strengths respectively.
Equations 2.1 and 2.2 were represented graphically as shown in Figure 2.1
(Hendry, 1990) and has been used as a basis for estimation in design codes for
Compressive strength of wall

(N/mm2)
masonry, BS 5628 Part 1: 1985: Structural use of unreinforced masonry.
30
25
1:1/4:3 mortar
1:1/2:41/2 mortar
1:1:6 mortar
1:2:9 mortar
20
15
10
5
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Compressive strength of brick (N/mm )
Figure 2.1: Mean compressive strength of walls against brick strength for
102mm thick brickwork in various mortars (Hendry, 1990).
Brickwork strength can also be estimated by other simple relationship with
unit strength. Hendry et al. (1996) proposed that the compressive strength of
brickwork could be approximated to the square root of unit strength and to the third
15
or fourth root of the mortar cube strength. The Brick Development Association of
UK (1974) relates bricks with compressive strength of 35 N/mm2 to wall strength,
with a ratio of 0.3 to 0.35:1.
2.2.3
Effects of Brick Type and Geometry

The type and geometry of bricks whether solid, perforated, or hollow have
an effect on the compressive strength of masonry. Hendry (1990) reported an earlier

findings done by Schellbach (1971) on the compressive strengths of highly
perforated units, and reported that the highest ratio of masonry strength to brick
strength was obtained for bricks with perforation ratio of 38-43 %. Hendry (1990)
highlighted that holes of round shape or slots with round corners have no
distinguished effects on compressive strengths of brickwork, Conversely, a decrease
in compressive strengths of brickwork were observed for bricks with cores of
rectangular slots. Rectangular slots tend to initiate shear failure.
2.2.4
Effects of Test Methods and Measurements

The compressive strengths of brick are measured by loading bricks in
compression. Conventional tests require bricks to be loaded normal to its bed face
and the faces are capped or packed before testing to reduce the effects of roughness,
lack of plane and platen effects. Different materials could be used for packing or
capping. Malaysia/British Standard recommended soft capping using sheets of
plywood between loaded surfaces of bricks specimen. On the other hand, ASTM
specifies the use of hard capping consisting of either a thin layer of molten sulphur
compound or a gypsum plaster compound. Soft packing has the advantage of a
reduction in the time of preparation for testing and it has occasionally been claimed
that soft capping produced a more representative strength than hard capping
(Drysdale et al., 1994). Grimm (1975) highlighted that if a brick specimen is
unrestrained through the insertion of a teflon pad between brick and machine head
16
the compressive strength of the unit is further reduced. This is due to reduction in
effects of the machine platen.
Besides the influence of platen restraint and capping material, the
compressive strengths of bricks are also affected by the orientation of the specimen
during testing. Bricks tested on its bed, edge and end would give different
compressive strengths due to the different heights of the specimen. The platen effect
on the brick will be reduced with increase in height subsequently decrease its
compressive strength. Table 2.1 shows the work reported by Hendry (1997) on the
compressive strengths of bricks when tested in different orientations. Maximum
strength was achieved when tested on bed whilst minimum strength was obtained
when tested on end. Considerations for this shape factor are given its importance in
the European Standard prEN 771-1, which requires bricks compressive strength to
be declared with the intended orientation for testing.
Table 2.1:
Compressive strengths of bricks tested in different

orientations (Hendry, 1997)
Brick type
Tested
On bed
On edge
On end
14 hole
74.3
26.2
10.4
10 hole
70.2
29.5
21.7
3 hole
82.0
53.2
40.2
5 slots
64.1
51.8
13.8
The influence on the shape factors was considered in the Australian Standard
AS/NZS 4456.4:1997, Masonry units and segmental pavers- Methods of tests. In
this standard, the compressive strength of brick is multiplied with a factor called the
aspect ratio factor, Ka which depends on the height to thickness ratio, to provide the
unconfined compressive strength. The unconfined compressive strength is given by
equation 2.3.
C = Ka
1000 P
A
Where,
C = unconfined strengths in megapascals.
(2.3)
17
P = total load at which the specimen fails in Kn.
A = net area in mm2
Ka = aspect ratio factor (Table 2.2)
Table 2.2:
Height to thickness ratio
0.4
1.0
5.0 or more
0.5
0.7
1.0
The curing of bricks specimen before testing also affects the compressive
strength of brick. Wet bricks tend to show lower strengths than dry ones. Grimm
(1975) reported that dry brick can be 15% stronger than wet ones.
2.3
Fired clay bricks vary in size due to the varying property of natural clay and
variations in the manufacturing drying and firing conditions. The total variations,
which may take place due to variable shrinkage properties of clay during and after
manufacturing can account to approximately 5 to 15 % of original dimensions. Due
to the presence of this wide range of variability, dimensional tolerances are specified
in standards to achieve the desired dimensional consistency. This is important in
brickwork because it has been proven from research and observations that
dimensional variation would affect brickwork aesthetically as well as structurally
Bricks dimension should not vary more than the tolerance specified in
standards. Limits for dimensional tolerance is specified in facing brickwork to
ensure that sizes of bricks do not differ too much as to affect the appearance of a
wall. This is especially important for very short length walls and piers. Besides this,
research has also shown that careful control of dimensions would markedly increase
the speed of brick laying (Haller, 1964).
18
Previous research on masonry has shown that units with low dimensional
variation will produce a wall of higher compressive strengths. The use of bricks with
well-controlled dimensions is also essential for high strength brickworks since
brickwork with non-uniform joint thickness would be subjected to bending moments
and stress concentration. According to Grimm (1975), the compressive strength of
relatively short brick masonry prisms, built from conventional materials which were
concentrically loaded and tested in accordance to ASTM E477 (7) may be predicted
from the following equation:
f m' = 1.42 f b'108 ( f c2 + 9.45 106 )(1 + ) 1
(2.4)
Where,
f m' = compressive strength of brickwork masonry prism
fb' = compressive strength of brick
= prism slenderness ratio

= material size factor
= workmanship factor and this factor depend upon the verticality of the
wall, dimensional variation and quality of mortar joints. For good
workmanship,
= 0.
It is evident from equation 2.4 that the dimensional variation constitutes the
workmanship factor, affects the compressive strength of brickwork.
Quality control measures during manufacturing are important to ensure that
bricks dimensions are within limits specified in standards. One of the causes for
variation lies partly with the mould and wearing of dies. Moisture movement within
the brick can also contribute to size variations after manufacturing. Clay bricks tend
to expand as they pick up moisture after being unloaded from the kilns. The
magnitude of this movement varies accordingly to types of bricks and brick firing
temperatures. About half of the expansion occurs within a few days after
manufacturing and the remainder gradually stabilised after a few months (Fig.2.2).
19
Therefore, generally bricks are only taken to the site two weeks after coming out
from the kilns.
Expansion
Maximum Expansion
0 1
Figure 2.2:
Days
100
Expansion of kiln-fresh bricks due to absorption of

moisture from atmosphere. (Hendry et al., 1997)
2.4
Water Absorption
Water absorption of a brick is defined as the weight of water in a brick
expressed as a percentage of the bricks dry weight. It varies roughly from 4.5 to 21
% and the variation is mainly due to the variable raw material and the manufacturing
process.
The extrusion process in the manufacturing produces denser brick in
comparisons to the moulded bricks and denser bricks in turn would exhibit less
absorption. This was proven through experiments (Sahlin, 1971), which showed that
extruded bricks contain small percentage of voids and therefore are less absorbent to
water.
The effects of bricks absorption property due to variable raw material used in
its manufacturing was shown by Surej et al. (1998) who reported the work carried
out by Kung (1987) on the effects of raw material to water absorption. The report
showed that within the normal brick firing temperature range, the water absorption
20
and the porosity of the burnt bricks increases with increasing calcium carbonate or
limestone content in the raw materials.
Water absorption of bricks is usually measured by the 5-hours boiling and
24-hours cold immersion test. The 24-hours cold immersion test allows water to be
absorbed into pores, which are easily filled under cold condition while the 5 hours
boiling test gives fully saturated condition where all pores are filled up with water.
The ratio of 24 hours cold immersion to maximum absorption in vacuum or
boiling (C/B ratio) gives the saturation coefficient, which is used to indicate bricks
durability. The saturation coefficient, which is actually a measure of the relative
open pore space present in brick is crucial during freeze-thaw action to
accommodate the volume change in water as it freezes. The saturation coefficient
ranges from about 0.4 to 0.95, the lower value of around 0.4 indicates high
durability and higher values of around 0.95, low durability (F. M. Khalaf and A. S.
De Venny, 2002).
Other durability indices have also been developed based on relationship of
porosity and water absorption. Table 2.3 shows the durability indices developed by
Surej et al. (1998). Theses durability indices, which are a function of porosity and
water absorption of bricks is shown in equation 2.5 and 2.6. DIAP(C) and DIAP(S)
refers to durability index based on absorption properties derived from the cold
immersion absorption property and the suction property respectively.
DIAP(C ) =
450.70
C1
+ 387.98 0.87
(2.94 + B )
B
(2.5)
DIAP( S ) =
450.70
S4
+ 329.81 0.97
(2.94 + B )
B
(2.6)
Where,
B is the absorption due to 5-hr. boiling.
C1 is the absorption due to 1-hr.immersion absorption.
S4 is the 4-hr. capillary suction achieved through similar test as in the initial
rate of suction.
21
Table 2.3:
Limits of durability indices (Surej et al., 1998)

Limiting Values
Index
Durable
Non-durable
DIAP(C)
>90
<75
DIAP(S)
>85
<70
Studies on the effects of water absorption to structural performance of fired

clay masonry shows that water absorption of masonry units has a relation with
flexural behaviour of masonry. Research carried out by the British Ceramic
Research Association on test wallettes to study the relationship of flexural strength
of brickwork and water absorption of bricks has derived the relationship between
flexural strength and water absorption (Figure 2.3). The curved line indicated in
brown is the 95 % confidence limit and this was approximated to the stepped line,
which relates to three levels of water absorption i.e. less than 7%, 7% to 12% and
beyond12% to the respective values of characteristic flexural strengths. These limits
of water absorption associated with the flexural strength of brickwork are used in BS
5628: Part 1 for design of laterally loaded walls (Table 2.4).
Table 2.4:
Characteristic flexural strengths and levels of

water absorption (BS 5628 Pt. 1, 1985)
Characteristic flexural strength, fkx N/mm2
Mortar designation
Clay bricks having a water
absorption less than 7%
Between 7 % and 12 %
Over 12 %
Plane of failure parallel

to bed joints
(i)
(ii) and
(iv)
(iii)
Plane of failure perpendicular

to bed joints
(i)
(ii) and
(iv)
(iii)
0.7
0.5
0.4
2.0
1.5
1.2
0.5
0.4
0.35
1.5
1.1
1.0
0.4
0.3
0.25
1.1
0.9
0.8
22
Flexural strength N/mm
Flexural strength N/mm2
BS Mortar
Designation (i) 1 : : 3
1.5
1
0.5
0
0
10
20
4
3
2
1
0
0
30
10
20
30
Water absorption %
Water absorption %
(a)
(b)
BS Mortar
Designation (iii) 1 : 1 : 6
1.5
1
0.5
0
0
10
20
Water absorption %
30
4
3
2
1
0
0
10
30
Water absorption %
(c)
Figure 2.3
20
(d)
Relationship of flexural strength of brickwork with water

absorption of bricks in plane of failure (a) and (c) parallel to bed
joints and (b) and (d) perpendicular to bed joints (Morton, 1986)
2.5

The initial rate of suction (IRS) denotes the amount of water sucked by the
brick upon contact with mortar during laying. The IRS, resulting from the presence
of capillary mechanism of the small pores in the bricks, is an important property in a
masonry construction since it affects the bond strength between the brick and mortar
thus affecting water tightness and durability of masonry.
23
Bricks with IRS less than 0.25 kg/m2.min can be considered as low suction
bricks whilst bricks with IRS more than 1.5 kg/m2.min can be regarded as high
suction bricks (Drysdale et al., 1994). Tests have indicated that IRS values between
0.25 to 1.5 kg/m2.min generally produce good bond strength when used with the
appropriate mortar designations. High suction bricks absorb water from the mortar
rapidly thus impairing bond properties. This water is needed for the proper hydration
of cement where the mortar contacts the brick. On the other hand, low suction bricks
do not absorb much water and hence the surplus water will float on to the surface of
mortar to result in poor initial and final bonding strength. However, recent tests to
evaluate the bond strength and water penetration of masonry built with low IRS
brick, demonstrated that flexural bond strength of very low IRS brick (less than 0.25
kg/m2.min) can equal or exceed those of higher IRA brick with proper selection of
mortar materials and type (BIA, 2001).
The initial rate of suction (IRS) is determined by the amount of water
absorbed through the bed face when immersed in 3mm depth of water for a period of
1 minute. The British Standard recognises the IRS as a crucial requirement for
highly stressed masonry and a test method to determine IRS is given in the appendix
of BS 3921:1985. However, no limit for IRS has been specified. On the other hand,
ASTM, gives guidance on limits for IRS. It recommends that bricks with IRS
greater than 30g/min per 30 in2 (equivalent to about 1.5 kg/ m2.min) should be
wetted prior to laying.
Wetting of bricks before laying are more vital for construction in hot weather
especially for highly absorptive bricks. However, the wetting of bricks has its
shortcoming. The bricks will have variable degree of wetness giving rise to variable
compatibility with mortar (Drysdale et al., 1994).
24
2.6
Soluble Salts Content and Efflorescence Effects

All clay bricks contain soluble salts originating from raw clay deposits. In a
brickwork, salts may also originate from mortar or drawn up from the ground.
Efflorescence, which is the white deposition of salts on bricks surfaces, occurs due
to the presence of these salts carried by water to the brick surfaces.
Salts leading to efflorescence are mostly sulphates of sodium, potassium,
magnesium and calcium salts. Efflorescence usually occurs in new constructions and
takes place when water-carrying salts evaporates leaving the salts depositions on
masonry surfaces. The dissolved salts in crystalline form lead to visible white stains
on surfaces but are normally harmless. However, in extreme cases, crystallisation
may take place within the brick causing internal stresses and leading to spalling and
cracking (Hendry et al., 1997).
Sulphate action occurs when water carries sulphate from bricks into mortar,
containing tricalcium aluminate, one of the constituents of Portland cement and
hydraulic lime. This reaction causes mortar to expand, causing cracking or spalling
of mortar joints and occasionally spalling of facing bricks. Hendry (1981) suggested
a limit for sodium sulphate content in bricks, which should not exceed 3% by weight
of a brick in order to avoid spalling and disruption of bricks surface.
2.7
Density
Raw materials and manufacturing process affects bricks density, which could
vary between 1300 kg/m3 to 2200 kg/m3. The density of bricks influences the weight
of walls and the variation in weight have implications on structural, acoustical and
thermal design of the wall. Incorrect assumptions on wall weight can result in
inaccurate dead loads and seismic loads, reduced factor of safety in shear walls and
overestimate of acoustical transmission loss (Grimm, 1996)
25
For acoustical design the sound resistance of a solid masonry wall is related
principally to its weight; the heavier the wall the less is the noise transmitted through
it. Typical sound insulation values for a 102.5 mm and 215 mm thick wall is shown
in Table 2.5. Loudness of 45 dB 50 dB is considered as moderate loudness
suitable for average home and general office (Drysdale et al., 1994).
Table 2.5:

Material and construction
Thickness
(mm)
Weight
(kg/m2)
Approximate sound
reduction index
(dB)
Brick wall plastered both

sides with a minimum of
12.5 mm thick plaster
215
415
49.5
102.5
220
46

In most existing standards for clay bricks density was not included as
requirements for standardisations. However, in the recent European Standard prEN
771-1: Specifications for clay masonry units, requirements for density should be
declared by the manufacturer for acoustic purposes. The specified tolerances for
density of test samples are graded as D1 and D2 with difference of 10% and 5%
respectively from the manufacturers declared values. The declared values may also
be intended for the calculation of load assumptions and thermal insulation.
One of the main functions of a wall is to provide some degree of thermal
insulation between the exterior and interior environments. Thermal considerations
for buildings include the comfort of users and the energy requirements of heating
and air conditioning equipment. Brickwork has relatively low resistance to thermal
effects, which means that brick is a good conductor of heat. Thermal resistance of
wall increases with the decrease in the density of the materials; hence, a walls
thermal resistance is increased by using bricks made of less dense or aerated
materials.
26
However, brick as a high mass building material has the inherent energy
saving features of thermal storage, which means that they are slow to heat up and
slow to cool down. This thermal inertia or thermal storage of brickwork is affected
considerably by its mass, which depended on the density of brick and therefore its
importance in the design load for both heating and cooling.
2.8
Bricks Specifications in International Standards

This section deals with the comparisons of bricks specifications for existing
standards, namely, British Standard (BS), American Standard (ASTM), Australian /

New Zealand Standard (AS/NZS), European Standard (EN) and Singapore Standard
(SS). Malaysian Standard (MS), which is adopted from the earlier version of the
British Standard, was also reviewed. The comparisons is aimed at developing a
better understanding on the way each parameter is being treated for standardisations
in accordance to a particular countrys requirements.
2.8.1
The British Standard (BS 3921:1985) categorised compressive strengths into
classes of Engineering A and B (Table 2.6). These classifications of bricks are

commonly used for construction with aesthetics and strength requirements. All other
bricks and the damp proof-course bricks should have strengths not less than 5
N/mm2, however, the damp-proof course is divided into 2 in accordance to water
absorption.
27
Table 2.6:
Classification of bricks by compressive strength and water

absorption (BS 3921:1985)
Class
Average compressive
strength (N/mm2)
Water absorption (5-hr.

boiling) % by weight
Engineering A
Engineering B
Damp-proof course 1
Damp-proof course 2
All others
70
50
5
5
5
4.5
7.0
4.5
7.0
No limits
In the American Standards (ASTM), compressive strengths are classified in

accordance to the different grades of weathering and exposure conditions as
indicated in Table 2.7. The grades of weathering can be either negligible (NW),
moderate (MW) or severe (SW) depending on the map zoning as given in ASTM.
Table 2.7:
Physical requirements for building bricks (ASTM C 6289a, 1990)
Minimum compressive
strengths brick flat wise
lb/in2 (N/mm2)
Average of Individual
5 bricks
Maximum water
absorption (5-hr.
boiling), %
Average
Individual
of 5 bricks
Maximum saturation
coefficient
Average
of 5 bricks
Individual
Grade SW
3000(20.7)
2500(17.2)
17.0
20.0
0.78
0.80
Grade MW
2500(17.2)
2200(15.2)
22.0
25.0
0.88
0.90
Grade NW
1500(10.3)
1250(8.6)
No limit
No limit
No Limit
No limit
Designation
Similar requirements of compressive strengths are given for Facing (ASTM

C 216 90a) and Hollow Bricks(ASTM C 652 89a) in the category of Grade SW
and MW. However, there is no category for Grade NW in both Facing and Hollow
Bricks.
In the Australian Standard (AS 1225 1984) the characteristics compressive
strength is specified, against values for the ratio of manufacturing height to
manufacturing width (Table 2.8).
28
Table 2.8:
Characteristic compressive strength in accordance to

Australian Standard (AS 1225:1984)
Ratio of manufacturing height to

manufacturing width
Characteristics compressive
strength, MPa
0.7
2
7.0
5.0
In Singapore Standard (SS 103:1974) compressive strengths are classified as

First, Second and Third Grade with minimum compressive strength of 35 N/mm2, 20
N/mm2 and 5.2 N/ mm2 respectively.
It can be seen from the comparisons that the British Standard specified
stringent limits than the ASTM. A minimum compressive strength of 70 and 50
N/mm2 respectively for Engineering A and B was specified in the British Standard.
Whereas, in ASTM the minimum compressive strength specified for structural
facing bricks were 20.7 and 17.2 N/mm2 for Grade SW and MW bricks respectively.
On the other hand, the minimum specification for building bricks in ASTM for
structural or non structural use is higher, i.e. a minimum value of 10.3 N/mm2. The
BS specifies a value of 5 N/mm2. Likewise, a stringent water absorption limit of
minimum 4.5% was found in BS compared to a minimum of 17% in ASTM.
2.8.2
Water Absorption
The BS 3921:1985 defines the limits of water absorption in order to
categorise engineering bricks and bricks for damp-proof course (Table 2.6). The
standard specifies a low water absorption ( 4.5 %) to classify Engineering A bricks
and bricks for damp-proof course 1; higher water absorption ( 7.0 %) to classify
Engineering B bricks and bricks for damp-proof course 2. There is no limit of water
absorption for all other types of bricks.
Similarly, ASTM relates compressive strengths to water absorption but with
an additional parameter, the saturation coefficient (Table 2.7). However, the water
29
absorption limits in ASTM were less stringent than the BS. The limits given for the
designation of SW and MW are equal for all three types of bricks: Building, Facing
and Hollow. The maximum water absorption limits are given for the average of five
bricks and for individual bricks. For SW bricks the maximum water absorption
specified are 17 % while the MW bricks are 22 %. No water absorption limits are
required for the grade NW bricks.
On the contrarily, the Australian Standard (AS 1225 1984) which was set
up as a basic standard specifies the properties common to most bricks and put no
limit to the water absorption properties as well as the initial rate of suction.
However, it was mentioned in the standard that if the need arises such requirements
should be provided by the purchasers.
Singapore standard (SS 103:1974) specifies some general requirements for
water absorption. The water absorption is limited to 25 % for common bricks, and
no requirement is set for facing bricks. This is probably due to the reason that
brickwork being widely used as infill walls there, which do not require structural or
facing bricks and therefore the water absorption is not critical.
On similar trend with the Australian Standard, water absorption was not
considered as a basic requirement for product description and designation in
European Standard prEN 771-1. Requirements for water absorption will depend on
its relevance in construction and in this case, the limits are to be declared by the
manufacturers.
2.8.3
Initial Rate of Suction (IRS)

British Standard BS 3921:1985 does not specify any limit for IRS. However,
a test method for determining this value is included in Appendix H of the standard.
30
ASTM specified that bricks to be tested for IRS, if the value exceeded
1.5 kg/ m2.min in which case for applications, bricks are to be wetted. The European
Standard prEN 771-1 does not specify any limits for IRS but these values will have
to be declared by manufacturers when relevant to the uses for which the unit is put
on the market. The mean IRS of the sample tested should fall within the range of the
declared values.
The Australian Standard does not specify any requirements for IRS, however
a test method to determine IRS is provided in AS/NZS 4456. Singapore Standard
SS 103:1974 and Malaysian Standard MS 76:1972 specifies no requirement at all on
IRS since both standards were developed using BS 3921:1969 as reference whereby
the initial rate of suction was not accounted for.
2.8.4
Sizes and tolerance specified by the British Standard BS 3921:1985 are
meant only for the 225 mm 112.5 mm 75 mm format bricks. Requirements for
other bricks format are given in separate standards such as BS 4729(special shapes).
In BS 3921:1985, dimensional tolerance is measured by the deviations in the
overall length, width and height based on 24 bricks (Table 2.9). In addition,
individual brick dimension should not exceed the coordinating size for length, width
and height. Coordinating size is the work size including the allowance for mortar
joints and tolerances and work size is the manufactured size. The overall
measurement is based on the expectation that individual brick dimension should not
differ from the work size by more than 6.4 mm for length whilst 4.0 mm for both
width and height.
31
Table 2.9:
Dimensional tolerance based on measurement of 24 bricks

and coordinating and work size in accordance to British
Standard (BS 3921:1985)
Coordinating
size
mm
225
112.5
75
Work size
Overall measurement of 24 bricks
mm
215
102.5
65
Maximum (mm)
5235
2505
1605
Minimum (mm)
5085
2415
1515
Dimensional variations are used in the Australian Standard (AS 125 1984)
to classify the categories of bricks. The categories are as follows:
ST0 bricks not required to be precise in dimensions
ST2 bricks manufactured to finer tolerances for special applications.
ST3 bricks where regularity in size is necessary
Limits in dimensional tolerance (Table 2.10) for each of these categories are
based on the variations of length, width and height of 20 bricks for the respective
dimensions. In addition, the length shall not be less than 1.5 times the width or not
exceeding 390 mm. The height shall not be greater than 70 percent of the length.
Table 2.10:
Dimensional tolerance in accordance to Australian

Standard (AS 1225 1984)
Dimensional tolerance of 20 bricks
Size Category
ST0
ST2
ST3
Length
Width
Height
90 mm
40 mm
60 mm
50 mm
25 mm
40 mm
50mm
25 mm
40 mm
General criteria for dimensions and proportions

(a) Length not less than 1.5 times width nor more than 390mm
(b) Height shall not be greater than 70 percent of length.
Tolerance on dimensions specified by ASTM is based on a sample of 10

bricks and each brick should not lie outside the tolerance limits given in the
respective standards for Facing, Hollow and Building bricks. Table 2.11 shows the
tolerance limits for facing bricks. Unlike the British Standard, variations in
32
dimensions are not given in terms of length, width and height but are specified with
respect to some intervals of dimensions. Dimensional variations for facing and
hollow bricks are classified into categories defined by usage, exposure and
architectural requirements corresponding to Type FBX and FBS. In addition, the
facing and hollow bricks are also required to satisfy the tolerances on distortion and
out of square.
Table 2.11:
Dimensional tolerance of facing bricks in

accordance to ASTM C 216-90a (1990)
Specified dimensions,
(mm)
76 and under
76 to 102, incl.
102 to 152, incl.
152 to 203, incl.
203 to 305, incl.
305 to 406, incl.
Maximum permissible variation from

specified dimension, plus or minus (mm)
Type FBX
Type FBS
1.6
2.4
3.2
4.0
5.6
7.1
2.4
3.2
4.7
6.4
7.9
9.5
Note:
FBX: Brick for general use in exposed exterior and interior walls where a
high degree of mechanical perfection, narrow colour range and minimum
permissible variation in size are required.
FBS: Brick for general use in exposed exterior and interior masonry walls
where wider colour ranges and greater variation in sizes are permitted than
are specified for type FBX.
In European Standard prEN 771-1, the dimensional tolerances are specified
under three categories i.e. T1, T2 and T0 and the respective tolerances for each
category are to be computed using the formula, which depends on the work size
dimensions (Table 2.12). The mean values for all dimensions i.e. the length, width
and height in a sample of 10 bricks should not exceed the declared values by the
respective tolerance in the category. In addition, for works, which require acoustical
property, dimensional tolerance in terms of the range values from a measurement of
10 bricks in a sample should be within the categories given in Table 2.13.
33
Table 2.12:
Dimensional tolerance for mean value of work size in

accordance to European Standard (prEN 771-1, 2000)
Category
Tolerance
T1
0.40 (work size dimension) mm or 3mm whichever is greater
T2
0.25 (work size dimension) mm or 2mm whichever is greater
T0
A deviation in mm declared by the manufacturer
Table 2.13:
Dimensional tolerance for range of work size in

accordance to European Standard (prEN 771-1)
Category
Maximum range
R1
0.6 (work size dimension) mm
R2
0.3 (work size dimension) mm
R0
A range in mm declared by the manufacturer
In Singapore Standard (SS 103: 1974) the dimensional tolerance are

categorised as First, Second and Third Grade in accordance to the dimensional
deviations of the overall measurements of length, width and height of 24 bricks
respectively (Table 2.14).
Table 2.14: Classification of bricks in accordance to dimensional deviation
limits in Singapore Standard (SS 103: 1974)
Overall measurements of 24 bricks (mm)
First Grade
Second Grade
Third Grade
Width
5085 to 5235
2415 to 2505
5280 to 5472
2445 to 2580
Height
1530 to 1620
1704 to 1800
Bricks satisfying all other

requirements but having
dimensions and compressive
strength outside First Grade and
Second Grade.
Length
34
2.8.5
Efflorescence
In the British Standard, the levels of efflorescence of bricks are categorised
either as slight, moderate and heavy (Table 2.15). Bricks showing efflorescence in
the heavy category is considered as not complying with the standard. An evaluation
for efflorescence is based on the visual examination of 10 specimens in a sample,
tested in accordance to Appendix C of BS 3921:1985. Slight efflorescence refers to
bricks with up to 10 % of its surface area contaminated with salts and more than 10
% but not exceeding 50 % are categorised as moderate whilst heavy category refers
to bricks with more than 50 % of its surface area affected. In addition, the heavy
category of efflorescence is accompanied by powdering and flaking of the surface.
Table 2.15:
Levels of efflorescence in British Standard (BS3921: 1985)
Nil
No perceptible deposit of salt
Slight
Up to 10% of the area of the face covered with a deposit of salt, but
unaccompanied by powdering or flaking of the surface.
Moderate
More than 10% but not more than 50% of the area of the face covered
with a deposit of salts but unaccompanied by powdering or flaking of
the surface.
Heavy
More than 50% of the area of the face covered with a deposit of salts
and/or powdering or flaking of the surface.
In ASTM requirements for efflorescence is meant only for facing and hollow
bricks. The test method and rating based on 5 pairs of bricks are given in ASTM C
67 90a. The bricks are rated as effloresced if perceptible differences are noted and
otherwise. The standard requires bricks of rating not effloresced.
In the Australian Standard (AS 1225 1984) the level of efflorescence for
brickwork constructed for appearance should not exceed the limits defined by the
slight category (Table 2.16). The classification is based on the worst case of
efflorescence category occurring in the 5 pairs of bricks tested.
35
Table 2.16:
Levels of efflorescence for the Australian Standard

(AS 1225 1984)
Nil
Slight
Moderate
No observable efflorescence
Not more than 10% of the total external above-water surface
covered by a deposit of salts.
More than 10% of one external above-water surface but not
more than 50% of the total external above-water surface
covered by a deposit of salts.
Heavy
A deposit of salts covering more than 50% of the total

external above-water surface.
Severe
Any efflorescence that is accompanied by powdering or

flaking of the surface of the specimen.
The Singapore standard specifies level of efflorescence similar to the British

standard, however with the addition of another category designated, Serious. This
level refers to cases where a heavy deposit of salts, accompanied by powdering
and/or flaking of the surface and tending to increase with repeated wetting of the
specimen. Facing bricks and common bricks should not exceed the conditions stated
for slight and the moderate efflorescence (Table 2.17).
Table 2.17:
Levels of efflorescence in Singapore Standard

(SS 103:1974)
Nil
No perceptible deposit of salt
Slight
Not more than 10% of the area of the face covered with a
thin deposit of salt.
Moderate
A heavier deposit than slight and covering up to 50% of

the face, but unaccompanied by powdering or flaking of
the surface.
Heavy
A heavy deposit of salts covering 50% or more of the area

of the face but unaccompanied by powdering or flaking of
the surface.
Serious
A heavy deposit of salts accompanied by powdering and/or

flaking of the surface and tending to increase with repeated
wettings of the specimen.
36
2.8.6

In the British Standard (BS 3921:1985) bricks are classified as Low (L) and
Normal (N) indicated by the salt content. The normal category (N) assumes no limit
on soluble salt content while the low category (L) should have salt content not
exceeding the values given in Table 2.18.
Table 2.18:
Maximum salt content for the low category (L)

in accordance to British Standard (BS 3921:1985)
Soluble salts
Maximum content %
Sulphate
Calcium
Magnesium
Potassium
Sodium
0.5
0.3
0.03
0.03
0.03
The Singapore Standard (SS 103:1974) specifies a total salt content of 1%

and 2% for Facing and Common bricks respectively. In addition, the Standard also
specifies the content of sulphuric anhydride (SO3), which should not exceed 0.3%
by mass for all the three grades of bricks classifications.
The Australian standard (AS 1225 - 1984) and the ASTM do not include any
requirements for soluble salt content. However, a test to determine the resistance of
bricks to salt attack is given in the Australian Standard, AS/NZS 4456.10:1997. In
this test, specimens are subjected to cycles of soaking in salt solution, oven drying
and cooling. The specimens are then weighed to determine the total mass lost and
this is used to define the salt attack resistance categories i.e. exposure, general
purpose and protected.
The recent European Standard prEN 771-1 designate soluble salt content in
bricks in terms of category of application i.e. S0, S1 and S2 as shown in Table 2.19.
S0 is suitable for completely dry applications, S1 is for normal exposure condition
and S2 is meant for masonry structures subjected to prolonged saturation. There is
no requirement for salt limits in the S0 category of application. An example of such
37
application is in rendered walls where protection from water and moisture
penetration is provided by the layer of plaster applied on bricks surfaces.
Table 2.19:
Soluble salt content categories in accordance to

European Standard (prEN 771-1)
Category
Total % by mass not greater than

Na+ + K+
Mg 2+
S0
No requirement
No requirement
S1
0.17
0.08
S2
0.06
0.03
There is no limit given by the pr EN 771-1 on the sulphate content and it was
noted in the standard that consideration on this may be dealt with in national design
codes. There is no requirement for calcium and potassium and sodium is given in
combined form.
2.9 Tests Methods and Measurements in International Standards

2.9.1
Methods of Sampling for Tests in International Standards

Bricks to be tested are to be selected at random from a lot. A lot consists of
the whole population of bricks to be tested. The bricks selected from the lot would
constitute the samples, which are representative of the bricks population. Methods of
sampling and sample size i.e. the number of bricks in a sample could vary from one
standard to another. American Standard specifies the lot size for samples (for the
compressive strength and absorption determinations) as 250,000 brick. For larger
lots 5 bricks are to be selected from each 500,000 brick. The British Standard
limited the lot size as not greater than 15,000 bricks. The lot size was not specified
exactly in the Australian Standard (AS/NZS 4456.1:1997). It states that:
For testing a lot, the sample shall comprise masonry units selected
as representative from an identifiable lot and the test results shall
apply to that lot.
38
The sample size required for the various tests differs according to the
standard requirements as illustrated in Table 2.20.
Table 2.20:
Sample size for tests in international standards

Number of bricks required for tests in standards
BS 3921
ASTM
Tests
AS/NZS
SS 103
PrEN 771-1
4456
Compressive strength
10
10
10
10
Cumulative dimensions
24
20
24
Individual dimensions
24
10
20
24
10
Water absorption
10
10
10
10
10
10
Efflorescence
10
10
10
10
Salts content
10
10
10
10
Initial rate of suction
Density
The British Standard adopts a larger number of sample size for dimensional
tests whilst the number of bricks were kept to 10 for testing other parameters. The
Singapore Standard and Malaysian Standard were derivations from British Standard,
therefore similarity in the number of bricks used in the respective tests. The ASTM
and Australian/New Zealand Standard are based on metrics, therefore sampling was
based on 5 and 10 units respectively. The European Standard is more consistent in
that all tests are restricted to 10 bricks.
2.9.2
The Compression tests used for determining the brick compressive strength
are carried out differently for various standards (Table 2.22). For example, the
packing materials used are different for test conducted in accordance to BS and
ASTM. Whilst the BS used plywood, the ASTM favours the use of hard capping
made of gypsum and sulphur. Conversely, the European Standard requires bricks
surfaces to be grounded to parallel tolerance before testing.
39
The rate of loading applied to the bricks differ in each standard, and could
vary throughout each test, except for AS/NZS, which adopt a constant loading
method.
The calculation of compressive strength also differs among the standards. BS
3921, ASTM C67 and SS 103 based their calculation on gross area. On the other
hand, AS/NZS 4456 compute the compressive strength based on net area, which
gives a higher value of compressive strength compared to calculation using net area.
In general, the ASTM implement an entirely different test approach
including the number of specimens, curing condition and capping material in
comparison to others.
2.9.3
Water Absorption
Table 2.23 shows the comparisons of the test and measurement methods used
in determining the water absorption of bricks in the various standards. British and
Singapore Standard only adopted the 5-hours boiling test, whereas ASTM specified
both the 5-hours boiling and the immersion tests. These two tests are required for the
determination of the saturation coefficient, which is the ratio of absorption by 24-hr
immersion in cold water to that of the 5-hr boling.
The Malaysian Standard MS 76:1972 allows two alternative methods to
measure water absorption i.e. the 5-hours and the vacuum method, which is similar
to the earlier version of the British standard. However, in BS 3921:1985 only the 5hours boiling test is specified since research has shown that there is no simple
relationship between these two methods and results of the two tests could be
different.
The European standard prEn 771-1 specifies the 24-hr water immersion test
to determine water absorption. Water absorption measured by the 24 hr immersion
40
would apparently show a lower value of water absorption in comparison with the 5hr. boiling test.
A new method of test for water absorption was introduced recently (Khalaf
and DeVenny, 2002). In this test, 20 mm-brick lumps instead of full brick units were
used. Table 2.21 shows the comparison of results between whole brick and the 20mm brick lump for the 24-hr cold immersion and the 5-hr. boiling tests. The results
showed that the5-hrs boiling test underestimates the absorption of bricks. In
addition, results for the 5-hr boiling test were almost equivalent to the 24-hr cold
immersion for the brick lump and in this respect; the saturation coefficient could not
be measured. However, it should be noted that the test for cold immersion was
carried out after bricks were vacuum. The advantage of this new test is that it could
be conveniently carried out without the necessity of big tanks for boiling of whole
bricks and thus saving on the fuel consumption.
Table 2.21: Comparison of water absorption from 5-hr boiling and the
24-hr cold immersion tests using whole brick and brick lumps
(Khalaf and DeVenny, 2002)
Brick type
Class B
Engineering
Clay 10-hole
Clay 3 slot
and 8 hole
Clay frogged
common
Granite
Water
absorption of
brick units BS
3921 (5-hr boil)
(%)
6.0
Water
absorption of
brick units (24hr cold) (%)
Water
absorption of
brick lumps (5hr boil) (%)
Water
absorption of
brick lumps
(24-hr cold) (%)
5.2
6.3
6.2
6.2
4.6
7.4
7.2
5.8
5.3
7.4
7.4
12.9
10.3
14.1
11.5
2.63
2.55
2.63
2.55
Besides implementing the different types of test for the measurement of

water absorption there are also some differences observed in the number of bricks
used and preparation of specimens before testing. ASTM requires five half-brick
while AS/NZS and BS specify the use of 10 whole bricks. Another difference is in
the duration for attaining constant mass when drying bricks in the oven. BS 3921
41
assumes 48 hours of heating in the oven to achieve constant mass whereas the
AS/NZS and ASTM monitor the weight loss during drying and constant mass is
assumed if subsequent drying indicate that the change in mass is not greater than
0.1 % of the previous weight for the AS/NZS and 0.2 % for ASTM.
2.9.4

Table 2.24 shows the comparisons of test and measurement methods for the
initial rate of suction as required by the various standards. The tests principles are
similar in all standards, whereby bricks capillary suction is measured by immersing
bricks in about 3 mm depth of water for a duration of 1 minute. The ASTM and the
Australian Standard specify some means to set up the apparatus in maintaining water
level to the required height of immersion.
In the Australian / New Zealand Standard (AS/NZS 4456:1997) IRS are
given in terms of Anet and Agross as shown in Table 2.24. The ASTM specified that
the IRS measured for cored bricks should be modified with a factor depending on
the net area of immersion, which will result in a higher value of IRS compared with
calculation based on gross area. The BS on the other hand based its IRS calculation
on the gross area of immersion.
2.9.5
Methods of testing to determine dimensional tolerances vary between the
standards (Table 2.25). British, Australian/New Zealand, Malaysian and Singapore

standard specify dimensional tolerance measured from the cumulative dimensions of
specified numbers of bricks, whereas, ASTM and European standard specify an
individual brick dimensional tolerance. Other variations include the numbers of
bricks required for the cumulative dimensions and the methods of measuring the
tolerance.
42
ASTM based their tolerance on a sample of 10 bricks and each brick should
not depart from the specified size by more than the tolerance given in the standard.
While, the British and Singapore standard establish the tolerance limits based on two
approaches namely (i) individual dimension (ii) the overall measurement for 24
bricks. While AS/NZS, tolerance limit is based on overall measurement of 20 bricks.
The European standard specifies an entirely different dimensional tolerance
limit based on the mean and range values for a sample of 10 bricks according to the
different categories. The mean deviation refers to basic requirement and constitute a
minimum description of a unit whilst the range is only required when relevant to the
needs of application. In addition, European standard also specified some geometry
requirements for bricks to be used in elements subjected to acoustics requirements.
2.9.6
Efflorescence
The test for efflorescence in existing standards involved cycles of wetting
and drying of bricks in laboratory after which they are examined for the salts
depositions on the surface. The procedures for quantifying efflorescence differ
between the standards (Table 2.26). British standard and Australian/New Zealand
standard categorise efflorescence into levels in accordance to the degree of
contaminants. In contrast, the ASTM quantify efflorescence in bricks either simply
effloresced or not effloresced. The new amendments made to BS 3921 in 1995
ignored the effects of efflorescence. Similarly, European Standard prEN 771-1 does
not specify any requirement for efflorescence in bricks.
Table 2.22:
Test
Standards
Test methods and measurements for compressive strength in international standards

Sample
size
BS 3921
Appendix. D
10
(Whole
brick)
ASTM C6790a
5
(Half
brick)
AS/NZ
4456:1997
PrEN 771 1
10
(Whole
bricks)
10
(Whole
bricks)
Preparation of
specimen
Speed of testing
Capping material
Immerse brick in
water for 24 hrs or
saturate by boiling
Convenient rate not

exceeding 35
N/(mm2.min) until half of
expected max. load after
that reduces to 15
N/(mm2.min) until failure.
Soft capping: three-ply

4mm thick plywood
Maximum load
smaller bed of the overall dimension
Dry specimen in
the oven for not
less than 24 hrs.
Convenient rate until

about half of expected
maximum load after that
uniform rate.
Hard capping:
Gypsum
Sulphur
Maximum load
Average of gross area of upper
and lower bearing surfaces
Moisture content
as sampled
Constant rate within a

range equivalent to a
stress of 150 kPa/s (9
N/mm2.min) to 700 kPa/s
(42 N//mm2.min)
Soft capping:
4 -6 mm plywood
12mm fibreboard
Not available
No capping needed.
Surfaces ground to a
parallel tolerance
Bricks tested dry
calculations
1000 P
A
where, K a = aspect ratio factor
Unconfined C = K a
A = net area
Not available
43
Table 2.23:
Test
Standards
BS 3921
Appendix. E
/SS 103
ASTM C6790a
AS/NZ
4456.14:
1997
prEN 771 - 1
Test methods and measurements for water absorption in international standards
Sample
size
10
(Whole
brick)
5
(Half
brick)
10
(Whole
bricks)
10
(Whole
bricks)
Type of
test
5-hour
boiling
test
Determination of dry mass

Drying in oven (110 8C) for at
least 48 h. Cooling bricks left
unstacked in a ventilated room for
4 h, with 2 h of continuous air
using an electric fan. Dry mass is
determined when bricks are cool.
i) 5-hour
boiling
and
ii) 24-hour
immersion
test.
Drying in oven (110 to 115C

for not less than 24 h and until two
successive weighing at intervals of
2 hrs. show an increment of loss
not greater than 0.2% of previous
weight. Cooling in a room
temperature maintained at 24
8C, relative humidity 30 70%.
Record the average dry mass of all
specimens as Wd.
i) 5-hour
boiling
and
ii) 24-hour
immersion
test.
Drying in oven (110 8C) until

consecutive weighing at intervals
of 4 hrs show a change in mass of
not greater than 0.1 %. Record the
lowest average weight for all
specimens at room temperature as
the dry mass m1.
24-hour
immersion
test.
Not available
Test procedures
5-hr.boiling Bricks are boiled in a tank of
water for 5 hrs. Then are cooled naturally in the
water for not less than 16 hours nor more than
19hrs.Then take the weight (wet mass).
Immersion test submerge cool bricks in clean

water at 15.5-30C, for 24 h. Then remove
specimens wipe dry and weigh. Record the
average weight of all specimens as Wsc.
5-hr.boiling bricks are boiled in a tank of
water for 5 hrs. Then cool naturally to 15.530C. After that remove specimens wipe dry and
weigh. Record the average weight of all
specimens as Wsb.
Immersion test submerge cool bricks in clean
water at ambient temperature, for 24 h. Then
remove specimen wipe dry and record the
average mass of all specimens as m2.
5-hr boiling bricks are boiled in a tank of
water for 5 hrs. Then cool naturally to 15.530C. Then take this saturated weight and record
the average mass of all specimens as m3.
Not available
Calculation of water absorption
(wet mass-dry mass)

%
dry mass
Average of 10 specimens to the
nearest 0.1%.
100
Absorption by immersion:
=(Wsc-Wd)/ Wd
Absorption by boiling:
=(Wsb-Wd)/ Wd
(Saturation coeff. = absorption by
immersion / absorption by boiling)
Absorption by immersion:
Wi (%) = 100(m2-m1)/ m1
Absorption by boiling:
Wb (%) = 100(m3-m1)/ m1
Saturation coefficient = Wi / Wb
Not available
44
Table 2.24:
Test
Standards
BS 3921
Appendix. H
ASTM C6790a
Test methods and measurements for initial rate of suction in international standards
Sample
size
Not
specified
5
(Whole
brick)
AS/NZS
4456.17:
1997
10
(Whole
brick)
prEN 771 - 1
10
(Whole
bricks)
Preparation of specimen
The bricks are dried in the oven

as in absorption test. The weight
of the dry brick is recorded as
m1 in gm.
Test procedures
The dry brick is immersed in water at a depth

of 3 1mm for 1 min. Record this weight m2 in
gm.
i) Oven drying as in absorption

test or
ii) Ambient air drying

of 3 1mm for 1 min. Record this weight as
m2 in gm.
The weight of the dry brick is

recorded as m1 in gm.
Some means of maintaining water level at a

depth of immersion of 3 1mm is provided in
the standard.
Bricks are dried in the oven as in

absorption test. The weight of the
dry brick is recorded as m1 in gm.

of 3 1mm for 60 1 sec. Record this weight
m2 in gm.
A set up of the apparatus suggesting a way of
maintaining immersion at depth of 3 1mm is
provided in the standard.
Initial rate of suction calculations

1000(m2 m1 )
in kg/m 2 . min .
A
where A= gross area of the immersed face
IRS =
of the brick in mm 2
IRS = m1 m2 in gm.
IRS is measured in gm/min/30 in2.
For cored bricks the measurement of
IRS i.e. m1 m2 has to be multiplied
with a factor of
IRS gross =
30
.
net area
1000(m2 m1 )
Agross
1000(m2 m1 )
Anet
2
IRS (kg/m .min) for each brick and mean of
the 10 specimens.
IRSnet =
Not available
45
Table 2.25:
Test methods and measurements for dimensional tolerance in international standards

Measurement of dimensional tolerance
Test
Standards
Individual brick dimension
Cumulative (overall dimension)

1.
BS 3921
Appendix. A
ASTM C6790a
1. Each brick from the 24 bricks for the

cumulative measurements must not
exceed the coordinating size as given
in Table 2.9.
1.
Each brick from the 10 bricks in a

sample should not vary from the
specified allowable dimensional
tolerance as given in Table 2.8
2.
Tolerance on distortion and out

of square is also specified for
facing bricks.
No cumulative dimension specified
1.
AS/NZS
4456.17:
1997
Cumulative dimensions of 24 bricks must not exceed the

specified range for length width and height as indicated in
Table 2.9. The cumulative measuremen is based on the
assumption that each brick should not differ from the work size
by more than 6.4mm for
length, 4mm for width and height.
1.
Each brick from the 20 bricks should

comply with the general criteria as
given in Table 2.7.
Cumulative dimensions of 20 bricks must not exceed the

specified range for length width and height for the three
categories (Table 2.10). These categories identify bricks
tolerance requirements:
ST0 bricks no required to be precise in dimensions
ST2 bricks manufactured to finer tolerance for special
application
ST3 bricks where regularity in size is necessary.
46
Table 2.25 (cont.):

Test
Standards
PrEn 771-1
Test methods and measurements for dimensional tolerance in international standards

Measurement of dimensional tolerance
Individual brick dimension
1.
Cumulative (overall dimension)
Mean dimensions for the test sample should not be greater than
declared means for categories T1, T2 and T0
Where,
T1: 0.40 (work size dimensions ) mm or 3 mm whichever is greater
T2: 0.25 (work size dimensions ) mm or 2 mm whichever is greater
T0: a deviation in mm declared by the manufacturer.
No cumulative dimension specified
2.
The declared range should be within the range determined

within the test sample for the categories R1, R2 and R0
Where,
R1: 0.60 (work size dimensions ) mm
R2: 0.30 (work size dimensions ) mm
R0: a range in mm declared by the manufacturer.
47
Table 2.26:
Test
Standards
BS 3921
Appendix. C
*
ASTM C6790a
AS/NZS
4456.6:
1997
prEn 771-1
Test methods and measurements for efflorescence in international standards
Specimen
Numbers
10
(Whole brick)
5 pairs
(Whole brick)
5 pairs
(Whole brick)
Test procedures
Measurements of efflorescence
One face of the brick is subjected to 2 cycles of wetting and

drying for the specified time. Then examined for
efflorescence by comparing this face with the other faces
that is not subjected to the wetting and drying cycles.
Levels for efflorescence as shown in Table 2.7. Bricks are

categorised according to the worst occurrence. Bricks with
Heavy efflorescence are considered as not complying with
the standard.
One specimen from each pair is allowed to stand on ends

partially immersed in water for 7 days. The other pair is
kept in a room with specified humidity and temperature.
Then dry both sets in oven for 24 hrs. After that compare
and examine both sets for efflorescence.
Efflorescence is recognised as either effloresced or not

effloresced
One specimen from each pair is allowed to stand on ends

partially immersed in water for 7 days then air dry for 2
days. After that compare and assessed with respect to a
matching brick.
Levels for efflorescence as shown in Table 2.13. Bricks are

categorised according to the worst occurrence. Bricks
exposed to view should not exceed slight.
No requirements
*Note: Efflorescence test has been removed from BS 3921 (AMD 8946/December 1995)
48
49
2.10
Conclusions
A considerable amount of past research and studies on masonry indicated the
relationship between masonry strength and unit strength. An example of such

relationship developed by Hendry (Equation 2.1 and 2.2) and is used in the code for
masonry design (BS 5628:1985). The compressive strength is therefore one of the
most important bricks properties for design requirements, and dealt by
specifications.
The compressive strengths of bricks can vary from 5 N/mm2 to over 100
N/mm2, depending upon materials and types of manufacturing and to some extent
are affected by the methods of testing in evaluating the compressive strength.
Malaysia Standard / British Standard identifies its clay bricks as Engineering A and
B (compressive strength ranging from more than 70 N/mm2 to not less than 50
N/mm2) for structural purposes and as All others for strengths above 5 N/mm2. On
the other hand, ASTM classifies bricks into three categories i.e. building, facing and
hollow, with a minimum compressive strength of 20.7 N/mm2 and 17.2 N/mm2 to be
used in regions of severe (SW) and moderate weathering (MW) respectively. Grade
NW bricks with minimum compressive strength of 10.3 N/mm2 is meant for
applications in regions with negligible weathering. Singapore Standard defines
bricks as First, Second and Third Grade in accordance to the levels of compressive
strengths, with a minimum value of 5.2 N/mm2 for general purpose construction.
The methods of testing compressive strength are known to affect the
computed values obtained in standards. The usage of soft capping specified by the
British and Australian/New Zealand Standard is believed to reduce platen restraints.
Platen restraint induces artificial strengthening thereby enhancing the compressive
strength. Hard capping is used in ASTM and European Standard prEN 771-1 uses no
capping material, however requires the surfaces to be ground parallel and free of
irregularities.
The British, ASTM, Malaysian and Singapore standards based the evaluation
of compressive strength upon bricks tested on bed faces with the exception of
Australian/New Zealand, which accommodate the compressive strength for tests in
50
other orientations, producing a different height to thickness ratio (h/t) depending on
the bricks orientation in the tests. The aspect ratio, h/t, has a considerable effect on
the compressive strength, the higher the ratio the least is the compressive strength.
Subsequently, bricks tested on the bed face (lowest h/t ratio) display the largest
compressive strength. The development of European specification for masonry units,
prEN 771-1 introduces similar test methods to Australian/New Zealand Standard,
but the strength limits are to the discretion of the manufacturers declared values. The
EN and Australian approach of defining the unit strength in various orientations
provide a comprehensive information on the unit and this is useful for structural
design purposes.
Amongst others the compressive strength of units are affected by the curing
methods. Previous research; tend to indicate higher strength for dry bricks as high as
15 % greater than cured bricks. Evaluation of compressive strengths by ASTM and
European Standard was based on dry bricks in contrast to British, Malaysian, and
Singapore standards, which cured the bricks by saturating them in cold immersion or
by boiling. On the contrarily, Australian/New Zealand Standard carried out the
compressive strength on bricks as received i.e. the bricks having a moisture content
as sampled. However, if the bricks moisture content exceeds 25 %, air-drying is
required.
Most masonry standards dictate the requirements of water absorption for
bricks with structural applications and cases where resistance to water and moisture
penetration are critical. For example, in British Standard BS 3921: 1985 low water
absorption limits is specified for Engineering A and B and damp-proof course 1 and
2 bricks with water absorption of 4.5 % and 7.0 % respectively. Bricks for other
applications than those already mentioned are not restricted to any water absorption
limits. Similarly, masonry specification in ASTM C 62-89a, ASTM C 652-89a and
ASTM C 216-90a specified limits for water absorption of bricks with high levels of
compressive strengths where applications are specifically for severe and moderate
weathering regions. For negligible weathering regions bricks are not required to
conform to any limits of water absorption.
51
The Australian Standard, AS 1225-1984, is a general standard for all
masonry materials and does not specify limits for water absorption however has
included test methods for determining these values. The European Standard for
masonry units (pr EN 771-1), specifies water absorption requirements for bricks to
be used in external applications and the value is as declared by the manufacturers.
Recent research indicated the existence of some relationship between water
absorption to bricks porosity and compressive strength. The research revealed that
bricks with the least water absorption and small porosity produce higher
compressive strengths and this relationship could be used as an early indicator for
compressive strength. Other studies carried out on the relationship of water
absorption and bricks porosity had established durability indices, which provide
guideline for resistance of masonry against the freeze and thaw actions. These
indexes provide limits that can be used to identify durable and non-durable bricks.
The two types of test methods used for measuring water absorption i.e. the 5hours boiling and 24-hours cold immersions are known to give different
measurements. The 5 hours boiling test provides results for saturated conditions,
while the 24 hours cold immersion gives partial saturation. The prEN 771-1 requires
water absorption of bricks to be determined by the 24 hours cold immersion test,
hence producing a lower value of water absorption measurement.
The IRS is the rate at which a brick sucks water from mortar during laying
and therefore affects the bond strength between units and mortar. The suction
properties are crucial to the design of walls subjected to lateral load particularly in
highly stressed masonry structures. The IRS does not form an integral part of the
specifications for both the Australian/New Zealand and British Standards. However,
testing method to determine IRS is provided by the standards. On similar grounds
the European standard pr EN 771-1, requires IRS to be specified for relevant cases
of applications and the value of IRS to be declared by the manufacturer. In contrast,
ASTM requires the IRS values for bricks to be known and recommends that bricks
to be wetted before laying if the IRS is higher than 30 g/min per 30 in2 (1.5
kg/min/m2). The practice of wetting bricks before laying ensures proper bond
development between mortar and the highly absorptive bricks. In highly stressed
52
structures a good bond between mortar and bricks is essential to prevent the
occurrence of cracks in mortar joints and thus enhancing the water-tightness
property of facing brickwork.
The dimensions and tolerances of bricks are used to describe and designate
masonry units in standards. Dimensional variations are expected due to the
shrinkages in the natural clay deposits, which take place during drying and burning
processes. The standards specified dimensional tolerances to restrict these variations
in satisfying the required construction criteria. For facing bricks, dimensional
control is more stringent for wall appearance and lesser for other applications. Most
standards specify dimensional tolerances according to the types of masonry
construction.
There are two approaches of measuring dimensional tolerances in standards,
namely the individual and cumulative dimension of a set of bricks. In the recent
European Standard dimensional tolerance are specified in terms of the mean and the
range from a sample of 10 bricks and this should be within the range defined in the
specified categories. The dimensional tolerance determined from cumulative
dimensions of a set of bricks as given by Australian Standard AS 1225:1984,
Malaysian Standard MS 76 Part 2:1972 and British Standard BS 3921:1985 helps to
offset the individual brick dimensional variation, which maybe useful in determining
variation within and between batches of bricks delivered on site.
Efflorescence, that appear on the surfaces of bricks after construction, is
usually not harmful to a masonry structure but unsightly in facing brickwork. These
white stains indicate the presence of soluble salts in bricks. The test method for
efflorescence in all standards involves simple laboratory works and measurements
and evaluations of efflorescence are based on visual inspection. The test seems not
related to the field exposure that a brick is exposed to in a masonry structure.
Furthermore, with the introduction of limits for soluble salt content in all bricks, the
efflorescence requirement was considered as unnecessary and had been omitted by
the British Standard and the new European standard. However, this test is being used
by manufacturers to indicate the soluble salt content in bricks and its liability to
efflorescence.
53
Recent global development in standardisation works particularly in Europe
has brought about some significant changes to masonry standards. The British
Standard, upon which the existing Malaysian standard is based on, will soon be
replaced by the harmonised European Standard prEN 771-1 specifications for
masonry units. The new standard introduces some modifications to the BS 3921,
which include new test methods and requirements criteria, prompted by research
discovery and new technological development in masonry. A study on the
performance of local bricks is therefore timely to provide comprehensive
information on bricks considered relevant to the current construction industry and
market and design requirements pertaining to modern construction.
CHAPTER 3
LABORATORY TESTS ON PHYSICAL

PROPERTIES OF BRICKS
3.1
Introduction
This chapter examines the physical properties of the bricks. Laboratory
investigations were performed on samples of bricks at the Structural Laboratory of

the Faculty of Civil Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. Tests were
conducted to examine dimensional tolerance, density, initial rate of suction, water
absorption, compressive strength, soluble salt content and efflorescence.
3.2
Sampling of Bricks
Sampling is a process involving the collection of bricks at random to make
up a sample to represent the population of bricks used in this research. The number
of specimens in a sample i.e. the size of sample (n) is the number of bricks required
for any tests. Sampling was carried out at a brick factory, which is considered a
major producer of brick in the country. The factory has a monthly production
capacity of 10,000,000 units of bricks and it is also a major exporter of bricks to
counties in Asia like Japan and Singapore.
55
Two categories of bricks comprising of the facing brick and the common
brick were sampled at random from the factory output. Facing bricks are quality
bricks with attractive external appearance and common bricks are meant for general
building works that do not require external look. Random selection means that every
brick must have a probability of being selected. However, this was found to be quite
impossible at times when bricks were in big piles making it difficult to reach and
acquired. Four factory visits were made and for each visit a batch of approximately
100 pieces of facing bricks and 40 pieces common bricks were selected. A batch is a
collection of bricks acquired at every visit.
3.3
Testing Programme
The testing programme (Table 3.1) shows the extent of the work detailing the
total number of batches used for the laboratory investigations including the number
of samples in every batch for the various tests. The test procedures and the sample
size (n), i.e. number of bricks required in every sample for testing of dimensional
tolerance of 24 bricks, Initial rate of suction (IRS), absorption, compressive strength,
soluble salt content and efflorescence were generally in accordance to BS 3921:
British Standard Specifications for Clay bricks (1985), with the exception of the
density test which were done with reference to the AS/NZS 4456.8:1997.
The tests were performed in sequence as shown in Figure 3.1, such that it
will optimise the quantity of sample used in the investigation. For example, each test
will commence with dimensional measurements, and the same 10 bricks be tested
for density, IRS, absorption and compression. The fragments from the compressive
strength will then be used for testing of soluble salt content. The efflorescence test
was conducted separately on another 10 bricks from each batch of samples.
The series of tests shown in Figure 3.1 were performed for the facing bricks,
which are referred to as structural bricks. The common bricks were only tested for
their compressive strengths. Structural bricks entailed design calculation which
requires the compressive strengths of units to be known, for this reason, it is
56
essential to examine the strengths characteristics and other physical properties.
Hence, the properties of facing bricks need to be investigated in this case. On the
other hand, common bricks, which are meant for general building works do not
require specification on the properties except for its compressive strength. Thus,
they are only tested for this particular property. Compressive strength test was
carried out on common bricks to examine the variation of strengths in order to
categorise the brick into their strengths classification. Efflorescence, which tends to
affect external appearance may be considered insignificant for common bricks as
they are usually used for infill walls with plastered surfaces. The water absorption
property may also not be considered essential in this case since the plaster may help
in resisting water penetration into a wall to a certain degree.
24 bricks
Dimension
10 bricks
10 bricks
Density
Initial rate of suction
Absorption
Soluble salt content
Figure 3.1:
Sequence of testing
Efflorescence
Table 3.1:
Testing programme
100 facing
bricks
40 common
bricks
2 13/6/2001 100 facing
bricks
40 common
bricks
3 25/7/2001 100 facing
bricks
40 common
bricks
4 19/9/2001 100 facing
bricks
40 common
bricks
Total samples for all batches
1
26/4/2001
Number of
bricks
sampled in a
batch
Date of
sampling
Batch
Number of samples per batch for the various tests

Dimensional tolerance
Overall
Individual
dimension
dimensions
(n = 24)
(n = 6)
2
8
Density
Initial rate
of suction
Water
Absorption
Compressive
strength
Soluble salt
content
Efflorescence
(n = 10)
(n = 10)
(n = 10)
(n = 10)
(n = 10)
(n = 10)
12
16
16
16
14
56
27
27
27
3
8
3
8
3
8
3
30
12
57
58
3.4
Dimensional tolerances were measured from the respective length, width and
height of overall dimension of 24 bricks and individual brick dimension. Tests were
conducted on 24 bricks to examine the dimensional tolerance in accordance to BS
3921. The 24 bricks were selected at random from a batch of 100 bricks. For the
measurement of overall lengths, the bricks were placed in two rows, each of 12
numbers, on a flat surface in the laboratory. Measurements were made using an
inextensible steel tape. The measurements for the two rows were added to give the
overall dimension of length for 24 bricks. Measurements of width and height were
taken for 24 bricks in a row. A long steel channel, aligned against the row of bricks
ensured that bricks were arranged in a straight line (Figure 3.2). For individual
dimensions the vernier calliper were used in which a measurement to two decimal
places was recorded. The results for the overall dimension of length, width and
height are shown in Table 3.2. Table 3.3 shows the individual dimension for length
width and height in the samples. The complete tabulation of results for the
individual dimensions in each specimen is shown in Appendix A1.
Table 3.2: Overall dimensions of 24 bricks
Batch
1
Batch
2
Batch
3
Batch
4
Sample
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
Length
(mm)
5240
5254
5216
5263
5241
5243
5175
5218
5185
5178
5203
5211
5210
5213
Width
(mm)
2415
2410
2408
2426
2421
2419
2405
2412
2413
2397
2416
2400
2409
2414
Height
(mm)
1638
1646
1648
1651
1650
1653
1628
1640
1625
1634
1638
1643
1643
1644
59
Table 3.3:
Individual brick measurement of length, width,

and height for all batches
Sample
Length (mm)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
218.43
218.43
216.58
218.03
216.57
217.68
217.68
219.08
216.64
215.53
216.13
216.35
218.01
217.67
217.68
218.82
216.78
218.97
216.66
217.74
219.05
217.49
216.29
217.97
215.74
214.62
215.09
214.67
215.43
216.26
214.71
215.71
215.19
215.45
215.13
215.10
216.06
214.98
214.77
215.18
216.42
216.23
215.63
215.09
215.09
215.69
215.72
216.18
216.92
214.57
216.83
217.00
215.83
215.36
216.14
216.28
216.42
1.912
Batch 1
Batch 2
Batch 3
Batch 4
Mean x
Std. dev. s
Width (mm)
Height (mm)
100.20
99.79
99.00
99.63
98.96
99.81
99.97
99.91
99.93
99.31
99.33
98.85
100.41
100.27
99.83
100.73
99.77
100.89
99.76
100.22
100.22
101.03
99.81
99.97
99.73
99.53
99.81
99.90
99.67
100.45
99.38
100.27
99.39
99.99
99.03
98.70
99.82
99.22
99.59
100.17
100.23
99.78
99.63
98.89
98.73
99.43
99.13
99.15
100.23
99.01
100.03
99.73
99.96
99.48
100.27
99.80
99.73
1.116
67.08
67.23
67.45
67.19
66.37
67.16
67.91
68.01
68.18
67.83
68.06
67.67
68.18
67.25
67.67
68.81
67.60
68.95
68.18
68.10
68.08
68.57
67.86
67.89
67.80
66.93
67.09
67.08
67.43
67.67
67.37
67.54
67.35
67.23
66.93
67.05
67.04
66.83
66.96
67.08
67.70
67.53
67.41
67.13
67.28
67.43
66.58
67.58
67.35
67.03
67.53
67.01
68.28
67.19
67.43
67.46
67.48
0.888
60
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 3.2:
Overall Measurement of (a) length, (b) width

and (c) height for 24 bricks
61
3.5
Density
The bricks density was measured in accordance to AS/NZS 4456.8, since BS
3921 does not provide for such testing specification. However, this is a new
requirements in the European Standard for which bricks are to be tested. Ten bricks
were selected from the 24 bricks used for dimensional testing. Each brick was
labelled with numbers for example 51, 27, 4899 (Table 3.4) using permanent
waterproof ink for identifications. The weight of each brick was taken to represent
the ambient mass i.e. the mass at the time of measurement, mo. The bricks were then
immersed in water for 2 hours, then removed from the water and allowed to drain
for not more than 1 min. Any excess water on the surface were then removed by
wiping with a cloth. The brick was then weighed and the mass recorded i.e. m1.
After that, the brick was placed in an apparatus to measure its submerged mass, m2.
These procedures were repeated for all 10 bricks.
The device used to measure submerged mass of bricks throughout the testing
programme is shown in Figure 3.3. This device was an existing unit used previously
for measuring the density of concrete cubes in the laboratory. It consists of a water
bath and an attached steel cage to hold the specimens under investigations. The steel
cage is connected to a digital weight indicator. Upon lowering the cage and
specimen, the readings of submerged mass will be indicated by the digital indicator.
Based on Archimedes principle the submerged mass were used to evaluate the
volume.
Volume was calculated using submerged mass as stated in equation 3.1.
V (mm ) = ( m1 m2 ) 1000
3
(3.1)
Where,
m1 = mass of wet brick in gram.
m2 = submerged mass of brick in gram.
The volume is then used to calculate the ambient density Da using equation 3.2.
Density ( Da ) =
mo
1000000 in kg/m3
V
(3.2)
62
Where,
mo = ambient mass in gram.

An example of the test results for density determined for bricks of Batch 1 is
shown in Table 3.4. A complete tabulation of results for tests carried out throughout
the research is given in Appendix A2.
Sample 3
Sample 2
Sample 1
Table 3.4:
Density of bricks for Batch 1
Brick
Identification
Ambient
mass
( m0 ) gm.
Mass after
2 hours
soaking
( m1 ) gm.
Immersed
mass
( m2 ) gm.
51
27
48
67
32
6
19
22
50
9
2395
2440
2400
2435
2390
2395
2335
2410
2475
2365
2630
2590
2620
2650
2630
2600
2470
2610
2690
2600
1270
1270
1270
1300
1280
1260
1220
1260
1310
1250
1360000
1320000
1350000
1350000
1350000
1340000
1250000
1350000
1380000
1350000
36
44
43
64
38
45
62
30
70
66
2435
2455
2325
2460
2400
2450
2455
2355
2440
2430
2690
2640
2570
2670
2600
2680
2670
2560
2620
2630
1300
1280
1240
1300
1270
1300
1300
1250
1290
1280
1390000
1360000
1330000
1370000
1330000
1380000
1370000
1310000
1330000
1350000
85
92
41
96
87
43
91
42
81
99
2315
2305
2390
2510
2420
2385
2270
2420
2465
2405
2520
2530
2680
2770
2650
2680
2490
2640
2690
2650
1230
1230
1250
1350
1300
1290
1200
1290
1330
1310
1290000
1300000
1430000
1420000
1350000
1390000
1290000
1350000
1360000
1340000
Volume (V)
V=(m1m2)*1000
mm3
Density (Da)
(mo/V)*1,000,000
kg/m3
1761.03
1848.48
1777.78
1803.70
1770.37
1787.31
1868.00
1785.19
1793.48
1751.85
Mean x = 1794.719
Std. dev. s = 37.030
1751.80
1805.15
1748.12
1795.62
1804.51
1775.36
1791.97
1797.71
1834.59
1800.00
Mean x = 1790.483
Std. dev. s = 25.923
1794.57
1773.08
1671.33
1767.61
1792.59
1715.83
1759.69
1792.59
1812.50
1794.78
Mean x = 1767.456
Std. dev. s = 43.169
63
Figure 3.3: Apparatus for the measurement of density
3.6

The bricks used for density tests were retested for the initial rate of suction.
Initially the bricks were dried in a ventilated oven for two and a half days at a
temperature of 110 C. In accordance to BS 3921 constant mass is assured if bricks
are subjected to heating at 110 C for not less than 48 hours. The bricks were
removed from the oven and cool to room temperature for a period of approximately
4 hours. Cooling was assisted by passing air over the bricks using an electric fan for
a period of 2 hours. Upon cooling, the bricks were weighed and the dry mass md
recorded.
In the tests a large shallow rectangular pan of size 600mm 600mm giving,
an area of 0.36m2 was used. Two 10mm steel bar were placed at the bottom of the
pan at approximately 100 mm apart, to form a platform for the bricks to rest during
measurement process (Figure 3.4). The steel bar was firstly immersed with water to
a depth of about 3mm. The pre-weighed dry brick was placed on the bar whilst the
water level is closely observed with a measuring gauge to ensure that depth of the
immersion for the brick was maintained at 3 1mm throughout the duration of
immersion, 1 minute. After 1 minute, the brick was removed from the water and
excess water wiped off with a damp cloth. The brick was reweighed and the mass
64
mw recorded. These procedures were repeated for 10 bricks. Some typical results for
Batch 1 are shown in Table 3.5 and others can be found in Appendix A3. The initial
rate of suction due to gross area of immersion (IRSgross), in kg/m2.min is calculated
using equation 3.3a.
IRS gross =
1000(mw md )
Agross
(3.3a)
Where,
md
is the mass of the dry brick in gram.
mw
is the mass of the wet brick in gram.
Agross is the gross area of the immersed face of the brick in mm2.
The IRS for net area of immersion (IRSnet) was determined as shown in
equation 3.3b.
IRS net =
1000(mw md )
Anet
(3.3b)
Where,
Anet is the net area of immersion i.e. gross area less the area of perforations.
Precautions were taken so that the limits of immersion remained at 3 1mm
as required by BS 3921. The size of pan used in this testing programme was 0.36m2
in area and this did not cause a significant drop in water level after a subsequent test
was conducted at the immersion limits recommended by BS 3921. The minimum
size of the tank recommended by AS/NZS 4456 is 0.25m2.
The role of the pan size here is not considered very significant, for as long as
the tests were conducted in accordance to the depth of immersion and the duration of
absorption (1 min.). The larger the pan, the smaller the drop in water level and the
less frequent to top up the level to 3 1mm limit. The BS 3921 does not specify the
size of the pan. ASTM C67 specifies that pan should be at least 0.19 m2.
Additionally, the Brick Institute of America through its Technical Note 39,
recommended a pan size of 0.19m2 and observations on bricks with IRS
40g/min./30in.2, equivalent to 2.05 kg/min.m.2, only caused a water level drop of
less than 0.25mm. In this regards, this is hardly measurable.
65
Figure 3.4:
Apparatus for measuring the initial rate of suction
Sample 3
Sample 2
Sample 1
Brick
identifica
Table 3.5:
16
2
11
4
9
17
19
3
7
8
1
12
10
18
6
15
5
20
14
13
35
69
63
37
68
40
29
41
71
39
Dry
mass,
md
(gm)
2445
2390
2415
2370
2435
2430
2440
2435
2415
2410
2380
2420
2485
2430
2410
2465
2460
2410
2370
2370
2410
2420
2435
2400
2430
2410
2410
2415
2440
2440
Wet
mass
mw
(gm)
2485
2420
2450
2400
2485
2465
2490
2455
2450
2435
2410
2455
2515
2450
2445
2500
2490
2435
2400
2410
2440
2455
2490
2425
2470
2445
2445
2450
2485
2475
Initial rate of suction in samples for Batch 1
Length
(mm)
221.15
216.50
218.30
216.05
221.45
220.05
220.10
217.55
217.10
216.60
216.55
217.95
218.60
216.30
217.00
216.30
217.50
217.50
217.75
217.50
217.30
217.35
216.95
216.40
208.50
217.00
217.25
217.10
218.10
216.95
Width
(mm)
100.75
98.80
99.70
98.30
102.25
100.75
100.10
98.80
100.00
99.80
99.55
99.75
99.65
97.95
99.80
99.15
99.65
99.15
99.65
99.90
99.20
99.70
99.25
99.25
101.20
99.25
99.65
99.60
100.05
99.35
Immersed
area,
Agross
(mm2)
22280.86
21390.20
21764.51
21237.72
22643.26
22170.04
22032.01
21493.94
21710.00
21616.68
21557.55
21740.51
21783.49
21186.59
21656.60
21446.15
21673.88
21565.13
21698.79
21728.25
21556.16
21669.80
21532.29
21477.70
21100.20
21537.25
21648.96
21623.16
21820.91
21553.98
IRSgross
(kg/m2.min)
1000
(m w md )
A
1.795
1.403
1.608
1.413
2.208
1.579
2.269
0.930
1.612
1.157
1.392
1.610
1.377
0.944
1.616
1.632
1.384
1.159
1.383
1.841
1.39
1.62
2.55
1.16
1.90
1.63
1.62
1.62
2.06
1.62
Immersed
area, Anet
(mm2)
IRSnet
(kg/m2.min)
18905.86
18015.20
18389.51
17862.72
19268.26
18795.04
18657.01
18118.94
18335.00
18241.68
2.116
18182.55
1.650
18365.51
1.906
18408.49
1.630
17811.59
1.123
18281.60
1.914
18071.15
1.937
18298.88
1.639
18190.13
1.374
18323.79
1.637
18353.25
2.179
18181.16
1.650
18294.80
1.913
18157.29
3.029
18102.70
1.381
17725.20
2.257
18162.25
1.927
18273.96
1.915
18248.16
1.918
18445.91
2.440
18178.98
1.925
1000
( mw md )
A
1.665
1.903
1.679
2.595
1.862
2.680
1.104
1.909
1.370
66
3.7
Water Absorption (5-hours boiling test)

The same 10 bricks used for initial rate of suction tests were used for water
absorption test. The dry mass md , were as recorded earlier in the initial rate of
suction test.
A large urn was used to accommodate two sets of samples comprising of 20
bricks (Figure 3.5). The bricks arranged in two tiers with spaces in between bricks
and tiers, were boiled for 5 hours and then allowed to cool naturally in the water for
about 18 hours. A minimum of 16 hours and a maximum of 19 hours of cooling
period were recommended by BS 3921. Each brick was weighed and the saturated
mass ms , recorded. Water absorption W, in percentage was calculated using the
following equation 3.4.
W % = 100
(ms md )
md
(3.4)
Where,
md is the dry mass

ms is the saturated mass
The experimental results for Batch.1 were shown in Table 3.6. Detailed
results for other bricks can be found in the Appendix A4.
Figure 3.5:
Apparatus for water absorption test
67
Brick
identification
Dry mass
md (gm)
Saturated mass
ms (gm)
7
5
1
13
8
14
4
20
19
10
2415
2460
2380
2370
2410
2370
2370
2410
2440
2485
2670
2710
2640
2670
2640
2645
2625
2665
2775
2745
Sample 2
2
9
11
3
15
17
12
18
6
16
2390
2435
2415
2435
2465
2430
2420
2430
2410
2445
2590
2760
2665
2650
2700
2720
2675
2625
2690
2740
39
69
35
41
37
29
40
68
63
71
2440
2420
2410
2415
2400
2410
2410
2430
2435
2440
2695
2685
2680
2695
2655
2685
2670
2745
2735
2710
Sample 1
3.8
Water absorption of bricks for Batch 1
Sample 3
Table 3.6:
W (Water
absorption)%
( m md )
100 s
md
10.559
10.163
10.924
12.658
9.544
11.603
10.759
10.581
13.730
10.463
Mean x = 11.098
Std. dev. s =1.248
8.37
13.35
10.35
8.83
9.53
11.93
10.54
8.02
11.62
12.07
Mean x =10.461
Std. dev. s =1.772
10.45
10.95
11.20
11.59
10.63
11.41
10.79
12.96
12.32
11.07
Mean x =11.337
Std. dev. s =0.248
The bricks were tested for their compressive strength by imposing the bricks
to compression load until failure. The compressive machine used in the laboratory
was the Tonipact, with a capacity of 3000 kN. The machine was calibrated at the
early stage of the duration of the study.
68
In this work a study on the effects of compressive strengths of facing bricks
if tested in different orientations i.e. on its bed, stretcher and header face (Figure 3.7)
were conducted. Common bricks were only tested on their bed face.
Compressive strength tests were carried out on the same bricks after the
absorption test. Thus, the bricks were assumed to be fully saturated resulting from
the 5-hour boiling. To reduce friction caused by irregularities of the surface of the
bricks to be loaded, the bricks, placed in the machine were packed between two
pieces of plywood sheets, cut about 10mm bigger all round than the dimensions of
the brick. A fresh piece of plywood was used for every test.
In the test procedure, British Standard specifies that the rate of loading can
be gradually increased at a convenient rate not exceeding 35 N/mm2 until half of the
anticipated maximum load. Thereafter, the rate could be smoothly reduced to 15
N/mm2 and this rate to be maintained until failure. Although a higher rate of loading
could be used before half of the expected failure load, a constant rate of 15 N/mm2
were applied throughout the test in this work. A higher rate of loading was allowed
merely to reduce the time of testing and it is explained in the BS that higher rate of
loading at this stage has no influence on the ultimate strength. Therefore, a constant
rate of loading of 15 N/mm2 used throughout the test was justifiable. At failure the
brick collapsed and the machine stopped automatically. The maximum load was
recorded and the strength calculated by dividing the maximum load with the area of
the face subjected to loading i.e. bed face (length width), stretcher face (length
height) or the header face (width height). These areas used in the calculation were
based on the smaller of the two opposite faces.
Some typical results of compressive strengths of common bricks and facing
bricks for Batch. 1 are shown in Table 3.7 and 3.8 respectively. Example of results
for bricks tested on the stretcher face and header face are shown in Table 3.9 and
3.10 respectively. The complete results for compressive strengths are shown in
Appendix A5
69
Figure 3.6:
Compressive machine -Tonipact 3000
Figure 3.7 a: Bricks tested on bed face
Figure 3.7 b: Bricks tested on stretcher face
70
Figure 3.7 c: Bricks tested on header face

Table 3.7:
Compressive strength of common bricks for Batch 1 tested on bed

face
Sample 2
Sample 1
Length Width
(mm) (mm)
Area 1
(mm2)
Length Width
(mm) (mm)
Area 2
(mm2)
216.10
215.90
217.50
218.55
217.85
217.25
217.95
219.20
218.80
219.00
99.25
97.45
100.05
99.15
98.95
100.80
99.65
101.25
100.85
100.65
21447.93
21039.46
21760.88
21669.23
21556.26
21898.80
21718.72
22194.00
22065.98
22042.35
216.20
215.50
217.45
219.05
217.70
217.25
217.70
219.25
219.45
219.50
99.50
97.45
100.25
99.95
101.45
101.20
100.25
100.40
101.20
101.50
21511.90
21000.48
21799.36
21894.05
22085.67
21985.70
21824.43
22012.70
22208.34
22279.25
214.75
214.25
215.50
214.55
214.9
216.55
216.00
216.25
216.20
215.70
100.00
100.75
100.80
100.25
100.75
100.75
100.25
100.50
100.75
100.40
21475.00
21585.69
21722.40
21508.63
21651.17
21817.41
21654.00
21733.12
21782.15
21656.28
215.70
213.85
215.55
215.50
215.10
216.25
216.45
216.15
216.25
215.50
99.75
100.00
100.75
99.45
100.70
100.95
101.00
100.15
101.45
99.90
21516.07
21385
21716.663
21431.475
21660.57
21830.438
21861.45
21647.423
21938.563
21528.45
Smaller Maximum Compressive

area
load Kn. Strength
(mm2)
N/mm2
21447.93
825.30
38.48
21000.48
829.30
39.49
21760.88
631.30
29.01
21669.23
866.30
39.98
21556.26
671.30
31.14
21898.80
791.30
36.13
21718.72
546.30
25.15
22012.70
866.30
39.35
22065.98
613.30
27.79
22042.35
750.30
34.04
Mean x = 34.06
Std. dev. s = 5.47
21475.00
850.0
39.58
21385
813.0
38.02
21716.66
783.0
36.05
21431.48
582.0
27.16
21651.18
855.0
39.49
21817.41
730.0
33.46
21654
543.0
25.08
21647.42
786.0
36.31
21782.15
745.0
34.20
21528.45
695.0
32.29
Mean x = 34.16
Std. dev. s = 4.90
71
Sample 3
Table 3.7 (cont.)

216.20
215.90
216.50
217.75
217.85
217.35
218.20
218.75
218.80
219.00
99.05
97.00
100.25
99.25
98.35
100.20
99.15
101.05
100.85
100.65
21414.61
20942.30
21704.13
21611.69
21425.55
21778.47
21634.53
22104.69
22065.98
22042.35
216.20
215.50
217.45
219.05
217.70
217.25
217.70
219.25
219.45
219.50
99.35
97.45
100.30
99.95
101.25
101.20
100.25
100.40
101.20
101.50
21479.47
21000.48
21810.24
21894.05
22042.13
21985.70
21824.43
22012.70
22208.34
22279.25
21414.61
20942.30
21704.13
21611.69
21425.55
21778.47
21634.53
22012.70
22065.98
22042.35
830.00
38.76
790.00
37.72
636.00
29.30
840.00
38.87
567.00
26.46
794.00
36.46
543.00
25.10
833.00
37.84
614.00
27.83
749.00
33.98
Mean x = 33.23
Std. dev. s = 5.49
Table 3. 8: Compressive strength of facing bricks for Batch. 1 tested on the

bed face
Sample 2
Sample 1
Length Width Area 1

(mm) (mm) (mm2)
Length Width Area 2

(mm) (mm) (mm2)
216.10 98.50 21285.85 216.20 98.50 21295.70

212.85 100.00 21285.00 217.85 99.90 21763.22
217.75 99.35 21633.46 217.90 99.65 21713.74
218.95 99.95 21884.05 218.75 99.65 21798.44
219.50 100.55 22070.73 219.40 100.75 22104.55
217.25 99.40 21594.65 217.10 99.85 21677.44
219.50 100.25 22004.88 220.10 100.20 22054.02
217.20 99.80 21676.56 217.45 99.65 21668.89
215.20 97.60 21003.52 215.55 98.20 21167.01
216.60 98.70 21378.42 216.30 98.65 21338.00
217.05
219.25
217.30
219.90
217.50
217.55
216.95
217.50
217.00
217.00
100.50
101.00
99.50
101.45
99.85
99.10
99.25
99.55
100.00
99.40
21813.53
22144.25
21621.35
22308.86
21717.38
21559.21
21532.29
21652.13
21700.00
21569.80
218.15
219.50
217.35
220.50
217.05
217.70
217.00
217.10
217.20
216.45
100.75
101.10
99.45
101.35
100.05
99.00
99.15
99.50
99.85
99.25
21978.61
22191.45
21615.46
22347.68
21715.85
21552.30
21515.55
21601.45
21687.42
21482.66

area load Kn. Strength
N/mm2
(mm2)
21285.85 894.10
42.00
21285.00 988.80
46.46
21633.46 944.90
43.68
21798.44 1036.90
47.57
22070.73 840.90
38.10
21594.65 820.90
38.01
22004.88 776.90
35.31
21668.89 913.90
42.18
21003.52 694.90
33.08
21338.00 844.90
39.60
Mean x = 40.60
Std. dev. s = 4.66
21813.53 1064.30
48.79
22144.25 957.30
43.23
21615.46 964.30
44.61
22308.86 977.00
43.79
21715.85 1091.90
50.28
21552.30 1106.00
51.32
21515.55 1113.00
51.73
21601.45 1187.00
54.95
21687.42 965.00
44.50
21482.66 1159.90
53.99
Mean x = 48.72
Std. dev. s = 4.40
72
Table 3. 9:
Compressive strength of facing bricks tested on the stretcher face
Sample 1
Length Width
(mm) (mm)
218.00
217.00
217.55
217.25
217.10
217.95
216.85
218.00
216.50
217.70
Table 3.10:
Area 1 Length Width

(mm2) (mm) (mm)
67.50 14715.00
67.30 14604.10
64.50 14031.98
67.75 14718.69
68.35 14838.79
66.90 14580.86
67.30 14594.01
67.10 14627.80
67.90 14700.35
67.75 14749.18
Sample 2
3.9
67.45
66.75
64.50
68.00
68.00
67.00
68.00
66.00
68.00
67.75
Compressive strength of facing bricks tested on the header face
Length Width Area 1

(mm) (mm) (mm2)
101.10
99.65
100.85
100.10
100.00
98.55
100.15
100.10
96.45
98.60
214.90
216.50
217.30
217.00
217.15
217.50
216.85
217.65
216.50
217.00

load
Strength
area
(Kn.)
N/mm2
(mm2)
14495.01 14495.01
570.00
39.32
14451.38 14451.38
569.00
39.37
14015.85 14015.85
488.00
34.82
14756.00 14718.69
573.00
38.93
14766.20 14766.20
581.00
39.35
14572.50 14572.50
540.00
37.06
14745.80 14594.01
538.00
36.86
14364.90 14364.90
529.00
36.83
14722.00 14700.35
544.00
37.01
14701.75 14701.75
490.00
33.33
Area 2
(mm2)
68.95
68.05
67.25
67.85
68.75
67.95
67.30
68.20
67.70
67.95
6970.85
6781.18
6782.16
6791.79
6875.00
6696.47
6740.10
6826.82
6529.67
6699.87
Length Width Area 2

(mm) (mm) (mm2)
101.55
99.91
100.65
100.15
99.95
97.25
100.25
99.85
98.55
99.00
68.42
68.00
67.00
67.77
68.30
67.55
67.85
68.25
68.05
68.30
6948.05
6793.88
6743.55
6787.17
6826.59
6569.24
6801.96
6814.76
6706.33
6761.70

load
Strength
area
N/mm2
(mm2) (Kn.)
6948.05
18.50
2.66
6781.18
27.00
3.98
6743.55
23.60
3.50
6787.17
26.70
3.93
6826.59
15.60
2.29
6569.24
29.70
4.52
6740.10
24.30
3.61
6814.76
20.80
3.05
6529.67
27.90
4.27
6699.87
28.40
4.24

Fragments of 10 bricks from the compressive strength test were randomly
selected to represent the exterior and interior of the bricks to make up the sample for
tests on soluble salts content. The sample was prepared by the crushing method as
given in BS : 3921 1985. About 25 gm. of ground brick passing sieve size 150 m.
were then collected as the sample and dried in the oven at 110 C.
73
The chemical test to determine the soluble salt content was carried out in the
laboratory of the Science Faculty of the Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. The soluble
salt comprises of water-soluble salts of calcium, magnesium, sodium and potassium
and acid-soluble sulphate. The acid-soluble sulphate was extracted in accordance to
the methods found in BS 3921 Appendix B.3.1 and the water-soluble salts,
Appendix B.4.1.
Sulphate was determined by the gravimetric method as described in BS
3921, Appendix B.3.2.2. In this traditional analytical process sulphate was
precipitated, filtered, and finally burned in a crucible. The mass of the acid soluble
sulphate M in gram was determined using equation 3.5 (BS 3921:1985). Results
showing the percentage of sulphates present in the various samples are shown in
Table 3.11.
M = 0.4115 ( m1 m0 )
(3.5)
Where,
m0 is the mass of the crucible in gm.

m1 is the mass of the crucible and burnt precipitate and paper in gm.
Table 3.11: Percentage of sulphate content in the samples from all batches
Sample
Batch 1
Batch
2
Batch
3
Batch
4
1
2
1
2
3
1
2
3
4
1
2
3
Mass of
precipitate
in gm.
( m1 m0 )
Mass of
sample,
0.0049
0.0045
0.0056
0.0031
0.0045
0.0010
0.0043
0.0020
0.0010
0.0011
0.0009
0.0009
2.6889
2.5288
2.4917
2.0387
2.0255
2.0315
2.0224
2.0224
2.0465
2.0819
2.0371
2.0072
Mass of sulphate
M = 0.4115 ( m1 m0 )
0.00202
0.00185
0.0023
0.00128
0.00185
0.00041
0.00177
0.00082
0.00041
0.00045
0.00037
0.00037
Percentage of
sulphate in
sample
M
100%
W
0.07
0.07
0.09
0.06
0.09
0.02
0.09
0.04
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
74
Calcium, magnesium, sodium and potassium were determined by the

instrumental method. The instrument used was the atomic absorption spectroscopy
(AAS) called GBC Avanta PGF 3000 Spectrometer. The AAS, which measures the
presence of metals in liquid samples works on the principal of atomising a sample
and quantitatively determining the concentration of atoms in the gas phase by
measuring the intensity of light absorbed. The schematic presentation of the process
is shown in Figure 3.8.
Flame
Light
source
Photomultiplier
Sample
Monochromator
Atomizer-burner
Figure 3.8:
A schematic diagram of an atomic absorption

spectrometer (Hammer, 1996)
Before testing the samples in the AAS, calibration curves for the salts of
calcium, magnesium, sodium and potassium were determined. This was carried out
by running standard solution, with known concentrations of the respective salts, on
the AAS and observing the absorbance readings from AAS (Table 3.12, 3.14 and
3.17). The salts concentrations (x) were plotted against the absorbance (y) to produce
calibration curves for each salt and the relationship between absorbance and
concentration were determined as shown by the equations in Figures 3.9, 3.10 and
3.11 for calcium, sodium and potassium and magnesium respectively.
Salts of calcium, sodium, potassium and magnesium were extracted from the
samples as given in Appendix B of BS 3921:1985. The filtrate from the samples was
run in the AAS which gave the readings of absorbance for each salts. Using the
equations from the calibration curves and with readings of the absorbance from
75
AAS, the concentration of the salts in the samples could be determined. Tables 3.13,
3.15, 3.16 and 3.18 show the corresponding percentage of calcium, potassium,
sodium and magnesium in the samples.
Table 3.12:
Sample
label
Standard calibration data for calcium
Concentration
Mean
mg/l
Absorbance
from AAS
Blank
Replicates
0.002
0.002
0.002
0.002
Standard 1
0.202
0.203
0.201
0.202
Standard 2
10
0.41
0.409
0.413
0.41
Standard 3
15
0.618
0.615
0.619
0.62
Standard 4
20
0.814
0.811
0.81
0.82
Standard 5
25
1.023
1.023
1.023
1.023
Absorbance
1,2
1
0,8
0,6
y = 0,0409x - 0,0004
R2 = 0,9999
0,4
0,2
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
Concentration,mg/l
Figure 3.9: Calibration curve for detection of calcium
76
Batch 4
Batch 3
Batch 2
Batch 1
Table 3. 13: Percentage of calcium in samples for all batches

Absorbance
Sample from AAS,
y
Concentration, x
y + 0.0004
x=
0.0409
mg/l
Volume
of solution, v
mL
Percentage of
Weight
calcium in sample
of sample, w
xv
100
gm.
w 106
0.543
13.286
100.0
10.1117
0.013
0.580
14.185
100.0
10.3982
0.014
0.122
3.013
100.0
10.1036
0.003
0.238
5.854
100.0
10.0147
0.006
0.647
15.813
100.0
10.0549
0.016
0.414
10.147
100.0
10.0096
0.010
0.281
6.904
100.0
10.0337
0.007
0.450
11.023
100.0
10.0844
0.011
0.284
6.977
100.0
10.0238
0.007
0.311
7.636
100.0
10.0161
0.008
0.390
9.562
100.0
10.0294
0.009
0.420
10.293
100.0
10.0366
0.010
Table 3.14:
Sample
Label
Standard calibration for sodium and potassium

Sodium
Potassium
Concentration
Mean
Concentration
Mean
mg/l
Absorbance
mg/l
Absorbance
from AAS
from AAS
0.004
Blank
0.002
Standard 1
0.222
0.172
Standard 2
0.44
0.338
Standard 3
0.681
0.514
Standard 4
0.887
0.682
Standard 5
1.099
10
0.865
77
Absorbance
1,2
y = 0,2201x + 0,0055
2
R = 0,9993
y = 0,0865x - 0,0048
R2 = 0,9998
0,8
0,6
0,4
0,2
0
0
10
12
Concentration Mg/l
Sodium
Potassium
Figure 3.10: Calibration curve for detection of sodium and potassium
Batch 4
Batch 3
Batch 2
Batch 1
Table 3. 15: Percentage of potassium in samples for all batches

Absorbance
Sample from AAS,
y
Concentration, x
y + 0.0048
x=
0.0865
mg/l
Volume
of solution, v
mL
Percentage of
Weight potassium in sample
of sample, w
xv
100
gm.
w 106
0.282
13.286
100.0
10.1117
0.003
0.276
14.185
100.0
10.3982
0.003
0.549
3.013
100.0
10.1036
0.006
0.743
5.854
100.0
10.0147
0.009
0.623
15.813
100.0
10.0549
0.007
0.297
10.147
100.0
10.0096
0.003
0.511
6.904
100.0
10.0337
0.006
0.399
11.023
100.0
10.0844
0.005
0.290
6.977
100.0
10.0238
0.003
0.352
7.636
100.0
10.0161
0.004
0.356
9.562
100.0
10.0294
0.004
0.367
10.293
100.0
10.0366
0.004
78
Absorbance
Sample from AAS,
y
Concentration, x
y 0.0055
x=
0.2201
mg/l
Volume
of solution, v
mL
Weight
of sample, w
gm.
Percentage of
sodium in sample
xv
100
w 106
0.587
2.642
100.0
10.1117
0.003
0.427
1.915
100.0
10.3982
0.002
0.791
3.569
100.0
10.1036
0.004
0.546
2.456
100.0
10.0147
0.002
0.564
2.537
100.0
10.0549
0.003
0.316
1.411
100.0
10.0096
0.001
0.574
2.583
100.0
10.0337
0.003
0.355
1.588
100.0
10.0844
0.002
0.332
1.483
100.0
10.0238
0.001
0.538
2.419
100.0
10.0161
0.002
0.498
2.238
100.0
10.0294
0.002
0.374
1.674
100.0
10.0366
0.002
Table 3.17: Standard calibration for magnesium

Sample
label
Concentration
mg/l
Mean
Absorbance from
AAS
0.001
Blank
Standard 1
0.176
Standard 2
0.349
Standard 3
0.514
Standard 4
0.701
Standard 5
0.887
Absorbance
Batch 4
Batch 3
Batch 2
Batch 1
Table 3. 16: Percentage of sodium in samples for all batches
0,8
0,6
y = 0,1774x - 0,0068
0,4
R = 0,9993
0,2
0
0
Concentration mg/l
Figure 3.11: Calibration curve for detection of magnesium
79
Concentration, x
Absorbance
y + 0.0068
Sample from AAS, x =
0.1774
y
mg/l
Volume
of solution, v
mL
Weight
of sample, w
gm.
Percentage of
magnesium in
sample
xv
100
w 106
0.476
2.722
100.0
10.1117
0.003
0.29
1.673
100.0
10.3982
0.002
0.428
2.451
100.0
10.1036
0.002
0.57
3.251
100.0
10.0147
0.003
1.069
6.064
100.0
10.0549
0.006
0.694
3.950
100.0
10.0096
0.004
0.588
3.353
100.0
10.0337
0.003
0.747
4.249
100.0
10.0844
0.004
0.573
3.268
100.0
10.0238
0.003
0.477
2.727
100.0
10.0161
0.003
0.513
2.930
100.0
10.0294
0.003
0.832
4.728
100.0
10.0366
0.005
3.10
Efflorescence
Batch 3
Batch 2
Batch 4
Batch 1
Table 3. 18: Percentage of magnesium in samples for all batches
Ten bricks were required for the efflorescence test. Each brick was covered
with plastic sheet around the three sides, leaving one side exposed to the atmosphere
(Figure 3.12). A wide mouth bottle filled with distilled water was then inverted on
top of this exposed surface for a duration of 48 hours. The bottle should always
contain water and toped up whenever necessary. After 48 hours, the bottle was
removed and the exposed surface left to dry for 9 days in the laboratory conditions.
A warm place in the laboratory with natural air circulating was selected for this
purpose. This procedure was repeated but for the second time a drying period of 16
days was allowed. After these cycles of wetting and drying the exposed surface of
each specimen was examined for efflorescence. Efflorescence was rated in
accordance to the bricks that showed maximum effects.
80
Figure 3.12:
Efflorescence test
CHAPTER 4
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF TEST SPECIMENS
4.1
Introduction
This chapter presents the theoretical approaches to statistical calculations and
methods of sample analyses in deriving estimates of population representation.
4.2
General Approach for Analysing Samples

In principle, the processing of sample data involves several steps. The first
step is usually to describe data characteristics by showing its averages and

dispersion. Data could be represented graphically by the histograms and frequency
curve. Besides showing data distribution, the histogram and frequency curve
provides selection on the probability functions to be used as a mathematical model
in deducing the estimate of population mean from samples.
In a typical statistical analysis, before any estimates could be accepted,
results from samples have to be tested and this is referred to as hypothetical testing.
Quality control charts developed from normally distributed data could be regarded
as a form of hypothetical testing (BS 2846:Part 1:1991- Guide to statistical
interpretation of data). In this graphical form, a quick assessment could be made to
detect the homogeneity of data.
82
The analysis of variance (ANOVA) is another form of statistic hypothetical
testing. In an ANOVA, the F-test is carried out to test the null hypothesis (N.H.) of
no significance difference between variances in samples. From the ANOVA the
components of variance could be analysed and the best estimate of population
variance derived.
4.2.1
Description of Data
A group of observations or data is usually described by computing its
descriptive statistics comprising of its averages which include the mean, median and
mode and its dispersion, consisting of the standard deviation, variance and the range.
The sample mean shows the average value of data in a sample, given by
Equation 4.1 (Bland, 1985)
Sample Mean x =
n
i =1 i
(4.1)
For a set of n values x1 , x2 ,...xn

Where,
x= the measurements or observations
n= the numbers of observations.
The median and the mode are also averages that described the sample. The
median in a set of data is the central observation, the values being ranked in order of
size. In other words, half of the data will have a value less than the median, and the
other half of the data will have a value greater than the median.
Mode is a value that occurs with the greatest frequency. A comparison of the
mean and median and mode can reveal information about skewness of the
distribution curve as illustrated in Figure 4.1.
83
The spread of the data or the dispersion can be measured by the standard
deviation, range, variance and the coefficient of variation (c.v.). These
measurements show the variation of each data from their mean. Variance and
standard deviation is computed using equation 4.2 and 4.3 respectively (Bland,
1985). The standard deviation for a sample is a square root of the variance and is
more often used to describe data. The standard deviation has an advantage over the
variance since it has the same unit as the variable tested. The c.v. given in equation
4.4 is a measurement of relative dispersion since it is given on a percentage basis.
Range (equation 4.5), is the difference between the highest and the lowest data. It is
a quick way of analysing data variation. However, its use is limited to small sample
only since it is obtained from two extreme values without giving consideration on
other data in the range.
The range and standard deviation are related so that for any given value of
observations n, an estimate of the standard deviation, sestimate can be made from the
mean value of sample range R (equation 4.6).
n
2
(x x )
Sample variance, s 2 = i =1
n 1
Sample standard deviation, s =
Coefficient of variation, c.v. =
n
2
( xi x )
i =1
n 1
s
100 %
x
(4.2)
(4.3)
(4.4)
Range, R = max xi min xi
(4.5)
sestimate = R d (BS 2846: Part 1, 1991)
(4.6)
Where,
d is a coefficient based on the number of observations n, given in Appendix
B Table B3.
84
Frequency
Mode
Value of observation
Median
Mean
Figure 4.1:
Mean, median and mode in a distribution

skewed to the right
4.2.2 Histograms and Normal Distribution Curve

Histograms are statistical graphs showing frequency of data where horizontal
axis and vertical axis represent the class interval (i) and the frequency respectively.
In a histogram, if the number of data were increases, the number of classes will
increase and subsequently the class widths decreases. As a result the histogram
approaches a smooth curve, thus called the frequency distribution curve.
Past observations revealed that most physical measurements could be
approximated to a normal distribution curve (Chatfield, 1979, Paradine and Rivettes,
1960); the approximation improves as number of variables increased. In virtue of the
central limit theorem, we can assume that data would eventually approach a normal
distribution for greater number of data. The normal distribution function also known
as normal probability density functions is given by equation 4.7 (Grimm, 1988).
f ( x) = (2 ) 1 2 exp ( x x ) / 2s
(4.7)
85
Where,
f ( x) = normal probability density function for a sample. This refers to the

height of an ordinate at a distance x x from the mean.
s = standard deviation of sample.
Equation 4.7 is transformed to the standard normal distribution function by
putting z = ( x x ) s as shown by equation 4.8 (Grimm, 1988).
f ( z ) = ( 2 )
1 2
exp ( z 2 2 )
(4.8)
Where,
f ( z ) is the normal probability density function for a sample in terms of z.
The computed frequency illustrated in the form of a histogram is given by equation
4.9 (Grimm, 1988).
y = ni f ( z ) s
(4.9)
Where,
n= number of samples
i= number of units in a class interval
s= standard deviation of sample
The integration of equation 4.8 between any values of z produces the normal
probability function, i.e. the area under the curve between the stated values of z. The
area under the probability curve divided into hundred equal parts gives the percentile
values and a 33-percentile value divides the curve into three parts. Grimm (1988),
highlighted that values falling in the upper 33 percentile could be grouped as those
of high values. The lower 33 percentile are regarded as low values whilst normal
values are those lying in the middle third of the distribution.
4.2.3
Log-normal Distribution Curve

If distribution of data is skewed, where the mean, mode and median are not
coincident as in normal distribution then log normal distribution could be used. The
log-normal distribution is essentially the same as the normal, but with ln (x)
86
substituted for x. The log-normal has probability distribution function given by
equation 4.10. Grimm (1988) suggested that log-normal distribution is useful for
data with c.v. ( ) exceeding 30%.
f ( x) = (2 ) 0.5 ( x) 1 exp ( ln x ) / 2 2
(4.10)
0.5
= ln x (1 + 2 )
(4.11)
=s x
(4.12)
= ln (1 + 2 )
0.5
(4.13)
Where,
z = ( ln x ) 1
(4.14)
f ( z ) = (2 ) 0.5 1 exp ( z 2 2 ) z
(4.15)
y = ni f ( z )
(4.16)
Where,
y = the histogram ordinate at any value of x in the histogram,
n = number of data in the histogram,
i = x interval in the histogram,
= c.v. in decimal.
An application of this statistical analysis will be demonstrated in section 4.3
for samples used in this research.
4.2.4 Derivation of Population Estimates

Assuming that data is normally distributed, therefore the functions of the
normal distribution curve could be used to derive estimates for the population.
For a normal distribution curve the integration of equation 4.8 of the normal
curve between specified limits is a probability function, which represents the area
87
under the normal curve. The full range of this probability function could be found in
statistical table. However, limits, which are of importance to this work is shown here
in Figure 4.2. From Figure 4.2 it can be seen that approximately 70 % of sample
data will lie within the area covered by a point on each side of the mean value,
denoted by one unit of standard deviation i.e.1 . About 95 % will lie within the
area bounded by 1.96 on each side of the mean and 99 % at 3.09 from each side
of the mean. The distribution at 95 % probability is important in a production. It
provides a 95 % confidence that not more than 1 in 40 results would be below the
required specification limits. Therefore, a 95 % confidence of the population mean
can be estimated from sampling distribution using equation 4.17 (Bland, 1985).
= x 1.96 s
(4.17)
Where,
= population mean
x = sample mean
s = sample standard deviation
n = sample size
x= -3.09 x= -1.96
z=-3.09 z=-1.96
13.60 %
34 13%
13.60 %
2.14%
34 13%
f(x), f(z)
x = -1
x= 0
x=1
z=-1
z=0
z=1
Figure 4.2:
2.14%
x=1.96 x= 3.09
z=3.09
z=1.96
x
z
Areas under normal probability curve
In virtue of the central limit theorem, the estimate is good on normally

distributed data with large samples size, i.e. n greater than 30 (Bland, 1985 and
Triola, 1989). If n is smaller than 30 the distribution of sample data will follow, the t
88
distribution and value of 1.96 from equation 4.7 will be replaced by tc (the
percentage point of the t distribution which can be obtained from Appendix B Table
B2). Thus, the population estimate of the mean ( ) for a small sample is given by
equation 4.18 (Bland, 1985).
= x tc
s
n
(4.18)
The t-distribution, formulated by W.S. Gosset in 1908 has similar properties

to the normal distribution except that it has more spread about the mean as shown in
Figure 4.3. Another important feature of the t-distribution is that it has different
curves for different sample sizes. The t distribution depends on a parameter called
degrees of freedom (df) given by n-1, where n denotes the samples size.
x (Mean)
N orm al distribution
t distributio n w ith n= 20
t distribution w ith n=10
Figure 4.3:
T-distribution curves for various values of n

(Chatfield, 1978)
The sample size in this research is smaller than 30, therefore, the tdistribution was used in conjunction with equation 4.18 to arrive at the mean value
of the population. Example of these will be illustrated in section 4.3.4.
89
4.2.5
Hypothesis Testing
4.2.5.1 Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)

The analysis of variance (ANOVA) is a statistical tool developed from
normal distribution theory and is used for testing the significance difference of
several means. The ANOVA in testing a hypothesis that there is no difference in the
means between samples is called a single factor ANOVA.
A single factor ANOVA is accomplished by analysing the variance and by
partitioning the total variance into two, the component due to true random error i.e.
within samples ( MS within ) and the component due to differences between means of
several samples ( MSbetween ). These two components are compared by means of an Ftest as shown in equation 4.19.
Fcalc = MSbetween MS within
(4.19)
If Fcalc is smaller than the value of the Fcrit given in statistical table of the Fdistribution (Appendix B Table B1), then the N.H. is accepted. This implies that
there is no significant difference between the means of the several samples and
within samples and therefore, the best estimate for the variance is the total variance
from within and between samples. On the other hand if Fcalc is larger than Fcrit , then
the differences between the variance is considered significant. Therefore, the null
hypothesis of no differences between means is rejected and the alternative
hypothesis that the means are significantly different is accepted. Table 4.1 shows the
components of variance for the case when the N.H. is accepted or rejected.
90
Table 4.1: Components of variance from ANOVA
Source of Sum of
Variation Squares
(1)
Degrees of
Freedom
SS
(2)
df
(3)
Mean square When the N.H. When the N.H. is

MS
is accepted the rejected the mean
mean square is square (MS) is an
(2)(3)
an estimate of
estimate of
(4)
(5)
(6)
SSbetween df
Between SS
between
samples
No. of samples 1
Within
samples
Total specimens
SS within df
in samples No. of
samples
Total
SS within
SSbetween Total specimens

+ SS within in samples 1
Total SS
Total df
2 + c r2
c= sample size
Best estimate of
Referring to Table 4.1 of the ANOVA, when the N.H. is rejected, the mean
square (MS) is an estimate of 2 + c r2 . With c known i.e. size of sample and the
value of 2 + c r2 can be obtained from col. (4) of Table 4.1, r2 the variance
between samples can be computed. This gives the new estimate of population
variance from the ANOVA as 2 + r2 (Loveday). In this study, the ANOVA was
particularly used to derive the best estimate for the variance between and within
samples in estimating the population means.
4.2.5.2 Control Charts
Control charts are graphical techniques used mainly to assess quality of a
production in an industry since it gives a rapid indication of the population quality
and enables appropriate action to be undertaken when necessary. A process is said to
be in control if there is no significant changes in the means and standard deviation.
Thus two control charts are required, one for monitoring the mean and the other one
for monitoring the variations. Examples of control charts for means and ranges are
as shown in Figures 4.4 and 4.5 respectively.
The three basic components of a control charts (Figure 4.4) are:
(i)
A centre line, which represents the mean, for the respective mean or
range chart of samples.
91
(ii)
Statistical control limits, i.e. the upper and lower action and warning
lines. These define the constraints for variations and if exceeded
shows that the process is out of control or data is not homogeneous.
(iii)
Performance data plotted over time of production.
Two pairs of control limits are used. The first pair represents warning or
inner limits. These are set so that there is a 2.5 % probability (1 in 40) of a sample
mean having a value below the lower limit and a 2.5 % probability of its having a
value above the upper limit. The action or outer limits are set so that there is a
probability of 0.1 % (1 in 1000) of the mean falling above the upper limit and a
probability of 0.1 % of its falling below the lower limit. A process is said to be in
statistical control if only 1 out of 40 samples is found outside the warning lines and
1 out of 1000 samples outside the action lines.
Control charts could also be used to test homogeneity of data in samples (BS
2846: Part 1:1991- Guide to statistical interpretation of data). In terms of
homogeneity the occurrence of a single point outside 1 in 1000 control lines or of
more than one or two outside the 1 in 40 control lines is considered to be evidence
that data are not homogeneous.
The upper and lower warning and action lines for means are given by
equation 4.20 and 4.21.
Warning lines = x 1.96 x
(4.20)
Action lines = x 3.09 x
(4.21)
Where,
x = mean of sample means
x = standard deviation of mean

x =
s
n
(4.22)
Where s is the estimate of the population standard deviation and n the sample size.
The value s is given in equation 4.6.
s = Rd
(4.23)
92
Hence, the warning limits for the mean (MWL)= x

Putting
1.96Rd
n
(4.24)
1.96d
'
= A0.025
, the warning limit for the mean become
n
'
R
MWL = x A0.025
(4.25)
Similarly the action limits for the mean (MAL) are

MAL = x
Putting
3.09Rd
n
(4.26)
3.09d
'
= A0.001
, the action limits for the mean become
n
'
R
MAL = x A0.001
(4.27)
In the range chart, warning (RWL) and action (RAL) lines are given by
equation 4.28, 4.29, 4.30 and 4.31 respectively (BS 2846: Part 1:1991).
'
The upper RWL = D0.025
R
(4.28)
'
R
The lower RWL = D0.975
(4.29)
'
R
The upper RAL = D0.001
(4.30)
'
R
The lower RAL = D0.999
(4.31)
The control limit factors A' for mean and D ' for range can be obtained from
Appendix B, Table B4.
93
130
Upper action line

Upper warning line
Sample mean
125
Mean
120
Lower warning line
115
110
Lower action line

1
10
20
15
Sample Number
25
20
Upper action line

Upper warning line
Sample range
15
10
Mean
5
0
Lower warning line

Lower action line
1
Figure 4.4:
20
10
15
Sample Number
25
Control charts for sample means and ranges

(Neville, 1985)
4.3
Application of Statistical Methods for Samples Under Investigation

The statistical principles explained in section 4.2 were used throughout the
work for processing sample data. The statistical computations in this work were
facilitated by the computer software, Microsoft Excel 2000.
94
An example of the application of these analyses is shown here with the
results of water absorption test. The statistical process as shown in Figure 4.5 is
described below:
i)
First, the average and dispersion of data from samples in all batches
were determined through the computations of the descriptive
statistics consisting of the mean, median, mode, standard deviation,
range, and c.v. (Table 4.2).
ii)
The distribution of data was shown graphically by plotting the

histogram. Assuming data to be normally distributed a normal curve
fit was computed (Table 4.4) and the normal curve superimposed on
the histogram as shown in Figure 4.6. Using the normal probability
function the 33-percentile values were determined to identify the
distribution of data for good, medium and low values corresponding
to the upper, middle and lower 33-percentile values.
iii)
Control charts of samples means and ranges were plotted to check the
homogeneity of data. The data were examined for outliers i.e. data
not complying with control charts criteria for homogeneity and would
be regarded as not representing the population in the study and thus
ignored in the analysis of estimates.
iv)
The F-test from ANOVA was performed to test the null hypothesis
that there was no significant difference between the variances in the
samples. From the ANOVA the components of variance were used to
derive estimate of population variance.
v)
Lastly, estimates of population mean for small sample i.e. n< 30 at 95

% confidence were deduced using equation 4.18. Since the size of
samples i.e. number of specimens in a sample were less than 30 for
all the tests considered in this research therefore, equation 4.18 were
used throughout in this study.
95
Data
Descriptive statistics
Mean
Median
Mode
Standard deviation
Range
Coefficient. of variation
Histogram and
frequency curve
Assuming data to be
normally distributed
To test data
homogeneity
Control charts
Non-homogeneous
Homogeneous
Examine data
for outliers
Deriving estimates from

normal probability function
ANOVA /F-test
To test
significance of
difference in the
variance of
samples
No significance
difference in
the variance
Significant
Components
of variance
Deducing population
estimates
Figure 4.5:
Process of statistical analysis
96
4.3.1
Description and Presentation of Sample Data

Water absorption in every specimen of bricks from samples in Batches 1, 2,
3 and 4 were determined and the descriptive statistics consisting of the mean,
median, mode, standard deviation, variance, range, and c.v. for all data were
computed and tabulated (Table 4.2).
The graphical presentation of data is shown by plotting the histogram and the
normal curve fit. To plot the histogram, data were grouped into 10 classes. In
accordance to BS 2849 (Guide to statistical interpretation of data), groupings could
consist of between 10 and 20 classes. Having decided on the number of classes, the
class intervals (i) were determined. From Table 4.2, the maximum value was 14.376
and the minimum was 7.655. The range (R) is the difference between the maximum
and the minimum. If there were 10 class intervals, there were about R/10 or 0.7 units
per class interval, i.e. i = 0.7. The frequency of data occurrence against these
selected class intervals could then be determined. Data frequency distribution is
given in Table 4.3 and its histogram plotted as shown in Figure 4.6. It could be
observed from the histogram that a few range of high values were located
approximately towards the centre of the distribution and smaller values tailing on
both sides from the centre, a typical feature of a normally distributed data.
Therefore, in virtue of the central limit theorem, with greater number of data it could
be assumed that the contour of the histogram would eventually approach a normal
curve.
Since data were assumed to be normally distributed a curve normalised to fit
in the distribution were constructed. In the construction of the normal curve, the
ordinates were computed at every midpoint of the intervals in the histogram using
equation 4.9. These ordinates as shown in column 5 of Table 4.4 were used to plot
the normal curve, which is superimposed on the histogram (Figure 4.6). From the
normal curve, it was seen that the values of the mean, median and mode did not
coincide meaning that it was skewed. In cases like this, Grimm (1988) suggested
that normal curve function could still be used for the probability analysis if the c.v.
of data in the samples does not exceed 30%.
97
Coefficient of variation was found to be 11.4 % which is less than 30 % and
therefore, in accordance to Grimm do not require a log-normal function for its
probability analysis. However, a log-normal curve was plotted to verify this theory
by Grimm. The ordinates for the log-normal curve were derived using equations
4.11 through equations 4.16.These ordinates as shown in column 8 of Table 4.4 were
used to plot the log-normal curve (Figure 4.6). It was found that it almost overlap
with the normal curve. Hence, this proved Grimms theory that a log-normal curve is
only useful for data with c.v. of more than 30%.
To enhance the application of this theory further, some verifications
regarding this application for a case of higher c.v. was felt necessary. Therefore,
results for compressive strength of common bricks having a c.v. of 25.4 %, was
computed for its log-normal curve. Table 4.5 shows the computed normal and lognormal frequency at the midpoint of each interval in the histogram and with these
data, the normal and log-normal curves were drawn on the histogram (Figure 4.7). It
was found that there was a greater shift between these two curves. In order to check
the reliability of results, if probability is based on normal curve for such cases, the
33 percentile values for both the normal and log-normal curve were computed. The
33 percentile values for the normal curve were computed with the aid of the
Microsoft Excel statistical programme. As for the log-normal curve, since,
z = (ln x ) 1
Therefore, x = exp( z + )
(4.32)
The upper 33 percentile was at z = 0.4317 and lower 33 percentile was at

z = -0.4317 (From Table 4.7). Using equation 4.11 and 4.13 to calculate values of
and , x could then be determined from equation 4.32 for both the upper and
lower 33 percentile values. These values were compared against the values from the
normal curve and tabulated in Table 4.6. It was found that the differences were
relatively small, approximately 2.5%. Therefore, this verified Grimms theory that
the normal distribution probability function could be used for data with c.v. less than
30 %.
98
Table 4.2: Water absorption of specimens in each sample for facing bricks
Sample
Batch
1
Water Absorption in specimens (%)
10.56 10.16 10.92

1
8.37
13.35 10.35
2
10.45 10.95 11.20
3
11.58 12.59 10.71
4
11.83 12.93 12.22
5
10.82 13.12 12.37
6
12.03 11.45 10.85
Batch 7
2
12.36 10.36 10.12
8
11.89 12.70 11.20
9
12.01 10.37 11.63
10
13.14 11.45 12.67
11
11.89 11.30 12.05
12
9.86
8.95 11.01
13
12.37 11.16 12.21
14
11.87 11.63 10.50
Batch 15
3
7.66
10.31 11.33
16
8.84
9.18
9.27
17
10.37 10.24 11.05
18
11.15 10.82 12.09
19
8.57
13.61 11.63
20
12.61
8.64 12.14
21
10.32
9.64 11.44
22
9.31
13.14 11.98
Batch 23
4
12.29 10.95 13.03
24
12.71
8.94
9.56
25
11.70
7.93
9.34
26
12.54 12.17 12.00
27
Descriptive Statistics
Mean, x
= 11.23%
Median
= 11.35 %
Mode
= 12.25 %
Variance
= 1.649
Standard deviation, s = 1.284 %
Maximum
= 14.377
Minimum
= 7.655
Range, R
= 6.72 %
Coefficient of variation, c.v. = 11.43 %
12.66
8.83
11.59
10.80
13.79
12.43
11.60
12.37
9.65
10.03
12.10
12.70
11.40
10.55
10.30
12.03
8.80
10.29
9.35
12.40
11.74
11.08
10.36
12.61
11.69
10.06
7.92
9.54
9.53
10.63
11.57
11.13
10.87
11.74
11.56
11.56
11.70
11.03
10.49
11.77
12.12
11.08
9.67
10.13
11.51
9.86
11.04
9.67
10.62
12.74
13.48
12.36
11.65
12.67
11.60
11.93
11.41
12.03
10.40
11.49
12.33
10.65
11.94
12.79
12.25
10.52
10.21
12.83
11.79
11.36
9.59
11.91
10.11
11.47
12.09
13.99
12.94
12.44
13.39
12.09
12.40
10.76
10.54
10.79
10.83
12.40
10.04
12.21
11.99
11.12
10.29
12.15
10.38
11.55
11.12
9.15
11.55
9.25
11.41
10.24
8.47
12.03
13.33
9.31
12.75
10.69
8.58
11.33
10.58
8.02
12.96
11.25
11.18
11.93
12.98
11.53
12.75
9.40
11.14
12.74
11.95
10.66
10.84
10.30
9.12
11.41
10.45
11.64
8.61
11.10
12.74
14.38
11.76
9.23
8.83
13.73
11.62
12.32
13.37
12.44
11.26
12.95
12.25
13.15
12.15
11.76
10.43
12.25
11.31
11.71
10.84
9.49
9.46
12.17
9.97
11.78
9.86
13.52
12.11
12.67
11.05
11.46
10.46
12.07
11.07
10.58
10.91
11.20
11.93
10.45
12.02
13.55
11.52
11.29
10.78
11.01
10.00
9.84
10.37
10.57
11.41
11.69
8.25
10.03
11.34
11.91
11.13
13.02
11.76
99
Table 4.3:
Frequency distribution of data for facing bricks

Class interval
Frequency
7.555-8.255
8.255-8.955
8.955-9.655
9.655-10.355
10.355-11.055
11.055-11.755
11.755-12.455
12.455-13.155
13.155-13.855
13.855-14.555
6
15
19
24
48
59
58
28
10
3
70
Frequency
60
Log- normal
curve
50
40
Normal
curve
30
x = 11.23%
Median = 11.3%
Mode = 12.25%
s = 1.28
c.v. = 11.4%
Low<10.68 %
Normal=10.68- 11.85 %
High >11.85 %
20
10
13.855-14.555
13.155-13.855
12.455-13.155
11.755-12.455
11.055-11.755
10.355-11.055
9.655-10.355
8.955-9.655
8.255-8.955
7.555-8.255
Water absorption in percentage
Figure 4.6:
Histogram, normal curve and log-normal curve, for water

Table 4.4:
Normal and log-normal curve fit for water absorption
Normal curve
Interval
midpoint
Observed
frequency
Number of
standard
deviations, z
(x - x) s
(1)
7.905
8.605
9.305
10.005
10.705
11.405
12.105
12.805
13.505
14.205
(2)
6
15
19
24
48
59
58
28
10
3
(3)
-2.589
-2.043
-1.498
-0.953
-0.408
0.137
0.682
1.228
1.773
2.318
f ( z)
( 2 )
-1 2
exp - ( z 2 2 )
(4)
0.014
0.049
0.130
0.253
0.367
0.395
0.316
0.188
0.083
0.027
Log-normal curve
Computed frequency
ordinate, y
ni f ( z ) s
(Normal curve in Fig.
4.6 shown in red.)
(5)
2.059
7.278
19.112
37.282
54.029
58.167
46.520
27.639
12.199
4.000
Number of standard
deviations, z
( ln x - ) -1
f ( z)
( 2 )
-1
exp - ( z 2 2 ) - z -
(6)
-3.023
-2.279
-1.593
-0.956
-0.363
0.193
0.715
1.208
1.675
2.119
-0.5
(7)
0.005
0.030
0.106
0.221
0.306
0.301
0.224
0.132
0.064
0.026
Computed frequency
ordinate, y
ni f(z)
(Log-normal curve in Fig.
4.6 shown as broken line.)
(8)
0.866
5.728
19.995
41.849
57.851
56.933
42.312
24.889
12.035
4.934
100
Table 4.5:
Normal and log-normal curve fit for compressive strengths of common bricks
Normal curve
Interval
midpoint
Observed
frequency
Number of
standard
deviations, z
(x - x) s
(1)
20.35
24.35
28.35
32.35
36.35
40.35
44.35
48.35
52.35
56.35
(2)
14
11
11
14
18
24
10
13
4
1
(3)
-1.695
-1.253
-0.812
-0.371
0.070
0.512
0.953
1.394
1.836
2.277
f ( z) =
( 2 )
-0.5
exp - ( z 2 2 )
(4)
Log-normal curve
Computed
frequency
ordinate, y
ni f ( z ) s
(5)
0.095
0.182
0.287
0.372
0.398
0.349
0.253
0.151
0.074
0.029
5.025
9.630
15.191
19.721
21.071
18.530
13.412
7.990
3.918
1.581
Number of
standard
deviations, z
( ln x - ) -1
(6)
-2.126
-1.408
-0.799
-0.271
0.196
0.614
0.992
1.338
1.656
1.951
f ( z) =
( 2 )
-0.5
-1
exp - ( z 2 2 ) - z -
(7)
Computed
frequency
ordinate, y
y = ni f ( z )
(8)
0.0082
0.0243
0.0409
0.0476
0.0431
0.0328
0.0220
0.0135
0.0077
0.00423
3.9287
11.6834
19.6463
22.8401
20.6849
15.73416
10.5646
6.4784
3.7163
2.0291
101
102
30
Log-normal
curve
Frequency
25
Normal
curve
20
15
10
5
54.35-58.35
50.35-54.35
46.35-50.35
42.35-46.35
38.35-42.35
34.35-38.35
30.35-34.35
26.35-30.35
22.35-26.35
18.35-22.35
Compressive Strength N/mm2
Figure 4.7: Histogram, normal curve and log-normal curve for compressive
strength of common bricks (c.v. approaching 30%)
Table 4.6:
Comparisons of 33 percentile values from normal and log-normal

curve for compressive strength of common brick
Percentile
33
Normal curve
31.86735
Log-normal curve
31.07525
67
39.53042
38.55586
Table 4.7:
Probability that x will not be exceeded (adapted

From Grimm, 1988)
Probability, %
1
5
10
20
25
30
33.3
40
Mode
50 (median)
Mean
60
66.7
70
80
90
95
99
99.5
99.9
z
-2.3267
-1.645
-1.28
-0.842
-0.674
-0.524
-0.4317
-0.253
0
2
0.253
0.4317
0.524
0.842
1.28
1.645
2.3267
2.575
3.10
103
4.3.2
Test for Data Homogeneity

The control chart was used for testing data homogeneity. The first step in the
construction of the control chart was to divide the observations into a convenient
subgroup on a time basis. The 27 samples constitute the subgroups. The means and
ranges of each sample were then determined (Table 4.8).
The means and ranges for every sample were plotted for the respective mean
and range chart (Figure 4.8 and 4.9).The upper and lower warning limits (MWL)
and action limits (MAL) for the mean chart were determined using equations 4.25
and 4.27, respectively. With respect to the range chart, the upper and lower warning
limit (RWL), were computed from equations 4.28 and 4.29 respectively. While, the
upper and lower action limits (RAL) were determined from equation 4.30 and 4.31,
respectively. These values for control limits were shown in Table 4.9.
From the control chart for sample means in Figure 4.8 it could be seen that
there were 2 points each located outside the upper and the lower action lines. These
two points from sample 17 and 24 were considered as outliers and were assumed to
contribute to the non-homogeneity of data. Therefore, to be reasonably confident
that estimates derived from samples were representative of the population these two
data points were disregarded in the analysis of the population mean. On the other
hand, the range chart in Figure 4.9 was found to be in compliance with the
requirements of homogeneity criteria of a control chart since all the data points are
within the inner control limits (RWL). This may indicate that the production had
achieved a reasonably good control over the variance.
104
Table 4.8: Sample means and ranges for water absorption

Sample no.
1
2
10.461
5.322
11.337
2.512
11.531
2.796
11.923
3.396
11.552
3.074
12.007
2.131
11.367
2.246
11.797
3.496
10
11.393
4.145
11
11.921
2.117
12
11.379
2.362
13
10.973
3.297
14
11.534
2.279
15
10.887
2.718
16
10.489
4.374
17
9.404
1.572
18
10.822
2.452
19
10.765
2.816
20
11.048
5.137
21
10.756
4.358
22
11.141
4.355
23
11.738
4.210
24
12.592
3.430
25
11.489
4.454
26
10.464
5.088
27
11.309
4.751
Grand Mean, x
Mean Range, R
Table 4.9:
11.229
3.788
Control limits for means and ranges for water absorption
Grand mean, x = 11.229

Mean range, R = 3.788
For means
Warning lines
Action lines
x 0.202 R
=11.994, 10.464
Mean
Range
11.098
4.186
x 0.317 R
=12.430, 10.028
Lower
action line
R 0.35
= 1.326
For ranges
Lower
Upper
warning line
warning line
R 0.54
R 1.55
=2.046
=5.872
Upper
action line
R 1.94
=7.349
Water Absrption (%)

Mean
105
13,00
12,50
12,00
11,50
11,00
10,50
10,00
9,50
9,00
Upper action line

Upper warning line
Mean
Lower warning line
Lower action line
0
10
15
20
25
30
Sample Numbers
Water Absorption (%)

Range
Figure 4.8:
Control chart for mean values of water absorption
8.00
7.00
Upper action line
6.00
Upper warning line
5.00
4.00
Mean
3.00
Lower warning line
2.00
Lower action line
1.00
0.00
0
10
15
20
25
30
Sample Numbers
Figure 4.9:
4.3.3
Control chart for ranges of water absorption
Determination of Sample Variance Using the ANOVA

A single factor ANOVA at 95 % confidence was carried out on the
remaining 25 samples (Table 4.10), after ignoring the two samples i.e. sample no
17 and 24, which were found to contribute to the non-homogeneity of data. Table
4.11 shows the results from ANOVA a single factor analysis carried out using a
statistical programme by Microsoft Excel 2000. From ANOVA it was found
that Fcalc was smaller than Fcrit which indicates that the differences between the
means in the samples from the different batches were not significant and therefore
106
the N.H. is accepted. From here the best estimate for the variance derived was 1.53
as shown in column 4 of Table 4.11
Table 4.10:
Samples accounted for in the estimate of population

mean for water absorption
Sample
Batch
1
1
2
3
4
5
6
Batch 7
2
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
Batch
15
3
16
18
19
20
21
22
Batch
23
4
25
26
27
Mean = 11.247
Table 4.11:
Source of
Variation
Water Absorption in specimens (%)

10.56
8.37
10.45
11.58
11.83
10.82
12.03
12.36
11.89
12.01
13.14
11.89
9.86
12.37
11.87
7.66
10.37
11.15
8.57
12.61
10.32
9.31
12.71
11.70
12.54
10.16
13.35
10.95
12.59
12.93
13.12
11.45
10.36
12.70
10.37
11.45
11.30
8.95
11.16
11.63
10.31
10.24
10.82
13.61
8.64
9.64
13.14
8.94
7.93
12.17
10.92
10.35
11.20
10.71
12.22
12.37
10.85
10.12
11.20
11.63
12.67
12.05
11.01
12.21
10.50
11.33
11.05
12.09
11.63
12.14
11.44
11.98
9.56
9.34
12.00
12.66
8.83
11.59
10.80
13.79
12.43
11.60
12.37
9.65
10.03
12.10
12.70
11.40
10.55
10.30
12.03
10.29
9.35
12.40
11.74
11.08
10.36
11.69
10.06
7.92
9.54
9.53
10.63
11.57
11.13
10.87
11.74
11.56
11.56
11.70
11.03
10.49
11.77
12.12
11.08
9.67
11.51
9.86
11.04
9.67
10.62
12.74
12.36
11.65
12.67
11.60
11.93
11.41
12.03
10.40
11.49
12.33
10.65
11.94
12.79
12.25
10.52
10.21
12.83
11.79
11.36
11.91
10.11
11.47
12.09
13.99
12.94
13.39
12.09
12.40
10.76
10.54
10.79
10.83
12.40
10.04
12.21
11.99
11.12
10.29
12.15
10.38
11.55
11.12
9.15
11.55
11.41
10.24
8.47
12.03
13.33
9.31
10.69
8.58
11.33
10.58
8.02
12.96
11.25
11.18
11.93
12.98
11.53
12.75
9.40
11.14
12.74
11.95
10.66
10.84
10.30
11.41
10.45
11.64
8.61
11.10
12.74
11.76
9.23
8.83
13.73
11.62
12.32
13.37
12.44
11.26
12.95
12.25
13.15
12.15
11.76
10.43
12.25
11.31
11.71
10.84
9.46
12.17
9.97
11.78
9.86
13.52
12.67
11.05
11.46
10.46
12.07
11.07
10.58
10.91
11.20
11.93
10.45
12.02
13.55
11.52
11.29
10.78
11.01
10.00
9.84
10.57
11.41
11.69
8.25
10.03
11.34
11.13
13.02
11.76
ANOVA and components of variance for water absorption
Sum of Degrees Mean When the N.H. When the N.H.

Fcalc.
Fcrit.
square
of
square is accepted the is rejected the MS
From
between
(SS) freedom (MS) mean square is mean square is
F-Table
MS
within
(df)
an estimate of an estimate of
(5)
(6)
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(7)
(8)
2
2
2
c
r
24
2.1453
Between rows 51.487
2
2
329.94
225 1.4664
Within rows
1.463
1.566
Best estimate of
2
381.43
249
1.53
Total
107
4.3.4
Estimates of Population Mean

The estimates for the population mean , were determined using equation
4.18. This estimate was based on the remaining 25 samples (Table 4.10) after
ignoring data from sample 17 and 24, which were considered as not representative
of the population.
= x tc
s
n
Where,
x = mean for sample = 11.247 (Table 4.10)
tc = 2.262 (From Appendix B, Table B2)
s =sample standard deviation = 1.53 ( s 2 = 1.53 derived from ANOVA)
n = sample size = 10
= 11.247 2.262
1.53
= 10.36 to 12.13
10
The mean for water absorption in percentage was11.247 0.885 i.e. ranging
from 10.36 % to 12.13 %. Therefore, water absorption for the population falls in the
range of 10 % - 12 %.
4.4 Conclusions
In norm with the central limit theorem it is widely acknowledged that most
physical measurements could be assumed normally distributed. On this basis
therefore, the normal probability function has been used throughout this work for
processing sample data. The validity of the normally distributed assumption is
verified as shown by the results of the histogram plot for the various tests. A typical
example taken for the water absorption tests showed that most data were
concentrated about the mean and it could be assumed that the histogram would
approach a normal curve as the size of data increases. Similarly, the other results
108
comprising of the dimensional tolerance, IRS, density and compressive strength also
displayed comparable characteristics of a normally distributed data.
The population mean derived from normal probability curve is good if size
of sample is large i.e. a sample having more than 30 data. In this work, however,
there were less than 30 bricks in a sample. Hence, the sample was considered small.
Under this condition the percentage points from the t-distribution curve was used to
derive the population estimates.
Control charts are graphical techniques used mainly to assess quality of a
production. It consists of performance data plotted against the control limits, i.e. the
upper and lower action and warning lines. These control limits define the constraints
for variations and if exceeded shows that the process is out of control or data is not
homogeneous. For this research samples, which did not satisfy the homogeneity
criteria, set by these control limits were considered as not representative of the
population and were not accounted for in the derivation of population estimates.
In a normal curve, data are symmetrically distributed about the mean, i.e. the
mean, median and mode are all coincident on the curve. The histogram plotted for
data in this work reveals some skewness in the data distribution for which the mean,
median and mode were not coincident. For this case, the coefficient of variation
(c.v.) is used to indicate the reliability of the assumption of a normal curve. Grimm
suggested that the log-normal probability function would be found helpful for data
having c.v.s exceeding 30 %. In the log-normal distribution the natural logarithm is
normally distributed. With respect to this, the c.v.s determined for dimensional
tolerance, density, IRS, water absorption and compressive strengths, for facing
bricks loaded on its bed and stretcher face and common bricks were all below 30 %
and therefore did not need the log-normal probability function. However, to further
justify the appropriateness of the normal probability function application in the
analyses, the 33-percentile values for the compressive strength of common bricks
with a c.v. of 25.4 % were computed for both the normal and log-normal curves.
Results showed comparatively small differences between the two values verifying
that the normal probability function could be used for data with c.v. less than 30 %.
109
In this research samples were taken from the factory in different batches at
intervals of approximately two months. Therefore to ascertain that the differences of
the means in the different batches were not significant a single factor ANOVA was
computed. From the ANOVA the components of variance between the several
samples in the different batches were determined. The variance was then used in
arriving at the population mean.
CHAPTER 5
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
5.1
Introduction
This chapter presents results for the compressive strength, dimensional
tolerance, water absorption, initial rate of suction, density, efflorescence effects and
soluble salt content of bricks. The results were analysed and interpreted through the
process as described in Chapter IV. Comparisons and correlations of the results with
specified limits of other standards were also carried out for the purpose of
evaluation.
Results from efflorescence test and soluble salt content were deduced from
observations based on small samples and hence found not required to be analysed by
the statistical approach as described in Chapter IV.
5.2
The compressive strength of facing brick was determined with respect to the
different orientations of testing i.e. on its bed face, stretcher face and header face.
The common bricks were only tested on their bed face. The loaded area used in the
calculation of compressive strength in all cases was the gross area. However,
111
compressive strength for results tests conducted on the bed face was also compared
with results based on calculations using net loaded area. The net loaded area is the
gross area less the area of perforations.
Table 5.1, 5.2 and 5.3 show the compressive strengths of specimens in the
samples for all batches of facing bricks when tested on their bed, stretcher and
header face respectively.
Table 5.1:
Compressive strength of specimens in each sample for facing

bricks tested on bed face
Sample
Batch
1
42.0 46.5 43.7

1
48.8 43.2 44.6
2
35.6 41.8 44.7
3
36.5 41.1 48.4
Batch
4
2
56.3 41.0 57.7
5
39.9 39.0 45.8
6
61.8 59.1 54.8
7
45.5 51.1 50.3
Batch
8
3
53.5 42.1 53.8
9
48.2 52.2 52.4
10
45.4 43.2 42.6
11
51.8 35.2 47.8
Batch
12
4
64.1 48.9 40.9
13
39.4 41.5 50.1
14
Mean, x = 46.07 N/mm2
Median = 45.01 N/mm2
Mode = NA
Standard deviation, s = 8.55 N/mm2
Maximum = 72.5 N/mm2
Minimum = 27.1 N/mm2
Range, R = 45.4 N/mm2
Compressive strength N/mm2

47.6
43.8
35.8
38.5
41.8
48.6
72.5
49.9
48.5
40.6
53.5
40.0
57.8
41.6
38.1
50.3
31.0
30.6
34.1
40.4
60.0
28.8
47.7
55.5
38.4
41.9
51.2
39.8
38.0
51.3
45.5
29.4
46.5
43.3
59.5
55.4
50.4
53.5
40.4
45.3
38.5
41.2
35.3
51.7
40.6
27.1
52.0
38.7
63.6
56.6
50.7
50.2
41.2
42.4
39.2
56.6
42.2
55.0
35.5
38.3
59.0
48.8
66.1
53.1
54.5
47.0
48.8
59.0
42.7
48.6
33.1
44.5
42.9
35.6
40.0
54.6
46.8
68.4
60.7
49.9
44.3
34.0
39.5
43.5
39.6
54.0
36.2
29.7
42.1
57.6
44.4
53.2
47.7
48.7
43.6
36.1
36.8
40.6
112
Table 5.2:
Compressive strength of specimens in each sample for facing

bricks tested on stretcher face
Compressive strength of specimens N/mm2
Sample
Batch
1
39.3
39.4
34.8
1
33.8
26.8
33.5
2
35.3
37.7
43.5
Batch
3
2
34.4
35.7
33.2
4
40.9
49.5
44.6
Batch
5
3
37.9
28.3
33.7
6
22.2
31.3
45.5
Batch
7
4
28.9
23.8
26.5
8
Mean, x = 34.74 N/mm2
Mode = 35.27 N/mm2
Minimum =22.2 N/mm2
Coefficient of variation, c.v. = 18.6%
38.9
32.6
34.0
40.2
45.3
38.0
37.8
25.6
39.4
28.9
34.4
34.5
38.9
34.0
25.9
25.3
37.1
38.0
29.7
35.3
44.8
47.8
30.0
27.9
36.9
31.4
22.5
37.7
44.0
37.5
32.7
29.7
36.8
27.9
34.4
43.5
35.6
37.9
30.1
30.9
37.0
30.9
35.0
34.0
55.0
35.1
27.8
30.9
33.4
27.0
35.4
27.5
43.0
36.9
24.0
34.4
Table 5.3: Compressive strength of specimens in each sample for

facing bricks tested on header face.
Sample
Batch
9.5 9.3 9.0
1
1
2.7 4.0 3.5
2
5.0 4.3 4.6
Batch
3
2
5.4 5.4 5.1
4
10.6 5.6 4.3
Batch
5
3
4.5 5.6 3.9
6
5.5 2.4 3.2
Batch
7
4
8.4 8.9 5.5
8
Mean, x = 5.51 N/mm2
Median = 5.07 N/mm2
Mode = 5.03 N/mm2
Minimum = 0.8 N/mm2
Range R =10.06 N/mm2
Coefficient of variation, c.v. =39.0 %
9.2
3.9
2.2
6.2
7.2
4.7
3.7
6.0
8.0
2.3
4.6
4.1
5.5
4.2
5.6
7.3
8.4
4.5
6.9
5.0
11.4
5.0
3.2
6.4
7.9
3.6
4.7
4.3
7.6
4.7
4.3
6.1
9.2
3.1
4.7
4.6
6.7
3.2
5.6
6.9
8.8
4.3
5.4
5.1
6.1
3.0
0.8
4.8
9.1
4.2
2.5
4.6
7.6
6.9
3.0
5.8
The descriptive statistics consisting of the mean, median, mode, standard

deviation, range and coefficient of variation were shown in Table 5.1, 5.2 and 5.3.
The mean compressive strength was 46.1, 34.7 and 5.51 N/mm2 when tested on bed,
stretcher and header face respectively. With a mean strength of 46 N/mm2 when
tested on the bed face, the bricks from this research easily surpass the top range of
113
the specified limits for ASTM, AS and the SS with exception of the Engineering
category of the BS (Table 5.8).
Data distribution was presented by the histograms as shown in Figure 5.1.
The histogram could be seen to represent a normally distributed data and in virtue of
the central limit theorem the histogram would eventually form a normal curve with
increasing number of data. Hence, assuming data to be normally distributed the
normal curve fit (Table 5.4) was computed for the compressive strengths tested on
the bed and stretcher face (having c.v.s of 18.5 % and 18.6 % respectively). With
respect to the bricks tested on the header face the c.v. was 39.0 % which was greater
than 30 %. Therefore, the compressive strengths tested on the header face were fitted
with a log-normal curve (Table 5.5). The normal and log-normal curves were plotted
superimposed on the histograms as shown in Figure 5.1.
Table 5.4:
Normal curve fit for compressive strength of facing bricks tested

on bed and stretcher face
Testing
orientations
Interval
midpoint
x
Observed
frequency
Number of
standard
deviations, z
(x - x) s
Bed face
Stretcher
face
29.269
33.807
38.345
42.883
47.421
51.959
56.497
61.035
65.573
70.111
74.649
23.642
26.925
30.208
33.491
36.774
40.057
43.340
46.623
49.906
53.189
56.472
6
9
24
31
23
23
12
7
3
1
1
4
11
11
18
18
7
6
3
1
0
1
-1.966
-1.435
-0.904
-0.373
0.1576
0.6886
1.2195
1.7505
2.2814
2.8124
3.3433
-1.727
-1.217
-0.707
-0.198
0.312
0.822
1.331
1.841
2.351
2.861
3.370
f ( z) =
( 2 )
-1 2
exp - ( z 2 2 )
0.0577
0.1424
0.265
0.3721
0.394
0.3147
0.1896
0.0862
0.0296
0.0076
0.0015
0.0898
0.1902
0.3106
0.3912
0.3799
0.2846
0.1644
0.0732
0.0252
0.0067
0.0014
Computed
frequency
ordinate, y
nif ( z ) s
4.2918
10.587
19.701
27.655
29.285
23.392
14.096
6.4072
2.197
0.5683
0.1109
3.6622
7.7552
12.6652
15.9513
15.4933
11.6054
6.7041
2.9866
1.0261
0.2719
0.0556
114
Table 5.5:
Log-normal curve fit for compressive strength of facing

brick tested on header face
Interval
midpoint
x
1.034
2.101
3.168
4.235
5.302
6.369
7.436
8.503
9.570
10.637
11.704
Observed
frequency
Number of
standard
deviations, z
( ln x - ) -1
1
4
9
22
17
9
6
5
5
1
1
-4.253
-2.370
-1.280
-0.509
0.088
0.575
0.986
1.342
1.656
1.937
2.190
f ( z) =
( 2 )
-0.5
-1
exp - ( z 2 2 ) - z -
0.000
0.030
0.147
0.220
0.199
0.141
0.088
0.051
0.028
0.015
0.008
Computed
frequency
ordinate, y
ni f(z)
0.010
2.594
12.587
18.759
16.988
12.035
7.478
4.321
2.398
1.303
0.701
From the normal and log-normal probability functions the 33-percentile

values for all the three cases of loadings were determined and are shown in Figures
5.1 (a), (b) and (c). The high and low values were meant for the upper and lower 33percentile while the medium values were for the middle third distribution. The upper
33-percentile for bricks tested on the bed face i.e. about one-third of the distribution
had compressive strengths exceeding 50 N/mm2 i.e. the minimum requirements for
Engineering B bricks of the BS.
The mean compressive strength representative of the population of bricks in
the study was computed after examining the homogeneity of data using the control
charts for means and ranges of samples (Figure 5.2). Data not complying with the
homogeneity criteria as explained in Chapter IV were not taken into account when
determining the population mean. In this case the control charts showed that data
from samples 4 and 7 of the bed face compressive strengths, 5 and 8 of the stretcher
face and 1, 2, 5 and 7 of the header face were lying outside the upper and lower
action lines and thus data from these samples were ignored for the computation of
population mean.
115
35
Frequency
x = 46.1 N / mm 2
s = 8.55 N / mm 2
c.v. = 18.55%
median = 45.0 N / mm 2
mod e = NA
Normal
curve
30
25
20
15
Low < 42.0 N/mm2

Medium 42.0 50.0 N/mm2
High > 50.0N/mm2
10
5
72.380-76.918
67.842-72.380
63.304-67.842
58.766-63.304
54.228-58.766
49.690-54.228
45.152-49.690
40.614-45.152
36.076-40.614
31.538-36.076
27.000-31.538
Compressive Strength, N/mm2
(a) Bed face
Frequency
20
x = 34.7 N / mm 2
s = 6.45 N / mm 2
c.v. = 18.56 %
mod e = 35.3 N / mm 2
Normal
curve
15
10
Low < 33.0 N/mm2

High > 37.0N/mm2
54 83-58.113
51.547-54.83
48.264-51.547
44.981-48.264
41.698-44.981
38.415-41.698
35.132-38.415
31.849-35.132
28.566-31.849
25.283-28.566
22.00-25.283
Compressive strength, N/mm
(b) Stretcher face

25
20
Frequency
x = 5.5 N / mm 2
s = 2.15 N / mm 2
c.v. = 39.0 %
mod e = 5.0 N / mm 2
Log-normal
curve
15
10
Low < 4.0 N/mm2

High > 6.0N/mm2
11.17-12.237
10.103-11.17
9.036-10.103
7.969-9.036
6.902-7.969
5.835-6.902
4.768-5.835
3.701-4.768
2.634-3.701
1.567-2.634
0.500-1.567
Compressive strength, N/mm2
(c) Header face

Figure 5.1:
Histogram, normal and log-normal curve for compressive

strength of facing bricks tested on (a) bed face (b)
stretcher face (c) header face
50
UAL
UWL
40
LWL
LAL
30
5
10
15
50
45
UAL
UWL
40
35
LWL
LAL
30
25
20
0
UAL
UWL
x
LWL
LAL
10
15
Comressive strengths
Range
Range
50
40
30
20
10
0
5
UAL
UWL
LWL
LAL
2
0
10
40
UAL
30
UWL
20
10
LWL
LAL
0
0
Sample
UAL Upper action line
10
LAL Lower action line
10
UAL
UWL
6
4
LWL
LAL
0
0
10
Sample
(b) Stretcher face

UWL Upper warning line
Sample
Sample
(a) Bed face
Figure 5.2:
Sample
Sample
10
Range
Mean
60
Mean
Mean
70
(c) Header face

LWL Lower warning line
Control charts of mean values and ranges for compressive strength tested on (a) bed face
116
(b) stretcher face (c) header face
117
The ANOVA for compressive strengths tested on the different orientations
were carried out on the remaining samples. From the ANOVA, shown in Table 5.7
Fcal. for all cases were found greater than Fcrit and therefore, the N.H. was rejected
indicating that there was significant difference in the variances of the various
samples. The ANOVA from Table 5.7 also gave the components of variance, which
were used to determine the population mean. Detail explanation of the procedures
for the determination of variance from ANOVA and derivation of population mean
is shown in Chapter IV. The estimate of variances for the different orientations of
loading were 54.40, 28.32 and 10.757 tested on bed, stretcher and header face
respectively.
Table 5.6:
ANOVA and variance components for compressive strengths of

facing bricks tested on bed, stretcher and header faces
Testing
orientations
When the
Degree
When the N.H.
N.H. is
Sum of
Mean
of
Source of
is accepted the rejected the
Squares freedo Square
mean square is mean square
Variation
(SS)
m
an estimate of is an estimate
(df)
of
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(1)
Between
2 + c r2
1672.023
11
152.002
2
samples
Within
4704.06
108
43.556
2
2
samples
Bed face
Best estimate of
53.58
Total 6376.082 119
2
Between
2 + c r2
398.699
5
79.740
2
samples
Within
Stretcher
1220.659
54
22.605
2
2
samples
face
Best estimate of
59
27.447
Total 1619.358
2
Between
2 + c r2
29.687
3
9.896
2
samples
Within
36
1.282
2
2
Header face samples 46.151
Best estimate of
75.839
39
1.945
Total
2
Fcalc.
Fcrit.
(7)
(8)
3.489 1.878
3.528 2.386
7.719 2.866
The corresponding mean compressive strengths for the population tested on

bed, stretcher and header face were in the range of 40 to 51 N/mm2, 30 to 38 N/mm2
and 4.1 to 6.2 N/mm2.
118
Comparisons with other standards shows that the population mean, like the
sample mean supersedes the top range compressive strengths of ASTM, AS and SS.
However, the population did not fit in the category of Engineering A and B of the
BS which requires a minimum compressive strength of 70 N/mm2 and 50 N/mm2
respectively.
Results from the tests clearly demonstrated that a considerable amount of
compressive strength reduction occurred with increased slenderness ratio for the
bricks orientations. Samples results show that a maximum strength of 46 N/mm2
was achieved when brick was tested on its bed face. When tested on the header face
the compressive strength was less than 20 % of that on bed face. Similarly, the
compressive strength when tested on the stretcher face reduced to 34.74 N/mm2, i.e.
a reduction by about 20 % in comparison to bed face.
These results, showing the relative compressive strength reduction
corresponding to the different orientations of testing were approximately in
agreement with the study reported by Hendry (1997). Hendry showed that, bricks
tested on the stretcher and header faces produced compressive strength of about 80
% and 20 % respectively of the strength when tested on the bed face (Table 2.1).
The reduction in compressive strength was due to the effects of platen
restraint, which imposed a degree of confinement to the specimens, the greater the
height of specimen during testing the lesser was the platen effects. In the Australian
Standard the effect of platen restraint are being considered by multiplying the
compressive strength with a factor depending on the height to thickness ratio
(Table 2.2) and it diminishes at height to thickness ratio of 5 and above.
A relationship between compressive strength and height to thickness ratio
was developed in this study. The mean values ( x ) for the three orientations of
testing i.e. on bed (46.1 N/mm2), stretcher (34.7 N/mm2) and header faces (5.5
N/mm2) were plotted against the height to thickness ratio as shown by the graph in
Figure 5.3. The value of the height to thickness ratio (h/t) was based on the mean
measurements of both dimensions for samples used in the study. The graph for the
119
compressive strength versus h/t ratio was plotted and joined with a best fit line
described by equation 5.1 with a regression coefficient of R2 = 0.998
f = 16.353 x + 58.168
(5.1)
Where,
f = compressive strengths in N/mm2
x = ratio of height to thickness (h/t).
Where,
h = the height in relation to the orientation of tests
t = the smallest dimension of the loaded face.
This relationship was derived specifically for standard format bricks with 5
rectangular slots. The equation can also provide estimation on the compressive
strength of bricks for the same standard format made from the same material or
comprised of the same amount of perforations. In this respect, the perforations are
rectangular with an average area of 3375 mm2 i.e. about 16 % of the total gross area.
The results could also be used to estimate the compressive strength of the same brick
format with circular holes as generally used in other manufacturing, however the
prediction is expected to be conservative in view that shearing will occur at higher
Compressive strength, f
N/mm2
levels at failure.
50
40
Bed face
h/t = 0.7
30
f = -16.353x + 58.168
R2 = 0.998
Stretcher face
h/t =1.5
20
10
Header face
h/t =3.2
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
Height to thickness ratio, h/t
Figure 5.3:
Relationship between compressive strength and h/t ratio

of bricks
120
The calculation for compressive strength specified in standards could either
be based on the net or gross area of loaded face. Australian Standard uses the net
area i.e. gross area less the area of perforations while ASTM specifies that the
compressive strength to be calculated using gross area. BS specified the area used in
the calculation as the overall dimension.
Compressive strengths of bricks tested on bed face determined using net area
i.e. the mean area of bed face less the area of the 5 rectangular slots is shown in
Table 5.7. The mean compressive strength was 54.4 N/mm2, which indicates an
increase of about 20 % compared to values obtained using the gross area. The
population mean was in the range of 50 to 60 N/mm2. Thus, taking into account the
net area resulted in a higher value, which qualifies the bricks as Engineering B of the
BS.
Table 5.7:
Compressive strengths of facing brick tested on bed face as

computed from net areas
Sample
Batch
1
Compressive strength based on net area, N/mm2
49.9 55.2 51.8

1
57.7 51.0 52.9
2
41.8 49.9 53.3
3
43.4 48.5 57.6
Batch 4
2
66.9 48.2 68.1
5
46.9 45.9 54.0
6
73.3 70.0 64.8
7
53.8 60.5 59.6
Batch 8
3
63.7 49.9 63.6
9
57.2 62.1 62.1
10
53.8 51.2 50.5
11
61.4 41.3 57.0
Batch 12
4
76.1 58.0 48.4
13
20.0 49.5 60.3
14
Mean, x = 54.4 N/mm2
Median = 53.5 N/mm2
Mode = NA
56.3
51.6
42.1
45.4
49.2
57.5
86.5
59.1
57.2
48.1
63.6
47.3
68.9
49.2
45.0
59.5
36.6
36.1
40.2
47.6
71.2
34.2
56.7
65.9
45.4
49.6
60.6
47.1
45.1
60.9
54.3
35.0
55.2
51.1
70.5
65.8
59.7
63.5
48.1
53.8
45.5
48.8
41.7
61.4
48.0
32.1
61.6
45.5
75.7
67.2
60.2
59.4
48.8
50.2
46.1
67.6
50.0
65.1
41.8
45.1
69.9
57.8
78.6
63.1
64.7
55.8
58.1
70.0
50.6
58.0
39.4
52.7
50.7
42.1
47.2
65.2
55.5
81.5
72.1
59.2
52.8
40.0
46.7
51.6
47.0
64.1
42.9
35.2
49.6
68.3
52.5
63.1
56.3
57.7
51.6
42.4
43.7
48.0
121
A relationship between compressive strength with h/t ratio considering net
loaded area for the bed face orientation is shown in Figure 5.4. The relationship
shows an increase of about 13 % in the compressive strength compared to the results
obtained by considering gross area of the bed face. Thus, the relationship of
compressive strength to h/t ratios given by equation 5.1 for perforated bricks is
N/mm 2
considered as conservative.
60
50
Bed face
h/t = 0.7
40
30
f = -19.187x + 66.07
2
R = 0.9913
Stretcher face
h/t = 1.5
20
10
Header face
h/t = 3.2
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
Figure 5.4:
Relationship between the computed compressive strength

(based on net loaded area of bed face) to h/t ratio
It should be noted that in this study compressive strength tests were carried
out after the test for water absorption. In this case, the bricks were in a saturated
condition and research has shown that wet bricks tend to show lower strengths than
dry ones. Grimm, (1975), reported that dry brick can be 15% stronger than wet ones.
Some compressive tests done on dry bricks in this study also showed that the dry
bricks had strengths of about 15 to 20 % higher than the wet bricks.
The tests conducted on wet bricks based on gross area yield lower
compressive strengths as the effects of curing and gross loaded area contribute to
both physical and theoretical determination of strength. Consequently, the evaluation
of compressive strength of bricks studied in this research implies conservative
results compared to values stated in ASTM.
Compressive strength of facing and common bricks and standard requirements
(Upper
33percentile)
(Middle
33percentile)
(Lower
33percentile)
46.00
>50.0
42.0 50.0
<42.0
Bed face
h. 67
=
0.7
t 98
40.0 51.0
Stretcher face
h 98
=
1.5
t 67
Header face
h 216
=
3.2
t
67
Bed face
30.0 38.0
34.7
>37.0
33.0 37.0
<33.0
4.12 6.20
5.5
>6.0
4.0 6.0
<4.0
30.0 40.0
35.7
>40.0
32.0 40.0
<32.0
70
50
Others
Not
less
than
20.7
Not
less
than
17.2
Not
less
than
10.3
0.7
Not
less
than
7.0
Not
less
than
5.0
SS (Mean of 10
bricks)
Third grade
Sample
x
Engineering
NW
Low
AS
(Characteristic
strength)
Ratio of
manufacturing
height to
width
Second grade
Common
bricks
Normal
MW
Population
Facing
brick
High
Mean
Testing
orientations
ASTM (Mean of
5 bricks)
First grade
BS (Mean of 10
bricks)
Compressive strength from research results
SW
Table 5.8:
Not
less
than
35.0
Not
less
than
20.0
Not
less
than
5.2
122
123
Results for compressive strength of common bricks are shown in Table 5.9.
In this study common bricks were referred to bricks for general building works with
no aesthetic application
Table 5.9:
Compressive strength of specimens in each sample for common

bricks
Compressive strength determined from net area, N/mm2
Sample
38.5 39.5 29.0

1
39.6 38.0 36.1
2
38.8 37.7 29.3
3
28.5 25.9 22.5
4
Batch
21.0 27.2 39.1
5
2
20.6 26.2 19.0
6
29.6 37.9 26.8
7
Batch
41.6 42.8 36.4
8
3
34.1 38.4 36.7
9
51.4 58.0 51.7
10
Batch
38.4 44.1 44.4
11
4
48.6 34.6 44.5
12
Mean, x = 35.71 N/mm2
Mode = 40.86 N/mm2
Batch
1
40.0
27.2
38.9
25.2
39.0
25.3
30.8
38.4
35.7
49.2
38.1
25.8
31.1
39.5
26.5
22.7
33.7
23.1
28.6
41.4
40.5
50.4
49.1
41.9
30
Frequency
25
Normal curve
20
36.1
33.5
36.5
24.7
32.9
24.6
33.6
48.6
47.3
49.1
45.2
50.1
25.2
25.1
25.1
21.3
35.4
20.7
31.7
49.8
49.0
47.0
48.9
45.0
39.4
36.3
37.8
24.4
31.7
36.2
21.2
39.6
36.9
46.7
39.6
43.7
27.8
34.2
27.8
20.1
39.2
18.4
20.2
43.6
45.5
47.2
48.2
41.6
34.0
32.3
34.0
22.2
40.2
21.7
46.0
40.9
40.9
34.2
33.1
34.2
x = 35.7 N / mm 2
s = 9.06 N / mm 2
c.v. = 25.38%
mod e = 40.9 N / mm 2
15
Low < 31.87 N/mm2
Medium 31.87 39.50 N/mm2
High > 39.50 N/mm2
10
5
18.35-22.35
22.35-26.35
26.35-30.35
30.35-34.35
34.35-38.35
38.35-42.35
42.35-46.35
46.35-50.35
50.35-54.35
54.35-58.35
Figure 5. 5: Histogram and normal curve for compressive strength of

common bricks
124
The histogram and the normal curve fit is shown in Figure 5.5. The sample
mean was 36 N/mm2, which lie within the ranges specified for structural bricks of
ASTM for the category of SW bricks and just exceed the minimal requirement
specified of First Grade brick in Singapore Standard. However, from the normal
curve function the middle 33-percentile comprises of strengths in the range of 31.9
to 39.5 N/mm2 exceeding values for the top range of the structural bricks of ASTM
(Table 5.7).
The quality control charts (Figure 5.6) shows that 5 out of 12 samples lie
outside the upper and lower action lines thus indicating considerable scatter of
compressive strengths. This is in contrast with the results observed for facing bricks.
The wide scatter of data for common bricks shows lacking of production control.
However, it must be borne in mind that some of the common bricks were rejected
products of facing brick, therefore the properties might not be consistent with actual
common bricks production.
The population mean was derived after ignoring these 5 data points. The
variance from the ANOVA was 48.55 from which the standard deviation of the
population is estimated as 6.968 N/mm2. The population mean range computed
using this standard deviation was 30.38 to 40.34 N/mm2 and this value exceeds the
requirements for SW bricks of ASTM. and Second grade bricks of the Singapore
Standard.
The compressive strength ranged from 30 to 40 N/mm2, therefore the
common bricks in this study suffice the requirements for structural bricks under the
classification of SW bricks of the ASTM. The common bricks investigated in this
study could be used as load-bearing applications although not suitable for facing
brickwork due to lacking of other physical and dimensional properties. Previous
research on common bricks of the same manufacturers product showed water
absorption exceeding 10%.
Mean
125
50,0
40,0
UAL
UWL
30,0
LWL
LAL
20,0
0
10
12
14
Range
Sample
40,0
UAL
30,0
UWL
20,0
10,0
LWL
LAL
0,0
0
10
12
14
Sample
Figure 5.6:
Control charts of mean values and ranges of samples for

compressive strength of common bricks
5.3
5.3.1
Overall Dimensions of 24 Bricks

Table 5.10 shows the results of overall dimension of length, width and height
of 24 bricks and the deviations of these dimensions from the work sizes for the
individual brick. These deviations were derived from the results of the overall
dimensions as shown in Table 5.10 columns (4), (6) and (8). The work sizes were as
given in the BS for length, width and height i.e. 215 mm, 102.5 mm and 65 mm
respectively. The mean value of overall length was 5218 mm, which is within the
limits of BS i.e. 5085 mm to 5235 mm. The mean value of overall width of
2412 mm was slightly out of range compared to the BS limits of 2415 mm to 2505
mm. The height had a mean value of 1642 mm, exceeding the limit of BS by 37 mm.
126
Table 5.10:
Overall measurement of length, width and height of 24 bricks
(1)
Batch
1
Sample
and individual brick dimensional deviations from work size

Overall
Length
of 24
bricks
(2)
(3)
1
5240
2
5254
3
5216
Batch 4
5263
2
5
5241
6
5243
7
5175
Batch 8
5218
3
9
5185
10
5178
11
5203
12
5211
Batch
13
5210
4
14
5213
Descriptive statistics
Mean, x
5218
5215
Median
#N/A
Mode
Standard
27.55
deviation, s
5263
Maximum
5175
Minimum
88
Range, R
0.53%
c.v.
Max.
British
Standard
5235
Deviations of
Individual
length of brick
from work
size
[(3) 24]- 215
(4)
3.33
3.92
2.33
4.29
3.38
3.46
0.63
2.42
1.04
0.75
1.79
2.13
2.08
2.21
Overall
width of
24
bricks
Deviations of
individual width
of brick from
work size
Overall
height
of 24
bricks
(5)
2415
2410
2408
2426
2421
2419
2405
2412
2413
2397
2416
2400
2409
2414
[(5) 24]- 102.5

(6)
-1.88
-2.08
-2.17
-1.42
-1.63
-1.71
-2.29
-2.00
-1.96
-2.63
-1.83
-2.50
-2.13
-1.92
(7)
1638
1646
1648
1651
1650
1653
1628
1640
1625
1634
1638
1643
1643
1644
2.41
2412
2413
#N/A
Min.
5085
7.86
2426
2397
29
0.33%
Max.
2505
-2.01
Min.
2415
Deviations
of individual
height of
brick from
work size
[(7) 24]- 65
(8)
3.25
3.58
3.67
3.79
3.75
3.88
2.83
3.33
2.71
3.08
3.25
3.46
3.46
3.50
3.40
1642
1643
1638
8.35
1653
1625
28
0.51%
Max.
1605
Min.
1515
Note: Work sizes as in BS 3921:1985 Length = 215 mm, width = 102.5 mm,
height = 65 mm
A plot of sample overall dimensions against specified limits of BS and SS is
shown in Figure 5.7. The SS provides three grades of dimensional tolerance i.e. first,
second and third grade, depending on the degree of dimensional accuracy required,
however bricks under the category of the third grade are not limited to any
dimensional tolerance.
Figure 5.7 clearly demonstrates that the bricks in this research had lengths
and widths marginally in agreement with the BS and SS first grade bricks but the
height was oversize. The length belongs to the higher range of the BS as evident by
127
5 samples lying outside the upper range [Figure 5.7 (a)], while the width were in the
lower range of the BS with 5 samples lying below the lower range of the width
measurement [Figure 5.7 (b)]. On the other hand, all samples for the height exceeds
the maximum limit of the British Standard.
Overall Length (mm)
5500
5400
SS Second Grade
5300
5200
BS and SS First Grade
5100
5000
0
10
15
20
Sample
(a)
Overall Width (mm)
2600
2550
SS Second Grade
2500
BS and SS First Grade
2450
2400
2350
0
10
15
20
Sample
(b)
1810
SS Second Grade
Overall Height (mm)
1760
1710
1660
1610
SS First Grade
BS
1560
1510
1460
0
10
Sample
15
20
(c)
Figure 5.7: Comparison of overall dimensions of (a) length (b) width and
(c) height with allowable range of British and Singapore Standard.
128
The dimensional tolerance of the bricks investigated in this research was also
evaluated against values of tolerances provided in the European Standard
prEN 771-1 and the derived tolerance limit for individual brick based on the
cumulative measurement of 24 bricks. Table 5.11 shows the comparisons of
dimensional tolerances for individual brick from results of this research (col. 2) with
values derived from specified tolerance for 24 bricks of BS 3921 (col.5) and the
tolerance categories of T1 and T2 in prEN 771-1 (col. 3 and 4). In the prEN 771-1
the mean dimensions of 10 bricks in a sample should not differ from the declared
value of either categories T1 and T2, which correspond to the following:
T1: 0.4 (work size dimension) mm or 3 mm whichever is greater.
T2: 0.25 (work size dimension) mm or 2 mm whichever is greater.
The dimensional deviations for individual brick derived from BS 3921

(col.5), was calculated based on the limits given for the overall dimensions of 24
bricks. For example, the overall length of 24 bricks should not exceed 5235 mm and
not less than 5085 mm, which equal to a tolerance of 6.25 mm or 3 .125 mm for
the length of individual brick.
Table 5.11:
Dimensional deviations of brick from work size and comparisons

with values of dimensional tolerance for BS 3921:1985 and prEN
Dimensions
Test results of mean

dimensional deviations
from work size derived
from measurement of
24 bricks (mm)
(From Table 5.10)
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
BS 3921
Individual brick
deviations from
work size
derived from
tolerances of 24
bricks
(5)
Length
+ 2.41
0.4 215 = 5.9
0.25 215 = 3.7
3.125
Width
- 2.01
0.4 102.5 = 4.0
0.25 102.5 = 2.5
1.875
Height
771-1
+ 3.4
0.4 65 = 3.2
0.25 65 = 2.0
1.875
prEN 771-1
Dimensional tolerance for BS work
size.
T1
(mm)
T2
(mm)
129
Therefore, from the comparisons of individual bricks dimensional tolerance

of prEN 771-1 and BS 3921 it could be observed that the dimensional tolerance for
individual bricks derived from BS tolerance for 24 bricks is more stringent than the
prEN 771-1 for both the T1 and T2 categories. Research results showed that the
mean deviations of the dimensions of bricks from the work size (Table 5.11, col. 2)
for length i.e. +2.41 mm was within the derived deviation of the BS ( 3 mm)
however the width and height had a deviation of 2.01 mm and +3.4 mm which
exceeded the deviations i.e. 1.875 for both width and height. Nevertheless, it
should be borne in mind that the strict dimensional deviations provided in the British
Standard was derived from the cumulative dimensions of 24 bricks. Moreover, these
deviations are restricted to bricks of the standard format specified in BS 3921.
Table 5.11 shows that the bricks investigated fulfil the requirements for category T1
of the dimensional tolerance specified in the prEN 771-1. The bricks however could
not satisfy the tolerance limit for category T2 due to the height exceeding the range
specified for the T2 category.
5.3.2
Dimension of Individual Brick for Length, Width and Height

Table 5.12 shows sample data with the mean, ranges, standard deviations,
and coefficient of variation for length, width and height of individual brick. The
mean for length, width and height were 216 mm (s =1.91 mm), 100 mm (s =1.12
mm) and 67 mm (s =1.91 mm) respectively and the normal values which is in the
middle third of the 33-percentile values were 216 to 218 mm for length, 98 to100
mm for width and 67 to 68 mm for height (Figure 5.8).
Table 5.12:
Individual brick dimensions for length, width and height in all samples
Length
Batch
1
Batch
2
Sample
Mean
Range
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
x
218.4
218.4
216.6
218.0
216.6
217.7
217.7
219.1
216.6
215.5
216.1
216.4
218.0
217.7
217.7
218.8
216.8
219.0
216.7
217.7
219.1
217.5
216.3
218.0
R
1.6
2.6
6.2
2.7
1.5
2.8
2.8
3.2
4.1
10.5
3.9
5.8
6.5
3.7
6.2
4.5
1.7
2.6
4.0
3.7
4.7
7.0
4.9
11.0
Standard
deviation
s
0.57
0.94
2.12
1.00
0.61
0.99
1.13
1.36
1.62
3.63
1.57
2.29
2.72
1.67
2.16
1.77
0.73
0.94
1.76
1.43
1.85
2.60
1.91
4.14
Width
c.v.
%
0.26
0.43
0.98
0.46
0.28
0.45
0.52
0.62
0.75
1.68
0.72
1.06
1.25
0.77
0.99
0.81
0.34
0.43
0.81
0.66
0.84
1.20
0.88
1.90
Mean
100.2
99.8
99.0
99.6
99.0
99.8
100.0
99.9
99.9
99.3
99.3
98.9
100.4
100.3
99.8
100.7
99.8
100.9
99.8
100.2
101.0
99.8
99.4
100.0
Range
R
2.4
1.9
2.2
1.1
2.5
1.8
1.9
2.3
4.4
4.1
2.4
4.8
4.3
2.8
3.7
3.9
2.2
1.2
2.3
2.6
4.4
5.9
3.3
4.2
Standard
deviation
s
0.81
0.78
0.94
0.37
0.95
0.80
0.66
0.81
1.64
1.43
0.95
1.82
1.57
1.16
1.39
1.52
0.88
0.44
0.86
0.85
1.65
2.07
1.43
1.60
Height
c.v.
%
0.81
0.78
0.95
0.37
0.96
0.80
0.66
0.81
1.64
1.44
0.95
1.84
1.56
1.15
1.39
1.51
0.88
0.44
0.86
0.85
1.63
2.07
1.44
1.60
Mean
x
67.1
67.2
67.5
67.2
66.4
67.2
67.9
68.0
68.2
67.8
68.1
67.7
68.2
67.3
67.7
68.8
67.6
68.2
68.2
68.1
68.1
68.6
67.9
67.9
Range
R
1.2
1.6
2.6
5.5
1.1
1.1
1.0
2.0
4.3
3.4
2.5
2.5
2.0
1.9
1.7
4.3
1.6
1.9
2.2
1.6
3.1
3.4
2.0
2.7
Standard
deviation
s
0.41
0.68
0.91
2.05
0.39
0.44
0.42
0.82
1.45
1.19
0.83
0.83
0.65
0.86
0.73
1.42
0.62
0.81
0.75
0.61
1.09
1.21
0.69
0.95
c.v.
%
0.62
1.02
1.35
3.04
0.59
0.65
0.62
1.21
2.13
1.75
1.22
1.22
0.95
1.28
1.08
2.06
0.91
1.18
1.11
0.89
1.60
1.77
1.02
1.39
130
Table 5.12 (cont.):
Brick dimensions for length, width and height in all samples.
Length
Sample
Batch
3
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
Mean
x
215.7
214.6
215.1
214.7
215.4
216.3
214.7
215.7
215.2
215.5
215.1
215.1
216.1
215.0
214.8
215.2
Range,
R
2.1
2.5
2.2
3.3
2.3
2.3
3.9
2.2
3.1
2.8
1.8
2.2
2.3
1.5
1.4
2.2
Standard
deviation
s
0.98
0.98
0.89
1.19
0.80
0.82
1.33
0.79
1.26
1.21
0.72
0.75
0.80
0.51
0.57
0.94
Width
c.v. %
0.46
0.46
0.42
0.55
0.37
0.38
0.62
0.37
0.59
0.56
0.34
0.35
0.37
0.24
0.26
0.44
Mean
x
99.7
99.5
99.8
99.9
99.7
100.5
99.4
100.3
99.4
100.0
99.0
98.7
99.8
99.2
99.6
100.2
Range
R
2.3
1.7
3.2
1.7
2.2
1.8
3.3
2.1
2.3
0.9
3.0
1.3
3.0
1.4
1.4
1.4
Standard
deviation
s
0.89
0.71
1.22
0.73
0.79
0.60
1.13
0.74
0.97
0.32
1.13
0.43
1.08
0.54
0.61
0.49
Height
c.v. %
Mean
Range
0.89
0.71
1.22
0.73
0.79
0.60
1.14
0.74
0.97
0.32
1.15
0.43
1.08
0.54
0.62
0.49
x
67.2
66.9
67.1
67.1
67.4
67.7
67.4
67.5
67.4
67.2
67.0
67.1
67.0
66.8
67.0
67.1
R
1.1
1.0
2.0
1.0
0.6
0.8
2.6
1.5
2.9
1.6
0.4
1.8
1.1
1.0
0.6
1.3
Standard
deviation
s
0.37
0.40
0.67
0.34
0.25
0.34
1.03
0.53
0.94
0.57
0.11
0.58
0.38
0.38
0.20
0.44
c.v. %
0.55
0.60
1.00
0.51
0.38
0.51
1.52
0.79
1.40
0.85
0.17
0.86
0.57
0.57
0.30
0.65
131
Table 5.12 (cont.):
Sample
Mean
x
Batch
4
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
216.4
216.2
215.6
215.1
215.1
215.7
215.7
216.2
216.9
214.6
216.8
217.0
215.8
215.4
216.1
216.3
Length
Ranges Standard
deviation
R
s
1.6
0.54
3.4
1.24
2.7
1.02
3.5
1.46
3.5
1.27
3.3
1.12
3.8
1.30
4.9
1.81
5.7
2.63
3.2
1.18
6.2
2.04
6.9
2.37
4.1
1.56
1.6
0.59
2.1
0.72
1.5
0.58
Brick dimensions for length, width and height in all samples.

c.v.
%
Mean
x
0.25
0.57
0.48
0.68
0.59
0.52
0.60
0.84
1.21
0.55
0.94
1.09
0.72
0.27
0.33
0.27
100.2
99.8
99.6
98.9
98.7
99.4
99.1
99.2
100.2
99.0
100.0
99.7
100.0
99.5
100.3
99.8
Width
Ranges Standard
deviation
R
s
1.8
0.65
2.8
1.03
3.0
1.24
4.3
1.64
3.3
1.15
3.2
1.18
2.5
1.02
3.2
1.32
4.4
1.93
1.7
0.62
3.2
1.10
2.2
0.79
1.1
0.40
3.1
1.00
1.2
0.40
1.4
0.55
c.v.
%
Mean
x
0.65
1.03
1.24
1.66
1.17
1.19
1.03
1.33
1.93
0.62
1.10
0.79
0.40
1.00
0.40
0.56
67.7
67.5
67.4
67.1
67.3
67.4
66.6
67.6
67.4
67.0
67.5
67.0
68.3
67.2
67.4
67.5
Height
Ranges Standard
deviation
R
s
1.4
0.51
1.4
0.49
1.2
0.40
1.9
0.74
1.7
0.66
1.6
0.62
2.8
1.06
2.9
1.12
1.6
0.71
2.2
0.71
1.9
0.74
3.3
1.06
2.1
0.82
1.1
0.37
1.7
0.61
0.6
0.27
c.v.
%
0.75
0.72
0.60
1.10
0.97
0.93
1.59
1.66
1.05
1.06
1.10
1.59
1.21
0.55
0.90
0.40
132
133
90
80
Frequency
x = 216.4 mm
s = 1.91mm
c.v. = 0.88 %
Median= 216.2 mm
Mode= 215.0 mm
Normal Curve
70
60
50
40
30
Low <216 mm
Normal 216218 mm
High >218 mm
20
10
221.34-222.50
220.18-221.34
219.02-220.18
217.86-219.02
216.70-217.86
215.55-216.70
214.39-215.55
213.23-214.39
212.07-213.23
210.91-212.07
209.75-210.91
x = 99.7 mm
s = 1.12 mm
c.v. = 1.12 %
Median= 99.8 mm
Mode= 100 mm
Normal curve
102.90-103.56
Individual width (mm)
102.24-102.90
101.58-102.24
100.92-101.58
100.26-100.92
99.6-100.26
98.94-99.60
98.28-98.94
97.62-98.28
Low < 98 mm
Normal 98 100 mm
High > 100 mm
96.96-97.62
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
96.30-96.96
Frequency
Individual length (mm)
120
Frequency
100
x = 67.5 mm
s = 0.89 mm
c.v. = 1.32 %
Median= 67.4 mm
Mode= 67.0 mm
Normal curve
80
60
40
Low < 67 mm
Normal 67 68 mm
High > 68 mm
20
70.55-71.26
69.85-70.55
69.14-69.85
68.44-69.14
67.73-68.44
67.03-67.73
66.32-67.03
65.62-66.32
64.91-65.62
64.21-64.91
63.50-64.21
Individual height (mm)
Figure 5.8: Histogram and normal curve for individual dimensions

of length, width and height of bricks
Control charts for the dimensions shows that all data points for the width
were lying within the upper and lower action line and showing less scatter about the
mean (Figure 5.9). All samples were then considered to represent the population
estimates for the width. For length and height, sample data lying outside the upper
and lower warning and action lines were ignored for the derivation of the population
mean.
134
12.0
219.0
9.0
Length (mm)
Range
Length (mm)
Mean
220.0
218.0
217.0
216.0
215.0
6.0
3.0
214.0
0.0
0
10
20
30
40
Sample
50
60
10
20
30
40
50
60
40
50
60
Sample
101,5
101,0
100,5
100,0
99,5
99,0
98,5
98,0
Width (mm)
Range
Width (mm)
Mean
(a)
10
20
30
40
50
7,0
6,0
5,0
4,0
3,0
2,0
1,0
0,0
60
10
20
Sample
30
Sample
69,5
69,0
68,5
68,0
67,5
67,0
66,5
66,0
Height (mm)
Range
Height (mm)
Mean
(b)
10
20
30
40
50
60
6,0
5,0
4,0
3,0
2,0
1,0
0,0
0
10
Sample
20
30
40
50
60
Sample
(c)
Figure 5.9:
Control charts for mean values and ranges of samples for (a)
length (b) width and (c) height of bricks
The components of variances for samples from the different batches were
computed from the ANOVA. A single factor ANOVA was carried out on the
remaining samples after ignoring those outliers from the control charts. The
variances computed from the ANOVA were 1.98, 1.25 and 0.49 for length, width
and height respectively. Table 5.13 shows the comparisons of mean dimension from
results of this research with specified values of BS 3921. It could be seen that the
population mean dimensions of length i.e. 215 to 218 mm, width 99 to 101 mm and
height 67 to 68 mm were within the allowable dimensions of the BS (i.e. less than
the coordinating size for the respective length, width and height). Moreover,
individual measurements also showed that none of the bricks in the sample had
135
dimensions exceeding the specified coordinating size (Appendix A1, Table A1-1,
A1-2, A1-3)
Table 5.13:
Mean dimensions of individual length, width and height of

bricks compared with British Standard (BS 3921:1985)
Mean dimensions (mm)
Population
estimates
@ 95 %
confidence
(mm)
Work size
(mm)
Coordinating
size (mm)
British standard
Specification
High
(upper 33percentile)
>218
Normal
(middle 33percentile)
216 218
Low
(lower 33percentile)
< 216
215 218
215
225
Width
>100
98 100
< 98
99 101
102.5
112.5
Height
>68
67 68
< 67
67 68
65
75
Length
5.4
Water Absorption
Table 5.14 shows specimens results for water absorption for all samples.
The descriptive statistics computed shows that the mean water absorption in
percentage was 11.23 with a standard deviation of 1.284 and c.v. of 11.43 %.
Table 5.14:
Water absorption of specimens in each sample for facing bricks
Sample
Batch
1
Batch
2
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
Water absorption of bricks (%)

10.6
8.4
10.5
11.6
11.8
10.8
12.0
12.4
11.9
12.0
13.1
10.2
13.4
11.0
12.6
12.9
13.1
11.5
10.4
12.7
10.4
11.5
10.9
10.4
11.2
10.7
12.2
12.4
10.9
10.1
11.2
11.6
12.7
12.7
8.8
11.6
10.8
13.8
12.4
11.6
12.4
9.7
10.0
12.1
9.5
9.5
10.6
11.6
11.1
10.9
11.7
11.6
11.6
11.7
11.0
11.6
11.9
11.4
12.0
10.4
11.5
12.3
10.7
11.9
12.8
12.3
10.8
10.5
10.8
10.8
12.4
10.0
12.2
12.0
11.1
10.3
12.2
10.6
8.0
13.0
11.3
11.2
11.9
13.0
11.5
12.8
9.4
11.1
13.7
11.6
12.3
13.4
12.4
11.3
13.0
12.3
13.2
12.2
11.8
10.5
12.1
11.1
10.6
10.9
11.2
11.9
10.5
12.0
13.6
11.5
136
Table 5.14 (cont.)
12
11.9
11.3
12.1
13
9.9
9.0
11.0
14
12.4
11.2
12.2
15
11.9
11.6
10.5
16
7.7
10.3
11.3
Batch
3
17
8.8
9.2
9.3
18
10.4
10.2
11.1
19
11.2
10.8
12.1
20
8.6
13.6
11.6
21
12.6
8.6
12.1
22
10.3
9.6
11.4
23
9.3
13.1
12.0
Batch
4
24
12.3
11.0
13.0
25
12.7
8.9
9.6
26
11.7
7.9
9.3
27
12.5
12.2
12.0
Mean, x = 11.2 %
Median = 11.4 %
Mode = 12.3 %
Standard deviation, s = 1.28 %
Maximum = 14.4 %
Minimum = 7.7 %
Range, R = 6.7 %
12.7
11.4
10.6
10.3
12.0
8.8
10.3
9.4
12.4
11.7
11.1
10.4
12.6
11.7
10.1
7.9
10.5
11.8
12.1
11.1
9.7
10.1
11.5
9.9
11.0
9.7
10.6
12.7
13.5
12.4
11.7
12.7
10.5
10.2
12.8
11.8
11.4
9.6
11.9
10.1
11.5
12.1
14.0
12.9
12.4
13.4
12.1
12.4
10.4
11.6
11.1
9.2
11.6
9.3
11.4
10.2
8.5
12.0
13.3
9.3
12.8
10.7
8.6
11.3
12.7
12.0
10.7
10.8
10.3
9.1
11.4
10.5
11.6
8.6
11.1
12.7
14.4
11.8
9.2
8.8
10.4
12.3
11.3
11.7
10.8
9.5
9.5
12.2
10.0
11.8
9.9
13.5
12.1
12.7
11.1
11.5
11.3
10.8
11.0
10.0
9.8
10.4
10.6
11.4
11.7
8.3
10.0
11.3
11.9
11.1
13.0
11.8
The histogram with the normal curve superimposed to represent the data
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
x = 11.2 %
s = 1.28 %
c.v. = 11.43 %
Median = 11.4 %
Mode = 12.3 %
Normal
curve
13.85-14.55
13.15-13.85
12.45-13.15
11.75-12.45
11.05-11.75
10.35-11.05
8.95-9.65
9.65-10.35
8.25-8.95
Low < 11%

Normal 11 12%
High > 12%
7.55-8.25
Frequency
distribution is shown in Figure 5.10.
Absorption in percentage
Figure 5.10:
The histogram and the normal curve fit for water

The 33-percentile values were computed from the normal curve. The middle
third of the distribution, which refers to the normal values of water absorption was
11 to 12 %. The control charts as shown in Figure 5.11 shows that sample 17 and
137
24 were lying outside the upper and lower action line. Therefore, these two samples
were ignored in the determination of the population mean. The variance derived
from ANOVA was 1.53 with the standard deviation of 1.24 %. The population
13,0
12,0
11,0
10,0
9,0
0
10
20
30
Water Absorption
(%)
Range
Water Absrption
(%)
Mean
mean for water absorption at 95 % confidence falls in the range of 10 to 12 %.
8,0
6,0
4,0
2,0
0,0
0
10
Sample
20
30
Sample
Figure 5.11: Control chart of mean values and ranges of samples for
water absorption of bricks
In most standards water absorption is often specified against compressive
strength to designate bricks classification. In conjunction with this classification the
bricks population under investigation have a mean compressive strengths of 40 to
over 50 N/mm2 with water absorption of 10 to12 %, appears to supersede the top
range of SW bricks meant for structural application in ASTM.
Table 5.15:
Comparison of water absorption with limits specified by British

Standard and ASTM
Water absorption %
Research results
at 95%
confidence
British Standard (BS 3921)

Engineering A
Engineering B
10 12 %
4.5 %
7.0 %
ASTM C 62 89a
Grade
SW
Grade
MW
Grade
NW
Maximum
17 %
Maximum
22 %
No limit
Comparison of the values for water absorption tests with limits specified in
BS and ASTM (Table 5.15) shows that water absorption of bricks for the
population in this study did not lie in the range of the Engineering A and B of the
BS. However, it can be seen that this range was within the requirements in ASTM
for bricks of the SW and MW category.
138
The British standard specifies bricks of high strength and low water
absorption for their Engineering bricks, which are meant for structural masonry.
Corresponding characteristic flexural strength to three levels of water absorption is
provided in BS 5628: Part 1 i.e. less than 7 %; between 7 % and 12 % and over 12
% to be used in designs (Table 5.16). In this respect, the water absorption
characterised by the bricks in this investigation relates to second level of water
absorption i.e. between 7 and 12 % to yield an estimated characteristic flexural
strength of 0.35 to 1.5 depending upon the mortar designation and plane of failure.
Table 5.16:
Relationship between characteristic flexural strengths and levels

of water absorption (BS 5628 Pt. 1)
Characteristic flexural strength , fkx N/mm2
Mortar designation
Plane of failure parallel to

bed joints
Plane of failure
perpendicular to bed joints
(i)
(i)
(ii) and (iii)
(iv)
(ii) and (iii)
(iv)
Water absorption less than

7%
Between 7 % and 12 %
0.7
0.5
0.4
2.0
1.5
1.2
0.5
0.4
0.35
1.5
1.1
1.0
Over 12 %
0.4
0.3
0.25
1.1
0.9
0.8
A relationship between water absorption and porosity was developed for

bricks investigated in this research. The relation was a projection from results
obtained by Khalaf (2002) and is shown in Chapter VI.
5.5

The initial rate of suction for bricks in this investigation was computed based
on gross and net area of immersion. In the BS, IRS is determined based on gross
area of immersion without considering the reduced area due to perforations for cored
bricks. However, in the ASTM and AS/NZS the IRS for cored bricks is calculated
based on the net area of immersion i.e. the gross area less the area of perforations
139
Table 5.17 shows the results of IRS in the specimens for all samples. The
sample mean based on gross area of immersion was 1.6 kg/m2.min. with a standard
deviation of 0.49 kg/m2.min. and a c.v. of 29.6 %.
Table 5.17:
Computed values for initial rate of suction of specimens

for facing bricks based on gross area of immersion
Sample
IRS kg/(m2.min.)
1
1.8
1.4
1.6
1.4
2
1.4
1.6
1.4
0.9
3
1.4
1.6
2.6
1.2
4
1.6
1.7
1.6
1.9
5
1.7
1.8
2.0
1.4
6
1.8
1.6
1.8
1.4
7
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
Batch
2
8
2.0
2.3
2.4
2.0
9
1.9
1.3
2.0
1.7
10
1.6
1.1
1.8
2.6
11
2.0
1.9
1.9
2.1
12
1.4
2.0
1.2
2.0
13
1.7
1.9
1.5
1.6
14
2.0
1.6
2.1
1.8
15
1.4
1.5
2.5
1.2
16
0.1
1.0
1.8
1.1
17
2.0
1.2
1.5
1.4
18
1.1
1.5
1.1
1.0
19
1.9
1.9
1.7
1.6
20
2.1
0.6
1.1
2.0
21
1.7
0.9
2.0
2.1
22
1.9
2.1
1.6
2.1
23
1.8
2.1
1.8
1.8
Batch
4
24
2.5
3.1
1.5
1.6
25
2.3
0.8
2.2
2.5
26
1.2
0.2
0.6
2.2
27
1.1
2.3
0.9
0.2
Mean, x = 1.6 kg/(m2.min.)
Median = 1.7 kg/(m2.min.)
Mode = 2.3 kg/(m2.min.)
Standard deviation, s = 0.49 kg/(m2.min.)
Maximum = 3.1 kg/(m2.min.)
Minimum =0.1 kg/(m2.min.)
Range, R = 3.0 kg/(m2.min.)
Batch
1
2.2
1.6
1.9
2.2
1.7
2.0
1.7
1.3
1.6
1.7
2.2
2.1
2.1
1.3
2.0
1.2
1.4
1.8
1.9
1.8
0.9
1.5
0.8
2.3
2.2
0.8
0.9
1.6
1.6
1.6
1.6
2.0
2.9
2.2
1.5
1.6
1.8
0.8
1.4
1.9
1.9
1.9
1.5
1.4
1.0
1.8
1.6
2.1
1.3
1.6
2.1
1.5
2.3
1.9
2.3
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.1
1.6
1.9
1.7
1.4
1.5
1.7
2.0
1.7
1.6
1.1
1.4
1.1
1.9
1.2
2.0
0.8
0.4
2.5
2.4
2.3
2.5
1.3
0.9
1.2
1.6
1.8
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.4
1.1
1.5
1.7
1.6
1.2
1.9
1.5
1.5
1.4
1.7
1.6
0.7
1.8
1.5
0.7
2.5
1.8
0.9
1.0
1.6
1.4
2.1
1.7
2.1
1.5
1.8
1.9
2.0
1.9
1.7
1.5
1.4
1.6
2.0
1.0
1.0
1.2
1.5
1.2
1.5
0.6
2.3
0.8
0.7
2.4
1.1
1.2
1.8
1.6
1.7
2.3
1.5
1.8
2.3
1.9
1.9
1.1
2.3
2.4
2.5
1.6
1.8
0.7
1.7
1.1
1.9
1.7
2.7
1.5
1.1
2.3
0.9
2.2
The c.v. for IRS in the samples was almost 30.0 % and therefore the lognormal probability curve was used to represent the data distribution. Figure 5.12
shows the histogram with the log-normal curve superimposed. The 33-percentile
140
values in the sample data were computed from the log-normal probability curve and
data in the middle third i.e. 1.0 to1.30 kg/m2.min. indicated normal values for IRS.
x = 1.6 kg / m 2 .min
s = 0.49 kg / m 2 .min
c.v. = 30.0 %
median = 1.7 kg / m 2 .min
mod e = 2.3 kg / m 2 .min
Log-normal
curve
2.633 - 2.910
2.356 - 2.633
2.079 - 2.356
1.802 - 2.079
1.525- 1.802
1.248 - 1.525
0.971 - 1.248
0.694 - 0.971
Low < 1.0 kg/m2.min

Normal =1.0 1.30 kg/m2.min
High > 1.30 kg/m2.min
0.14 - 0.417
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.417 - 0.694
frequency
These values were within the limits of IRS denoted to produce good bond.
Initial rate of suction kg/(m2.min)
Figure 5.12: Histogram and normal curve fit for IRS based on
IRS kg/(m .min)

Range
2.50
2.00
IRS kg/(m2.min)
Mean
1.50
1.00
0
10
15
20
25
30
Sample
Figure 5.13:
3.00
2.00
1.00
0.00
0
10
15
20
25
30
Sample
Control charts for means and ranges for IRS based on

The control charts of means and ranges (Figure 5.13) shows that some
samples were lying outside the control limits i.e. the upper and lower warning and
action lines. Therefore, these samples i.e. samples 4, 7, 16, 17, 22, 24, 26 and 27
were taken as not representative of the population and were ignored in the
determination of the population mean. The estimate of variance derived from
ANOVA for all data after ignoring the samples described above was 0.178. The
corresponding standard deviation was 0.422 kg/m2.min.and the population mean
ranging from 1.4 to 2.0 kg/m2.min i.e. at 95 % confidence (5 % reject).
141
ASTM specifies that bricks with IRS greater than 1.5 kg/m2.min should be
well wetted before laying and recommended that the wetting be carried out 3 to 24
hours before use. On the other hand there is no provision of IRS limits in the BS
3921:1985. However, a test method for determining IRS is included in the British
standard as this parameter is important for highly stressed masonry structures. In
prEN 771-1 the IRS values are only required in application where the work warrant
its use and in this respect the value should be declared by the manufacturer.
Although the normal values of IRS in the middle third distribution, ranged
from 1.0 to 1.3 kg/m2.min is within the recommended limit of the ASTM the upper
range of the 95 % confidence limits were higher than 1.5 kg/m2.min. Hence,
consideration for wetting of the bricks should be emphasised especially in
application where bond strength is critical.
Wetting bricks before laying is more critical in hot weather construction
since suction rate of bricks is influenced by the temperature of the bricks and the
surrounding temperature (Davidson, 1982). Warmer units will absorb more water
from the mortar and in addition, the water from mortar is evaporated at a faster rate.
For this reason, in hot weather construction, bricks with high suction rates (over 1.5
kg/m2.min) should be well wetted before laying. On this basis, the IRS should be
regarded as an important property of brick for this country, which experience hot
weather throughout the year.
Table 5.18 shows the results for IRS based on net area of immersion. The
mean IRS was 1.9 kg/m2.min, which showed a considerable increase of about 20 %
from the IRS determined by gross area of immersion. The ASTM considers this
factor and specified that the IRS should be calculated based on the net area of
immersion for perforated bricks while the AS/NZS 4456:1997 specifies both values
of IRS due to net and gross area of immersion.
142
Table 5.18:
Computed values for initial rate of suction of specimens of

facing bricks based on net area of immersion
IRS kg/(m2.min.)
Sample
1
2.11 1.65
2
1.64 1.90
3
1.64 1.90
4
1.90 1.96
5
1.95 2.08
Batch
6
2.14 1.83
1
7
2.40 2.33
8
2.37 2.65
9
2.23 1.48
10
1.92 1.31
11
2.35 2.19
12
1.67 2.34
13
2.02 2.28
14
2.38 1.93
15
1.59 1.71
Batch
3
16
0.17 1.21
17
2.37 1.44
18
1.32 1.73
19
2.19 2.17
20
2.45 0.68
21
2.02 1.06
22
2.25 2.44
23
2.08 2.46
Batch
4
24
2.97 3.59
25
2.66 0.94
26
1.45 0.22
27
1.24 2.66
Mean x = 1.933 kg/(m2.min.)
5.6
1.89
1.62
3.01
1.93
2.38
2.06
2.33
2.82
2.35
2.11
2.27
1.39
1.71
2.43
2.94
2.07
1.80
1.34
2.03
1.28
2.29
1.90
2.07
1.81
2.57
0.71
1.04
1.66
1.11
1.37
2.18
1.62
1.65
2.30
2.41
1.97
3.07
2.42
2.39
1.88
2.09
1.40
1.27
1.65
1.17
1.91
2.29
2.49
2.53
2.11
1.92
2.92
2.60
0.28
2.60
1.90
2.23
2.62
1.99
2.35
1.98
1.49
1.85
1.98
2.60
2.42
2.44
1.55
2.38
1.35
1.69
2.17
2.22
2.09
1.11
1.78
0.96
2.71
2.55
0.99
1.04
1.86
1.92
1.91
1.88
2.38
3.43
2.53
1.71
1.88
2.06
0.89
1.59
2.19
2.22
2.21
1.70
1.70
1.23
2.13
1.89
2.50
1.49
1.86
2.52
1.70
2.71
2.19
2.67
1.63
1.90
2.13
2.48
1.89
2.29
1.96
1.70
1.78
2.01
2.34
1.99
1.87
1.24
1.60
1.27
2.28
1.44
2.32
0.89
0.45
3.00
2.78
2.68
2.93
1.52
1.10
1.37
1.91
2.08
2.05
2.00
2.00
1.62
1.31
1.80
2.04
1.86
1.40
2.25
1.75
1.75
1.70
1.98
1.93
0.79
2.16
1.73
0.85
2.92
2.07
1.06
1.20
1.90
1.63
2.43
1.97
2.50
1.74
2.12
2.24
2.30
2.22
2.02
1.73
1.67
1.87
2.35
1.17
1.16
1.39
1.76
1.35
1.80
0.68
2.73
0.98
0.82
2.77
1.30
1.36
2.17
1.91
1.99
2.74
1.74
2.12
2.71
2.26
2.18
1.26
2.73
2.81
2.94
1.89
2.11
0.83
2.02
1.29
2.19
1.98
3.19
1.78
1.28
2.66
1.04
2.59
Density
Table 5.19 shows the results for the density test in the specimens for all
samples. The mean density from sample data was 1781.51 kg/m3 with a standard
deviation of 35.858 kg/m3 and a c.v. of 2.013 %.
143
Table 5.19:
Density of specimens in each sample for facing bricks
Sample
1
1761.03 1848.48 1777.78
2
1751.80 1805.15 1748.12
3
1794.57 1773.08 1671.33
4
1776.60 1782.95 1731.06
5
1785.27 1784.96 1757.64
6
1781.69 1754.29 1800.75
7
1705.15 1794.96 1771.74
Batch
2
8
1847.73 1754.55 1770.21
9
1782.48 1778.10 1786.86
10 1773.91 1823.13 1784.44
11 1797.81 1761.59 1778.99
12 1802.17 1789.05 1822.39
13 1783.94 1770.29 1784.67
14 1856.72 1836.30 1805.15
Batch 15 1796.27 1842.97 1764.93
3
16 1851.16 1763.16 1763.70
17 1766.92 1891.27 1775.56
18 1834.38 1797.66 1767.65
19 1733.82 1762.69 1817.69
20 1784.44 1685.00 1696.40
21 1768.15 1705.93 1742.96
22 1829.46 1770.45 1743.61
Batch 23 1821.54 1778.63 1738.35
4
24 1783.58 1766.21 1789.84
25 1767.45 1742.24 1748.89
26 1756.83 1879.38 1795.56
27 1836.83 1806.39 1805.15
Mean, x = 1781.51 kg/m3
Median = 1781.158 kg/m3
Mode = 1805.147 kg/m3
Standard deviation, s = 35.858 kg/m3
Maximum = 1902.273 kg/m3
Minimum =1671.329 kg/m3
Range, R = 230.944 kg/m3
Coefficient of variation, c.v. =2.013%
Batch
1
Density kg/m3
1803.70
1795.62
1767.61
1794.57
1783.46
1794.78
1795.62
1773.53
1748.57
1794.16
1810.29
1802.21
1814.07
1842.22
1792.42
1799.25
1809.85
1760.00
1800.76
1810.24
1736.09
1725.19
1719.05
1728.56
1830.37
1805.85
1842.22
1770.37
1804.51
1792.59
1775.74
1780.85
1752.67
1778.52
1760.31
1789.78
1771.18
1805.88
1795.59
1820.90
1756.83
1813.85
1749.62
1751.82
1773.33
1754.74
1793.02
1716.18
1760.00
1765.12
1792.77
1803.45
1741.94
1726.54
1787.31
1775.36
1715.83
1734.85
1792.03
1756.12
1738.89
1769.23
1783.94
1775.36
1793.38
1836.09
1828.15
1766.91
1833.86
1817.56
1806.15
1759.84
1692.09
1739.85
1798.50
1761.48
1754.81
1773.95
1792.74
1795.26
1716.82
1868.00
1791.97
1759.69
1781.48
1755.47
1780.14
1750.35
1757.86
1749.29
1831.58
1820.44
1774.64
1807.41
1813.33
1771.64
1784.09
1762.12
1840.94
1800.00
1770.00
1754.55
1739.10
1758.02
1720.93
1810.54
1761.12
1797.33
1785.19
1797.71
1792.59
1746.48
1754.74
1780.14
1815.56
1775.00
1756.12
1755.71
1783.45
1834.81
1836.09
1786.86
1902.27
1791.85
1788.64
1773.48
1725.18
1793.28
1737.31
1791.73
1782.71
1763.33
1780.34
1768.64
1825.95
1793.48
1834.59
1812.50
1802.33
1721.01
1779.70
1747.33
1759.85
1789.05
1774.64
1819.12
1800.73
1843.28
1822.06
1747.76
1787.97
1761.65
1817.32
1739.42
1755.56
1790.15
1747.37
1738.35
1788.46
1811.22
1759.74
1802.17
1751.85
1800.00
1794.78
1765.38
1740.58
1785.21
1781.29
1772.22
1778.99
1814.81
1830.08
1824.26
1827.61
1781.02
1878.74
1716.79
1856.25
1775.38
1695.71
1751.11
1739.10
1747.73
1766.92
1768.82
1795.16
1806.25
1781.02
Figure 5.14 shows the histogram to represent data distribution. Assuming

that the data is normally distributed, the normal curve fit is analysed and the curve
superimposed on the histogram. From the normal curve the 33-percentile computed
from sample data shows the middle third distribution, which consists of the normal
values for density ranging from 1766 to 1795 kg/m3.
144
From Control charts for means and ranges of density (Figure 5.15), the
samples lying outside the upper and lower warning and action lines were ignored to
determine the population mean. A single factor ANOVA was carried out on the
remaining sample data to determine the components of variance in the samples
among the different batches. The variance determined from the ANOVA was 1114.0
with standard deviation of 33.38 kg/m3. The population mean neglecting the samples
outside the zones mentioned above, and with 95 % confidence limits was 1757
to1804 kg/m3. This value was higher than the average value of density i.e.1610
kg/m3 (Table 5.20) required for sound insulation purposes of the Building
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1901.0-1924.1
1877.9-1901.0
1854.8-1877.9
1831.7-1854.8
1808.6-1831.7
1785.5-1808.6
1762.4-1785.5
1739.3-1762.4
1716.2-1739.3
1693.1-1716.2
x = 1781.51kg / m3
s = 35.86kg / m3
median = 1781.16kg / m3
mod e = 1805.15kg / m3
c.v. = 2.013%
1670.0-1693.1
Frequency
Regulations of the United Kingdom.
Low < 1767 kg/m3

Normal 1767 1795 kg/m3
High > 1795 kg/m3
De nsity kg/m 3
Figure 5.14: Histogram and normal curve fit for density of
1820
Density kg/m
Range
Density kg/m
Mean
bricks
1800
1780
1760
1740
0
10
15
20
25
Sample
Figure 5.15:
30
200
150
100
50
0
0
10
20
30
Sample
Control charts for mean values and ranges of samples for

density of bricks
145
Table 5.20:
Density of bricks for sound insulation in walls and walls

with plaster finish for (Building regulations of the UK)
Wall
Plaster finish
Average
density of
brick to be
used
(kg/m3)
Material
and
dimensions
(mm)
Thickness
(mm)
Specified
weight at least
(kg/m2) includes
finish
Number
of sides
Type
Solid wall
Brick size
mm
65 x 102.5 x
215
215
375
Lightweight
1610
Gypsum
1610
Cavity wall
255
Lightweight
1970
Gypsum
1970
415
Density of brick has been given more emphasis recently in masonry

standards. The prEN 771-1 included density as a requirement especially to identify
the acoustic property of a brick. A brick wall with thickness 102.5 mm could give a
sound reduction index of 46 dB (Curtin, et. al). Table 5.21 shows the typical sound
insulation values of masonry walls with respect to its thickness and weight.
Loudness of 40 to 50 dB is considered as faint to moderate loudness suitable for an
average home and general to private office (Drysdale, et.al).
Table 5.21: Typical sound insulation values of masonry walls
(Curtin, et. al)
Thickness
(mm)
Weight
(kg/m2)
Approximate sound
reduction index
(dB)

215
415
49.5

102.5
220
46
Material and construction
146
5.7
Efflorescence
The results in the test for efflorescence were based on the 4 samples
(1 sample in each batch). Every brick in a sample of 10 bricks were examined for
efflorescence after the test. Based on visual examination of the exposed surfaces for
all the samples in the 4 batches no deposits of salts or any other effects of
efflorescence such as powdering or flaking could be detected.
5.8

Bricks were tested for the presence of acid soluble sulphates and water-
soluble salts of calcium, magnesium, potassium and sodium. Table 5.22 shows the
content of soluble salt in the samples from the various batches and the maximum
limit of salt content provided by BS 3921:1985 for the category of low salt.
Table 5.22:
Sample
Batch
1
Batch
2
Batch
3
Batch
4
Percentage of soluble salts in samples from all batches

Calcium
Sodium
Potassium
Magnesium
Sulphate
0.013
0.003
0.003
0.003
0.014
0.07
0.002
0.003
0.002
0.07
0.003
0.004
0.006
0.002
0.09
0.006
0.002
0.009
0.003
0.06
0.016
0.003
0.007
0.006
0.09
0.010
0.001
0.003
0.004
0.02
0.007
0.003
0.006
0.003
0.09
0.011
0.002
0.005
0.004
0.04
0.007
0.001
0.003
0.003
0.02
10
0.008
0.002
0.004
0.003
0.02
11
0.009
0.002
0.004
0.003
0.02
12
0.010
0.002
0.004
0.005
0.02
Mean, x %
0.010
0.002
0.005
0.003
0.05
Sample standard
deviation, s
0.004
0.0006
0.002
0.001
0.03
c.v. %
40.0
30.0
40.0
33.3
60.0
BS 3921:1985
0.3 %
0.03 %
0.03 %
0.03 %
0.50 %
147
The results indicated that the percentage of salts i.e. calcium, sodium,
magnesium, potassium and sulphate in the bricks were very small in comparisons
with the limits for the category of Low salt content as defined in BS 3921:1985.
The c.v. in the test for sulphate was considerably high which was about
60 %. The reason for this was most probably due to the test method used. Sulphate
was determined by the gravimetric method, which is confined to relatively high
sulphate content. The method was also considered as rather complicated and this
may contributed to the significant variability in the results (Brachtel, 2003).
The results of salt content compared with the European Standard prEN 771-1
also showed that the bricks investigated had very low salt content. The combined
content of sodium and potassium in the bricks from this research was 0.007 %,
which is very much below the maximum limits provided in prEN 771-1 for category
S1 (0.17 %) and S2 (0.06 %). Similarly, with a mean percentage of 0.003,
magnesium was also below the specified maximum limit i.e. 0.08 and 0.03 for
category S1 and S2 respectively. Thus the bricks fit into the category of application
of S1 and S2 as defined in the European Standard; S1 is for normal exposure and S2
is suitable for prolonged saturation applications.
CHAPTER 6
APPLICATIONS OF RESEARCH FINDINGS
6.1
Relationship of Aspect Ratio to Compressive Strength

In masonry construction bricks are normally laid on the bed face, which yield
the greatest compressive strength compared to if laid in the stretcher or header faces.
A relationship between the compressive strengths of units and their aspect ratio (h/t),
was proposed through the research findings described in the earlier chapters. The
compressive strengths are related to h/t as described by the following relationship:
f = 16.35 x + 58.17
(6.1)
Where,
f = compressive strengths of a brick (N/mm2)
x =aspect ratio (height to thickness ratio, h/t).
The above relationship was obtained by the best-fit line with a regression
coefficient of R2 = 0.998 (Figure 6.1)
N/mm2
149
50
40
f = -16.353x + 58.168
30
R2 = 0.998
20
10
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
Figure 6.1:
Relationship between compressive strength

and h/t ratio of bricks.
Equation 6.1 can be used to estimate compressive strength of a brick for

various h/t ratio greater than 0.7 but less than 3.2. The dimensions h and t are
defined accordingly to the orientation of bricks in a brick laying (Figure 6.2), where
h = height of the brick normal to the loading axis,
t = smaller dimension of the loaded surface area.
h
(a)
h
(b)
W= direction of loading on wall
t
h
(c)
Figure 6.2:
Orientation of bricks in a brick laying (a) header face

(b) bed face (c) stretcher face
150
The estimated strength provides useful information to manufacturers as well
as designers in assessing the compressive strength of a brick when loaded in the
various orientations without conducting any tests, as yet giving an important data for
use in preliminary design or strength assessment. The proposed relationship is also
convenient to users where facilities for testing are not available at hand. The
applicability of the proposed estimated relationship is only valid under the following
conditions:
The bricks are fired clay bricks.
Percentage of perforations is about 20 %
The aspect ratio h/t must lie between 0.7 to 3.2
It should be noted that the estimated compressive strengths for bricks loaded
on the bed face as derived in equation 6.1 is based on gross loaded area whereby
perforated areas were ignored. This tends to yield a smaller compressive strength
than if computed using net area. Hence, the prediction given by this formula for
perforated bricks tested on bed face is conservative.
Conventionally the compressive strength test provides the strength of bricks
when loaded on bed face. The relationship between the compressive strength of
bricks when loaded on the bed face and in other test orientations are considered
important for design and preliminary assessment purposes.
An attempt is made to establish this relationship, based on the research
findings described in previous chapters and illustrated below. The compressive
strength of bricks when loaded on the bed face is used as a standard measure as it is
the only available data in any compressive test.
Assuming fb, fs and fh are the corresponding compressive strength of bricks
in the bed, stretcher and header faces. Substituting the values of fb and fs as 46.1 and
34.7 N/mm2 for compressive strengths of bricks in this research, therefore a ratio of
fs : fb can be established as shown in equation 6.2.
151
f s 34.7
=
= 0.75
f b 46.1
(6.2)
or,
f s = 0.75 fb
(6.3)
Similarly, the compressive strength due to loading on the header face (fh=
5.5 N/mm2) can be derived in terms of fb as shown in equation 6.4.
fh
5.5
=
= 0.12
fb 46.1
fh = 0.12 fb
(6.4)
(6.5)
For fired clay bricks the ratio of compressive strength for bricks tested on the
f
stretcher face to bed face, s = 0.75 . The ratio of compressive strength for bricks
fb
f
tested on the header face to the bed face, h = 0.12 .
fb
This is a convenient method of projecting the test results to other orientations
in the absence of laboratory facilities, and also acts as a guide to some preliminary
design work. It is to be noted, however, that the relationship of equation 6.3 and 6.5,
are valid provided that the conditions stated earlier are satisfied.
6.2
Relationship of Water Absorption to Porosity and Compressive Strength

Recent investigation on brick porosity and water absorption (Khalaf, 2002)
has indicated that there is a relationship between water absorption, porosity and
compressive strength. Table 6.1 shows the results of bricks compressive strength,
water absorption and porosity obtained by Khalaf.
152
Table 6.1:
Relationship between bricks compressive strength, water

absorption and porosity (Khalaf, 2002)
Full-brick
compressive
strength
(N/mm2)
92
81
68
39
-
Brick Type
Class B engineering
Clay 10 hole
Clay 3 slot and 8 hole
Clay frogged common
Granite
Water absorption of
brick units BS 3921
(5-hr boil)
(%)
6.0
6.2
5.8
12.9
2.63
Porosity of brick
lumps by
vacuum (%)
14.85
16.75
17.39
25.04
6.15
Using the results from Table 6.1 the graphs as shown in Figure 6.3 and 6.4
were plotted to show the relationship of water absorption to porosity and
Water absorption,%
( 5-hr boiling)
compressive strength of bricks respectively.
14
12
10
8
6
4
y = 0.74x - 6.05
R2 = 0.9348
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
Porosity (%)
Figure 6.3:
Relationship of water absorption with porosity
Full-brick compressive
strength, f (N/mm2)
from Table 6.1
100
80
60
40
20
0
f = -4.97x + 161.96
R2 = 0.9497
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
Porosity (%)
Figure 6.4:
Relationship of porosity with compressive strength

from Table 6.1
The relationship of water absorption with porosity (Figure 6.3) was used to
determine the porosity of the bricks in this investigation as shown in equation 6.6
153
y = 0.74 x 6.05
(6.6)
Where,
y = water absorption (%)
x = porosity (%)
Substituting y = 11.2% i.e. the mean water absorption for the bricks in this
investigation, in equation 6.6, the porosity, x = 23 %
The relationship of porosity with compressive strength is shown in Figure
6.4. Knowing the porosity the compressive strength could be derived from the
relationship as described by equation 6.7
f = 4.97 x + 161.96
(6.7)
Where,
f = compressive strength (N/mm2)
x = porosity ( %)
Substituting the porosity, x = 23 % in equation 6.7, the compressive strength
computed was 47.65 N/mm2, which was close to the value of the mean compressive
strength in this research i.e. 46.1 N/mm2. Thus it could be assumed that the bricks in
this investigation had a porosity of about 23 %. However it is to be noted that the
porosity derived in this equation was based on results of 20 mm bricks lumps.
CHAPTER 7
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

FOR FURTHER WORK
7.1
Conclusions
The conclusions are divided into two sections i.e. the general conclusions
and the detailed conclusions. The general conclusions dealt with properties found in
the present Malaysian standards (MS 76 Part 2:1972) i.e. compressive strengths,
water absorption, dimensional tolerance and soluble salt content. The detailed
conclusions consist of other aspects of the properties evaluation arising from
comparisons conducted with other international standards and the varying test
methods and measurements used by these standards. The section also contains new
properties consisting of initial rate of suction and density useful for the development
of masonry standards.
7.2
General Conclusions
The mean compressive strength of facing bricks falls in the range of
40 N/mm2 to 50 N/mm2 and common bricks 30 N/mm2 to 40 N/mm2. The bricks fall
within the higher range of compressive strengths specified in Malaysian Standard
MS 76:1972 and therefore regarded as load bearing units.
155
The mean water absorption of the bricks investigated was 10 % to 12 %,
which lied outside the specified limits for Engineering A ( 4.5 %) and Engineering
B ( 7 %) of the Malaysian/British Standard.
The results on the overall dimensions of 24 bricks showed that both the
length and the width fall within the permissible tolerance of the Malaysian
Standard/British Standard. However, the height exceeded the Malaysian Standard/
British Standard tolerance limit considerably by about 37 mm. Therefore, the
category of dimensional deviations in existing Malaysian standard, which was based
on the BS overall measurement of 24 bricks need to be modified accordingly.
The content of calcium, magnesium, potassium, sodium and sulphate in the
bricks was very negligible and thus they fall under the durability designation of
Low (L) of soluble salt content as per BS 3921:1985. In accordance to European
Standard, the bricks could be applied even for the worst condition of construction
application i.e. S2, which is meant for masonry structures subjected to prolonged
wet situation.
7.3
Detailed Conclusions
7.3.1
Compressive strengths
The range of mean compressive strength obtained in the bricks surpass the
minimum value i.e. 20.7 N/mm2 specified for compressive strength of facing brick
in ASTM C216-90a to be used in SW (severe weathering) regions. Under Singapore
Standard SS 103:1974, the bricks could be categorised as the First Grade bricks.
Considerable reduction of compressive strength was observed when bricks
were tested in the different orientations. When tested on the stretcher face the
compressive strength was approximately 60 % to 90 % of the compressive strength
tested on bed face. On the header face the compressive strength was further reduced
156
to about 10 % to 15 % of the strength tested on bed face. Hence, compressive
strength should be indicated with the brick orientation for testing.
Compressive strength of bricks is affected by curing conditions before
testing. Dry bricks show higher compressive strengths than wet bricks. The
compressive strength of bricks evaluated in the tests was based on saturated
condition, therefore, providing conservative values by about 15 to 20 %.
Additionally, the compressive strength was computed based on gross area, further
reducing the compressive strength by approximately 20 %.
7.3.2
Water Absorption
Although the bricks researched could not satisfy the requirements for the
water absorption in the Malaysian Standard (MS 76:1972), the values were well
within the requirements provided in ASTM for Grade SW and MW bricks with
water absorption limits of 17 % and 22 % respectively.
Malaysian bricks tend to have high water absorption, typically greater than
10 %, and this can be explained by the limestone content in the soil. This is not a
characteristic of British soil, therefore water absorption in British bricks are usually
lower.
The water absorption of the bricks investigated corresponds to the second
level of the characteristic flexural strength of BS 5628: Part 1, denoted by strengths
of 0.35 to 1.5 N/mm2, which depend on the mortar designation and the plane of
failure. These values are required in the design of masonry structures.
The relation of water absorption to porosity showed that the porosity of the
bricks in this investigation was about 23 %. Compressive strength of bricks could be
related to their porosity and this relationship would be useful for a preliminary
estimation of compressive strength.
157
7.3.3
Comparison of results with the recent European Standard shows that the
bricks investigated satisfy the category of T1 of prEN 771-1.
7.3.4

The bricks in this investigation had a mean initial rate of suction of 1.4 to 2.0
2
kg/m .min, which fall under the high range of IRS. Ideally, the value of IRS should
be between 0.25 to 1.5 kg/min.m2 for the development of appropriate bond strength
between the bricks and the mortar interface. ASTM recommends that bricks with
IRS exceeding 1.5 kg/min.m2 should be wetted before laying. The bricks indicted
high values of IRS hence requiring pre-wetted surface before laying in order to
optimise bonding upon laying on to mortar. This is considered more critical in hot
weather construction since hot bricks will absorb more water and the water in mortar
will be depreciated at a faster rate with high temperature.
The range of IRS values of 1.4 to 2.0 kg/m2.min demonstrated by the bricks
in this investigation was determined using gross area i.e. without reducing the area
of immersion by the area of perforations. The IRS calculated using net area of
immersion shows an IRS value higher than about 18 % if based on gross area. The
BS 3921:1985 computed the IRS based on gross area while the ASTM and AS/NZS
use the net area. It is therefore significant that IRS values be clearly indicated for
both cases of calculation to avoid confusion. Therefore, specification for IRS values
should be denoted as IRSgross or IRSnet depending on the surface area of immersion.
158
7.3.5

The soluble salt content for all the minerals under investigations i.e. calcium,
sodium, potassium, magnesium and sulphate were all below the maximum limits
specified in the British Standard. This justifies the reason why salt does not appear
on the brick surfaces in the efflorescence test. The effects of sulphate have been
given a considerable attention in existing standards, however this is not the case for
EN 771-1. The European standard considered the sulphate action a complex matter
to be dealt with in the national design codes. Sodium and potassium has been
analysed as a combined effect in the EN, with maximum values of 0.17 %
depending on the application category. In this case the research results of 0.007 %
does not exceed the recommended percentage of the EN. The percentage of sulphate
present in the bricks was 0.05 %. This value is much below the maximum of 0.5 %
allowed for in the BS 3921.
7.3.6
Density
The density of the bricks in this investigation is within the range of 1757
3
kg/m to 1804 kg/m3. Previous works imply that the bricks in this range use in a
102.5 mm thick wall could give a sound insulation of 40 to 50 dB (Curtin et al.,
1995) which is considered as faint to moderate loudness suitable for an average
home and general to private office (Drysdale et al., 1994). The density of the bricks,
also suffice the requirements for sound insulation specified in the building
regulations in the United Kingdom.
7.4
Recommendations for Further Work

The bricks properties reported herein was based on a production from a
single manufacturer of clay bricks. Future studies should include other

manufacturers of clay bricks in order to achieve results representative of the entire
159
population of bricks in the country. The results representing the whole population
would characterise local production and therefore useful in the development of
national standards. Recommendations for future research should include the
following:
(i)
Sampling should be obtained from a larger number of manufacturers
across the country for a more representative estimate of the properties and to
include various types of bricks in local production.
(ii)
In order to get a more comprehensive relationship of the compressive
strengths with the bricks aspect ratio (h/t), bricks samples should comprise
other formats and configurations to include a wider range of bricks types.
In this research, bricks were generally tested in accordance to the British
standard procedure. However, procedures from other standards were also looked
into and regarded as more reliable and accurate. Some recommendations to be
considered in the testing methods for future studies include:
(i)
Investigation on the density of bricks should be determined for both
the dry and ambient condition.

(ii)
Evaluation of water absorption by the 5-hr boiling test involving the
use of small brick lumps as specimen instead of the normal whole brick may
be considered. This new method would certainly be more economical
because less fuel would be needed in boiling the small specimen. Moreover,
the handling of experiments would be more convenient with small specimens
especially in testing that implicate a large amount of samples as experienced
in this research. Further, it was claimed that this new method could produce
results that are more accurate.
(iii)
In the preparation of specimens for the tests of water absorption and
IRS, BS 3921 procedure for attaining constant mass when drying bricks in
the oven is by heating the bricks for at least 48 hrs. The ASTM and
Australian standard monitor the change of mass at specified intervals. Bricks,
160
which are recently manufactured, normally have very small moisture content.
Thus, they may not need too long a duration for example the 48 hours
assumed to attain constant mass. Therefore, by monitoring the weight loss
may reduce the time of heating and consequently economise on the use of
energy. For this matter, it is recommended that the AS/NZS 4456 or the
ASTM C 67 be adopted in the laboratory procedure for attaining constant
mass of bricks.
(iv)
In the test for IRS, standard method should incorporate ways of
ensuring a consistent 3 mm immersion during the test. This could be helpful

in attaining more precise results.
REFERENCES
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ACI 530.1-92/ASCE 6-92/TMS 602-92, Reference manual.
American Society for Testing Materials (1990), Standard Specification for Facing
Brick (Solid Masonry Units Made from Clay or Shale). United States of
America, ASTM C 216-90a.
American Society for Testing Materials (1989), Standard Specification for Hollow
Brick (Hollow Masonry Units Made from Clay or Shale). United States of
American Society for Testing Materials (1990), Standard Specification for Building
Brick (Solid Masonry Units Made from Clay or Shale). United States of
American Society for Testing Materials (1991), Standard Test Methods of
Sampling and Testing Brick and Structural Clay Tile. United States of America,
ASTM C 67-90a.
Beall, Christine (1993). Masonry design and detailing. Third Edition. New York.
McGraw-Hill Inc.
Bland, J. A. (1985). Statistics for construction students. London: Construction
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162
Brachtel, G. Water-soluble and acid-soluble sulphate content of heavy products.
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British Standards Institution (1985). British Standard Code of Practice for use of
Masonry, Part 1. Structural Use of unreinforced masonry. London, BS 5628
British Standards Institution (1985). British Standard Code of Practice for use of
Masonry, Part 2. Structural Use of reinforced and Prestressed masonry.
London, BS 5628
British Standards Institution (1985). British Standard Specification for Clay
Bricks. London, BS 3921
British Standards Institution (1991). Guide to Statistical Interpretation of Data.
London, BS 2846: Part 1
British Standards Institution (2000). Specification for masonry units (draft
candidate harmonised standard). London, Draft: pr EN 771-1
Chatfield, C. (1978). Statistics for technology. London: Chapman and Hall.
Curtin, W.G., Shaw, G., Beck J. K. and Bray W.A. (1995). Structural Masonry
Designers Manual. Second Edition. London: Blackwell Science Ltd.
Davidson, J. I. (1982). Effect of temperature on brick suction. Journal of Testing
and Evaluation (ASTM) Vol. 10, No.3, pp81 82.
Drysdale, R.G., Hamid, A.A. and Baker, L.R. (1994). Masonry Structures
Behaviour and Design. Prentice Hall.
Experimental Building Station (Department of Construction) (1976). Bond
Strength in Masonry. Australian Governor Publishing Service.
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Grimm, C.T. (1975). Strength and related properties of brick masonry. Journal of
The Structural Division. Technical Publications ASCE.
Grimm, C. T. (1988). Statistical Primer for Brick Masonry. Masonry: Materials,
Design, Construction, and Maintenance, pp. 169-192.
Grimm, C. T. (1996). Clay Brick Masonry Weight Variation. Journal of
Architectural Engineering, Vol. 2, No. 4, pp. 135-137
Hammer, M. J. and Hammer M. J. Jr. (1996). Water & Wastewater Treatment.
Singapore: Prentice Hall.
Hendry, A.W. (2001). Masonry walls: materials and constrution. Construction and
building Materials, 15. 323-330. Elsevier.
Hendry, A.W., Sinha, B.P., Davies S.R. (1981). An introduction to load bearing
brickwork design. U.K.: Ellis Horwood Limited.
Khalaf, F. M. and DeVenny, A. S. (2002). New Tests for Porosity and Water
Absorption of Fired Clay Bricks. Journal of Material in Civil Engineering.
Kennedy, J. B. and Neville A. M. (1985). Basic Statistical methods for engineers
and scientist. New York: Harper & Row Publishers.
Lenczner, D. (1972). Elements of Load-bearing Brickwork. Oxford, New York,
Toronto, Sydney, Braunschweig.: Pergamon Press,
Loveday, R. (1969). Statistics A second Course in Statistics. Cambridge, London,
New York, Melbourne: Cambridge University Press.
Montgomery, D. C. (2001). Design and analysis of experiments. 5 th. Edition.
John Wiley & Sons.
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Morton, J. (1986). The design of laterally loaded walls. TGV Publications.
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walls for compression and shear. TGV Publications.
Paradine, C. G. and Rivett, B. H. P. (1960). Statistical Methods for Technologists.
England: English Universities Press.
Singapore Institute of Standard and Industrial Research (1974). Specification for
Burnt Clay and Shale bricks. (Singapore Standard 103:1974)
Standard Australia and Standard New Zealand (1997). Masonry units and
Segmental pavers- Methods of test. (AS/NZS 4456.0- 4456.18:1997)
Standards Association of Australia (1984). Clay Building Bricks. (AS 1225-1984)
Standards Institution of Malaysia (1972). Specification for Bricks And Blocks Of
Fired Brickearth, Clay Or Shale. (MS 76 Part 2).
Surej, R. K., Fazio, P. and Feldman, D. (1998). Comparative Study of Durability
Indices For Clay Bricks. Journal Of Architectural Engineering.
Surej, R. K., Fazio, P. and Feldman, D. (1998). Development of New Durability
Index For Clay Bricks. Journal Of Architectural Engineering.
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Benjamin/Cummings.
Weldon, K. L. (1986). Statistics A conceptual approach. New Jersey: PrenticeHall.
APPENDICES
A1
RESULTS OF TESTS SPECIMENS

FOR DIMENSIONAL TOLERANCE OF
INDIVIDUAL BRICKS
167
Table A1-1:
Batch
1
Batch
2
Batch
3
Batch
4
Sample
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
Individual measurement for length

Length
218.00
218.45
217.05
218.60
216.20
219.10
217.40
220.60
215.75
214.50
217.10
213.55
217.20
217.70
219.45
221.30
217.00
218.35
217.80
217.25
220.00
218.25
214.95
218.25
217.00
215.00
214.75
215.00
215.60
215.00
215.30
215.20
215.75
216.90
215.25
215.00
215.50
215.15
215.40
216.10
216.60
215.50
214.75
216.20
213.75
216.50
216.50
218.50
215.55
215.95
214.25
220.95
215.95
215.45
216.25
216.95
218.60
220.20
219.45
219.55
217.20
217.90
216.90
217.40
218.00
220.45
214.50
217.25
220.65
216.10
217.80
217.25
215.75
217.70
218.30
217.00
220.70
218.50
214.95
209.75
214.90
214.70
215.50
215.60
214.65
216.25
214.00
215.00
216.30
214.15
215.55
215.00
216.55
215.00
214.25
214.35
216.60
216.85
214.85
213.55
215.10
217.25
215.00
217.75
214.60
212.75
216.60
216.00
216.75
215.45
215.25
215.50
217.55
217.70
216.90
216.90
217.45
217.45
216.60
219.85
217.85
214.25
217.20
219.35
219.00
216.30
220.55
218.00
215.95
220.25
214.35
217.25
216.00
214.15
214.35
220.30
215.10
213.40
214.25
212.70
216.90
217.00
215.00
215.65
213.30
214.70
216.00
213.85
217.30
215.25
215.00
214.45
215.70
218.00
216.20
214.75
214.05
215.75
215.75
216.00
215.15
215.10
215.75
216.60
216.70
216.00
216.40
216.00
218.50
218.35
213.30
217.90
215.95
218.30
218.75
218.30
216.50
218.40
216.10
218.30
215.30
219.80
217.00
219.25
217.35
218.50
217.95
217.30
217.70
221.15
219.25
220.75
217.00
213.50
215.85
214.70
215.35
215.75
216.80
215.25
215.45
216.95
215.45
215.75
216.00
215.00
214.65
215.25
216.35
214.65
215.00
216.10
215.70
214.00
217.75
213.65
215.65
214.10
220.40
216.00
212.75
214.40
215.55
216.25
218.85
218.30
215.15
218.20
216.35
217.00
217.00
220.35
217.85
215.60
217.85
214.75
221.20
216.50
214.40
216.80
217.20
219.50
217.00
220.65
220.55
214.80
216.50
220.00
215.20
215.25
216.20
216.00
214.85
217.25
214.25
217.15
214.00
215.35
214.25
216.00
216.00
214.00
214.00
214.40
217.25
215.45
215.6
213.25
217.25
215.40
214.00
216.40
220.30
214.00
216.8
214.10
216.00
215.00
216.10
216.00
219.10
217.60
217.65
217.00
216.25
216.30
219.40
217.95
213.90
210.00
214.00
214.90
214.70
219.60
216.85
220.30
217.40
219.50
214.55
217.00
219.35
218.10
217.75
218.75
215.25
215.85
214.00
214.00
215.25
216.30
212.90
216.00
216.35
214.65
214.25
215.00
215.00
215.45
215.30
216.50
216.00
216.95
217.40
216.70
214.70
215.25
215.30
214.75
220.25
215.50
217.25
218.35
216.85
215.85
217.30
216.95
168
Table A1-2:
Batch
1
Batch
2
Batch
3
Batch
4
Sample
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
Individual measurement for width

Width
100.75
99.85
99.2
99.8
99.3
100.1
99.35
101.1
98.20
98.30
100.05
97.60
99.65
101.75
100.95
102.65
100.65
101.10
100.50
100.00
102.00
101.00
98.75
98.75
100.75
100.10
99.90
100.00
99.20
99.55
97.60
99.85
99.65
100.35
100.00
99.25
100.25
99.50
100.50
100.35
101.10
100.10
98.95
99.25
98.35
100.25
99.75
100.00
99.55
99.20
98.80
100.75
99.85
99.70
100.75
99.70
100.2
101
99.85
100.1
98
100.7
100
99.55
102.50
101.80
98.35
100.00
102.15
99.00
100.50
99.55
98.65
100.85
100.90
99.00
102.30
100.50
98.00
98.80
98.50
98.85
100.55
100.75
99.25
100.55
99.15
99.50
100.45
100.25
98.80
99.00
100.50
99.65
99.25
100.25
100.00
100.55
98.00
97.50
98.30
100.30
99.75
100.25
99.20
98.75
99.95
99.30
100.25
101.00
99.55
100.00
100.3
99.3
99.35
99.8
100.5
99.35
99.9
99.7
100.75
97.70
100.35
101.15
101.35
99.65
101.35
98.80
99.85
101.30
98.65
99.95
98.40
98.45
98.00
99.25
99.40
98.80
99.30
99.25
100.90
100.20
100.00
100.45
98.50
99.75
100.30
98.55
101.30
99.25
99.15
99.75
99.80
100.30
100.95
97.00
97.45
99.70
99.25
98.50
98.45
99.65
99.25
99.65
99.25
99.50
100.25
100.50
98.8
100.4
97.7
99.65
98.25
100.75
99.9
98.85
100.00
99.80
99.75
100.00
100.00
101.25
99.60
101.10
100.85
100.75
100.00
100.25
100.00
102.70
101.25
99.55
100.60
99.10
100.75
99.55
100.25
100.30
100.85
99.75
100.50
100.10
98.25
98.75
98.30
99.65
99.15
99.55
99.30
97.75
98.70
100.20
99.30
97.15
100.25
97.50
98.85
98.00
102.00
99.60
100.15
99.70
100.30
99.10
101.2
99.1
98
99.05
99.4
99
99.45
100.6
100.00
99.25
99.50
98.00
101.45
99.15
97.65
100.10
98.95
100.10
99.25
101.60
102.75
96.80
99.50
102.95
99.10
99.80
100.75
100.75
98.75
101.35
99.90
101.55
98.25
99.50
99.50
98.65
99.45
99.00
99.25
100.15
100.60
100.25
100.45
98.15
100.75
99.25
98.00
100.65
102.50
99.60
99.95
98.60
99.90
97.95
100.50
100.25
100.1
99.1
99.9
99.4
98.3
99
101.2
99.65
98.15
99.00
98.00
96.35
97.85
100.80
98.95
102.20
99.65
101.25
99.25
100.50
100.75
99.40
100.95
100.50
100.05
100.50
97.60
99.10
99.65
100.75
98.80
100.50
99.00
100.00
97.30
98.00
99.10
98.25
100.25
100.95
100.60
99.70
100.75
101.25
98.20
99.90
97.75
98.00
102.85
98.85
100.20
100.50
100.35
99.00
100.25
99.25
169
Table A1-3:
Batch
1
Batch
2
Batch
3
Batch
4
Sample
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
Individual measurement for height.

Height
67.10
66.75
69.05
69.40
66.20
67.50
67.50
67.50
67.85
67.20
68.10
67.35
67.20
67.95
68.50
68.70
67.00
68.95
69.25
68.75
68.65
69.90
66.75
68.25
67.65
67.15
67.00
67.00
67.15
67.55
66.75
67.25
67.65
67.80
67.20
66.75
67.00
66.60
66.75
67.75
67.30
67.70
67.45
67.60
66.80
67.80
67.80
69.25
66.70
68.25
66.30
68.55
67.75
67.00
67.25
67.25
67.10
67.80
67.20
67.00
66.40
66.75
67.30
67.30
67.65
68.50
67.00
67.65
68.05
66.20
67.75
66.75
68.55
67.25
67.05
67.90
69.10
69.25
68.25
66.10
67.20
67.25
67.20
67.25
67.20
67.95
66.00
67.25
67.50
67.00
67.00
66.25
67.35
67.45
67.00
67.00
68.00
67.55
67.15
66.35
67.50
67.80
65.95
68.25
66.90
66.10
67.00
67.35
68.95
67.35
67.00
67.25
67.75
67.80
67.40
63.95
65.90
67.45
68.20
69.30
71.00
68.00
68.30
69.10
68.25
66.35
68.45
71.00
67.55
68.80
68.00
68.75
66.00
67.95
68.75
67.75
67.00
66.65
66.85
66.50
67.75
68.00
68.30
67.75
66.00
67.75
67.00
68.00
67.60
66.55
66.75
66.50
67.55
68.00
67.50
66.50
66.85
67.90
67.65
67.75
67.00
67.10
67.90
65.25
69.25
67.70
67.75
67.20
66.60
67.90
66.75
66.10
66.60
67.65
68.25
67.75
67.80
69.20
67.50
67.40
68.35
67.95
66.85
69.25
67.50
67.50
68.75
67.75
68.15
68.55
67.75
68.00
67.50
66.25
67.50
67.00
67.45
67.95
67.90
67.00
67.25
67.35
67.00
67.00
66.75
67.15
66.95
67.25
68.35
66.60
66.80
68.25
67.20
66.35
65.00
66.35
67.00
66.85
68.20
66.75
68.80
67.25
67.25
67.80
66.70
66.30
66.50
69.25
66.10
67.00
68.30
68.75
68.00
68.25
69.45
67.90
68.00
66.95
67.60
69.15
66.95
67.85
68.00
68.25
68.55
66.50
68.15
68.75
67.15
67.00
68.00
67.50
67.70
67.25
68.55
68.50
66.85
66.25
66.85
67.25
67.00
66.75
67.00
66.75
68.00
67.50
68.00
66.70
68.50
67.75
66.30
67.50
68.25
66.70
67.60
67.10
67.20
66.60
66.85
67.75
67.25
66.85
67.80
67.45
67.00
66.60
67.90
67.45
66.75
65.80
68.00
66.60
69.20
68.10
66.85
68.00
68.05
69.10
68.00
67.20
68.05
69.25
67.50
68.50
66.60
67.25
66.00
67.25
67.30
67.30
66.70
67.50
68.85
67.20
67.00
67.05
66.55
66.50
67.30
67.25
67.00
67.80
67.55
67.35
66.85
67.00
66.75
66.35
68.25
67.20
68.15
67.05
67.75
67.25
68.50
67.50
A2
RESULTS OF TEST SPECIMENS

FOR DENSITY OF BRICKS
171
Sample 7
Sample 6
Sample 5
Sample 4
Sample 3
Sample 2
Sample 1
Brick
identification
51
27
48
67
32
6
19
22
50
9
36
44
43
64
38
45
62
30
70
66
85
92
41
96
87
43
91
42
81
99
82
88
95
84
98
86
100
97
90
89
2
52
3
1
9
14
6
50
10
7
46
49
55
4
56
57
12
48
54
5
26
69
33
30
35
29
31
59
37
22
Weight (mo)
as received
(gm)
2295
2450
2475
2351
2545
2410
2435
2415
2477
2545
2435
2455
2325
2460
2400
2450
2455
2355
2440
2430
2315
2305
2390
2510
2420
2385
2270
2420
2465
2405
2505
2300
2285
2315
2415
2290
2405
2480
2325
2295
2303
2374
2531
2372
2511
2473
2405
2404
2375
2402
2530
2456
2395
2405
2296
2441
2510
2510
2367
2535
2319
2495
2445
2460
2401
2504
2503
2451
2289
2476
Weight after
2 hrs soaking (m1)
(gm.)
2630
2590
2620
2650
2630
2600
2470
2610
2690
2600
2690
2640
2570
2670
2600
2680
2670
2560
2620
2630
2520
2530
2680
2770
2650
2680
2490
2640
2690
2650
2760
2510
2540
2530
2650
2540
2640
2740
2530
2560
2510
2600
2790
2630
2740
2690
2630
2610
2600
2660
2750
2710
2600
2630
2520
2700
2740
2740
2620
2760
2560
2720
2700
2710
2630
2780
2770
2660
2520
2710
Immersed
weight (m2)
(gm)
1270
1270
1270
1300
1280
1260
1220
1260
1310
1250
1300
1280
1240
1300
1270
1300
1300
1250
1290
1280
1230
1230
1250
1350
1300
1290
1200
1290
1330
1310
1350
1220
1220
1240
1290
1220
1290
1320
1240
1260
1220
1270
1350
1300
1330
1310
1260
1240
1220
1280
1330
1310
1270
1290
1210
1310
1330
1330
1290
1340
1200
1330
1320
1340
1280
1340
1340
1310
1210
1320
Volume (V)
V=(m1-m2)*1000
mm3
1360000
1320000
1350000
1350000
1350000
1340000
1250000
1350000
1380000
1350000
1390000
1360000
1330000
1370000
1330000
1380000
1370000
1310000
1330000
1350000
1290000
1300000
1430000
1420000
1350000
1390000
1290000
1350000
1360000
1340000
1410000
1290000
1320000
1290000
1360000
1320000
1350000
1420000
1290000
1300000
1290000
1330000
1440000
1330000
1410000
1380000
1370000
1370000
1380000
1380000
1420000
1400000
1330000
1340000
1310000
1390000
1410000
1410000
1330000
1420000
1360000
1390000
1380000
1370000
1350000
1440000
1430000
1350000
1310000
1390000
Density (Da)
mo/V*1,000,000
kg/m3
1687.50
1856.06
1833.33
1741.48
1885.19
1798.51
1948.00
1788.89
1794.93
1885.19
1751.80
1805.15
1748.12
1795.62
1804.51
1775.36
1791.97
1797.71
1834.59
1800.00
1794.57
1773.08
1671.33
1767.61
1792.59
1715.83
1759.69
1792.59
1812.50
1794.78
1776.60
1782.95
1731.06
1794.57
1775.74
1734.85
1781.48
1746.48
1802.33
1765.38
1785.27
1784.96
1757.64
1783.46
1780.85
1792.03
1755.47
1754.74
1721.01
1740.58
1781.69
1754.29
1800.75
1794.78
1752.67
1756.12
1780.14
1780.14
1779.70
1785.21
1705.15
1794.96
1771.74
1795.62
1778.52
1738.89
1750.35
1815.56
1747.33
1781.29
Sample 14
Sample 13
Sample 12
Sample 11
Sample 10
Sample 9
Sample 8
172
66
28
34
21
67
32
58
45
68
94
16
10
14
20
21
11
24
18
7
23
15
22
19
17
13
9
8
5
12
3
83
82
79
86
72
88
77
91
94
89
92
84
81
93
90
75
80
95
96
76
50
68
73
53
64
49
52
54
55
61
74
56
57
60
71
51
65
66
58
59
2439
2509
2496
2412
2306
2530
2461
2343
2411
2233
2442
2436
2448
2448
2452
2444
2449
2441
2451
2455
2448
2443
2409
2458
2446
2450
2436
2458
2449
2450
2463
2431
2455
2462
2456
2439
2494
2479
2474
2434
2487
2451
2442
2451
2442
2442
2449
2477
2467
2481
2444
2443
2445
2449
2440
2468
2440
2442
2470
2449
2488
2479
2455
2487
2442
2456
2448
2448
2478
2440
2610
2780
2740
2630
2540
2780
2700
2570
2660
2450
2660
2650
2650
2700
2670
2650
2700
2660
2660
2670
2660
2630
2600
2660
2670
2670
2600
2700
2680
2650
2660
2660
2680
2650
2640
2630
2670
2700
2650
2600
2690
2650
2620
2640
2640
2610
2670
2650
2660
2640
2680
2690
2680
2660
2640
2680
2660
2640
2660
2630
2700
2710
2680
2670
2700
2710
2630
2690
2710
2670
1290
1350
1330
1270
1230
1350
1300
1250
1290
1190
1290
1280
1280
1300
1300
1280
1300
1270
1290
1290
1280
1290
1250
1290
1289
1290
1270
1300
1300
1300
1290
1280
1300
1290
1280
1270
1300
1310
1290
1270
1310
1280
1280
1280
1280
1280
1290
1300
1290
1280
1310
1310
1310
1310
1300
1330
1310
1310
1320
1290
1360
1360
1320
1320
1310
1320
1280
1320
1350
1300
1320000
1430000
1410000
1360000
1310000
1430000
1400000
1320000
1370000
1260000
1370000
1370000
1370000
1400000
1370000
1370000
1400000
1390000
1370000
1380000
1380000
1340000
1350000
1370000
1381000
1380000
1330000
1400000
1380000
1350000
1370000
1380000
1380000
1360000
1360000
1360000
1370000
1390000
1360000
1330000
1380000
1370000
1340000
1360000
1360000
1330000
1380000
1350000
1370000
1360000
1370000
1380000
1370000
1350000
1340000
1350000
1350000
1330000
1340000
1340000
1340000
1350000
1360000
1350000
1390000
1390000
1350000
1370000
1360000
1370000
1847.73
1754.55
1770.21
1773.53
1760.31
1769.23
1757.86
1775.00
1759.85
1772.22
1782.48
1778.10
1786.86
1748.57
1789.78
1783.94
1749.29
1756.12
1789.05
1778.99
1773.91
1823.13
1784.44
1794.16
1771.18
1775.36
1831.58
1755.71
1774.64
1814.81
1797.81
1761.59
1778.99
1810.29
1805.88
1793.38
1820.44
1783.45
1819.12
1830.08
1802.17
1789.05
1822.39
1802.21
1795.59
1836.09
1774.64
1834.81
1800.73
1824.26
1783.94
1770.29
1784.67
1814.07
1820.90
1828.15
1807.41
1836.09
1843.28
1827.61
1856.72
1836.30
1805.15
1842.22
1756.83
1766.91
1813.33
1786.86
1822.06
1781.02
Sample 21
Sample 20
Sample 19
Sample 18
Sample 17
Sample 16
Sample 15
173
14
19
1
24
18
17
13
15
20
16
22
11
6
5
4
3
9
2
7
8
31
47
44
35
36
45
39
40
29
32
46
37
40b
26
41
30
38
27
25
28
54
56
53
50
68
67
52
57
58
61
64
62
70
55
65
59
63
66
69
71
74
84
82
76
85
96
94
91
79
78
2407
2359
2365
2366
2358
2329
2374
2511
2342
2386
2388
2345
2381
2393
2327
2381
2355
2419
2378
2352
2350
2383
2397
2389
2400
2348
2326
2361
2343
2376
2348
2301
2404
2376
2394
2235
2338
2341
2308
2308
2358
2362
2363
2359
2404
2352
2322
2398
2383
2374
2409
2359
2358
2299
2313
2314
2301
2403
2370
2364
2387
2303
2353
2309
2334
2392
2316
2328
2363
2313
2620
2520
2610
2580
2540
2470
2600
2640
2600
2510
2550
2590
2600
2600
2580
2590
2560
2650
2600
2640
2600
2510
2660
2570
2620
2550
2580
2580
2590
2520
2520
2510
2630
2630
2640
2470
2490
2570
2490
2540
2590
2570
2520
2530
2630
2640
2510
2650
2620
2670
2620
2670
2660
2450
2500
2530
2520
2590
2590
2590
2620
2550
2600
2560
2560
2590
2550
2580
2580
2560
1280
1240
1270
1260
1240
1200
1260
1320
1260
1240
1260
1260
1250
1270
1250
1280
1240
1300
1270
1270
1270
1250
1310
1250
1250
1250
1260
1260
1260
1240
1240
1230
1270
1280
1290
1200
1220
1250
1220
1240
1230
1230
1220
1220
1260
1250
1220
1260
1250
1270
1270
1270
1270
1180
1210
1200
1220
1250
1240
1240
1270
1200
1250
1230
1200
1260
1230
1240
1260
1230
1340000
1280000
1340000
1320000
1300000
1270000
1340000
1320000
1340000
1270000
1290000
1330000
1350000
1330000
1330000
1310000
1320000
1350000
1330000
1370000
1330000
1260000
1350000
1320000
1370000
1300000
1320000
1320000
1330000
1280000
1280000
1280000
1360000
1350000
1350000
1270000
1270000
1320000
1270000
1300000
1360000
1340000
1300000
1310000
1370000
1390000
1290000
1390000
1370000
1400000
1350000
1400000
1390000
1270000
1290000
1330000
1300000
1340000
1350000
1350000
1350000
1350000
1350000
1330000
1360000
1330000
1320000
1340000
1320000
1330000
1796.27
1842.97
1764.93
1792.42
1813.85
1833.86
1771.64
1902.27
1747.76
1878.74
1851.16
1763.16
1763.70
1799.25
1749.62
1817.56
1784.09
1791.85
1787.97
1716.79
1766.92
1891.27
1775.56
1809.85
1751.82
1806.15
1762.12
1788.64
1761.65
1856.25
1834.38
1797.66
1767.65
1760.00
1773.33
1759.84
1840.94
1773.48
1817.32
1775.38
1733.82
1762.69
1817.69
1800.76
1754.74
1692.09
1800.00
1725.18
1739.42
1695.71
1784.44
1685.00
1696.40
1810.24
1793.02
1739.85
1770.00
1793.28
1755.56
1751.11
1768.15
1705.93
1742.96
1736.09
1716.18
1798.50
1754.55
1737.31
1790.15
1739.10
Sample 27
Sample 26
Sample 24
Sample 23
Sample 22
174
90
73
93
89
77
80
88
79
81
86
61
60
58
57
56
54
53
52
51
50
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
39
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
2360
2337
2319
2329
2288
2378
2313
2383
2324
2307
2368
2330
2312
2319
2277
2369
2303
2371
2312
2297
2349
2380
2395
2379
2400
2348
2316
2361
2368
2427
2419
2378
2309
2333
2317
2311
2389
2385
2359
2432
2511
2378
2319
2293
2317
2401
2370
2325
2369
2510
2550
2560
2590
2500
2620
2560
2580
2560
2540
2510
2530
2550
2590
2500
2610
2540
2570
2550
2530
2520
2530
2530
2580
2500
2600
2530
2580
2590
2640
2650
2620
2450
2510
2490
2530
2570
2580
2590
2640
2660
2610
2430
2510
2470
2540
2590
2560
2597
1220
1230
1230
1240
1200
1270
1230
1250
1230
1220
1210
1220
1220
1240
1210
1260
1230
1240
1220
1230
1220
1210
1230
1210
1250
1230
1220
1230
1230
1260
1290
1230
1190
1210
1200
1220
1240
1250
1240
1270
1290
1230
1180
1210
1200
1190
1240
1240
1220
1290000
1320000
1330000
1350000
1300000
1350000
1330000
1330000
1330000
1320000
1300000
1310000
1330000
1350000
1290000
1350000
1310000
1330000
1330000
1300000
1300000
1320000
1300000
1370000
1250000
1370000
1310000
1350000
1360000
1380000
1360000
1390000
1260000
1300000
1290000
1310000
1330000
1330000
1350000
1370000
1370000
1380000
1250000
1300000
1270000
1350000
1350000
1320000
1377000
1829.46
1770.45
1743.61
1725.19
1760.00
1761.48
1739.10
1791.73
1747.37
1747.73
1821.54
1778.63
1738.35
1717.78
1765.12
1754.81
1758.02
1782.71
1738.35
1766.92
1806.92
1803.03
1842.31
1736.50
1920.00
1713.87
1767.94
1748.89
1741.18
1758.70
1778.68
1710.79
1832.54
1794.62
1796.12
1764.12
1796.24
1793.23
1747.41
1775.18
1832.85
1723.19
1855.20
1763.85
1824.41
1778.52
1755.56
1761.36
1720.41
A3
RESULTS OF TESTS SPECIMENS FOR

INITIAL RATE OF SUCTION OF BRICKS
176
Sample 1
Brick
identifica
tion
Dry
mass
(md) gm
Wet
mass
(mw) gm
length
(mm)
16
2445
2485
221.15
100.75
22280.86
18905.86
1.795
2.116
2390
2420
216.50
98.80
21390.20
18015.20
1.403
1.665
11
2415
2450
218.30
99.70
21764.51
18389.51
1.608
1.903
2370
2400
216.05
98.30
21237.72
17862.72
1.413
1.679
Width Immersed Immersed

IRSgross
IRSnet
(mm)
area
area
1000(mw md)/Agross 1000(m2 m1)/Anet
2
2
2
(mm )
(mm )
kg/m .min
kg/m2.min
b
Agross
Anet
2435
2485
221.45
102.25
22643.26
19268.26
2.208
2.595
17
2430
2465
220.05
100.75
22170.04
18795.04
1.579
1.862
19
2440
2490
220.10
100.10
22032.01
18657.01
2.269
2.680
2435
2455
217.55
98.80
21493.94
18118.94
0.930
1.104
2415
2450
217.10
100.00
21710.00
18335.00
1.612
1.909
2410
2435
216.60
99.80
21616.68
18241.68
1.157
1.370
Sample 2
1
2380
2410
216.55
99.55
21557.55
18182.55
1.392
1.650
12
2420
2455
217.95
99.75
21740.51
18365.51
1.610
1.906
10
2485
2515
218.60
99.65
21783.49
18408.49
1.377
1.630
18
2430
2450
216.30
97.95
21186.59
17811.59
0.944
1.123
1.914
2410
2445
217.00
99.80
21656.60
18281.60
1.616
15
2465
2500
216.30
99.15
21446.15
18071.15
1.632
1.937
2460
2490
217.50
99.65
21673.88
18298.88
1.384
1.639
20
2410
2435
217.50
99.15
21565.13
18190.13
1.159
1.374
14
2370
2400
217.75
99.65
21698.79
18323.79
1.383
1.637
13
2370
2410
217.50
99.90
21728.25
18353.25
1.841
2.179
Sample 3
35
2410
2440
217.30
99.20
21556.16
18181.16
1.39
1.650
69
2420
2455
217.35
99.70
21669.80
18294.80
1.62
1.913
63
2435
2490
216.95
99.25
21532.29
18157.29
2.55
3.029
37
2400
2425
216.40
99.25
21477.70
18102.70
1.16
1.381
68
2430
2470
208.50
101.20
21100.20
17725.20
1.90
2.257
40
2410
2445
217.00
99.25
21537.25
18162.25
1.63
1.927
29
2410
2445
217.25
99.65
21648.96
18273.96
1.62
1.915
41
2415
2450
217.10
99.60
21623.16
18248.16
1.62
1.918
71
2440
2485
218.10
100.05
21820.91
18445.91
2.06
2.440
39
2440
2475
216.95
99.35
21553.98
18178.98
1.62
1.925
42
2420
2455
217.10
100.10
21731.71
18356.71
1.61
1.907
82
2505
2542
219.50
101.50
22279.25
18904.25
1.66
1.957
98
2403
2439
218.50
100.35
21926.48
18551.48
1.64
1.941
92
2299
2338
214.10
98.40
21067.44
17692.44
1.85
2.204
89
2288
2336
215.75
99.85
21542.64
18167.64
2.23
2.642
81
2447
2482
218.50
100.5
21959.25
18584.25
1.59
1.883
85
2306
2344
214.80
97.65
20975.22
17600.22
1.81
2.159
41
2364
2403
218.15
101.25
22087.69
18712.69
1.77
2.084
88
2292
2327
214.05
98.00
20976.90
17601.90
1.67
1.988
100
2399
2436
217.50
100.60
21880.50
18505.50
1.69
1.999
Sample 4
177
Sample 5
Brick
identifica
tion
Dry
mass
(md) gm
Wet
mass
(mw) gm
length
(mm)
99
2400
2436
218.00
100.00
21800.00
18425.00
1.65
1.954
91
2265
2302
214.10
97.95
20971.10
17596.10
1.76
2.103
97
2472
2516
218.20
99.70
21754.54
18379.54
2.02
2.394
90
2318
2347
214.15
98.30
21050.95
17675.95
1.38
1.641
84
2306
2340
214.75
93.90
20165.03
16790.03
1.69
2.025
95
2280
2323
214.50
99.05
21246.23
17871.23
2.02
2.406
86
2281
2326
215.50
99.00
21334.50
17959.50
2.11
2.506
87
2414
2452
216.95
100.50
21803.48
18428.48
1.74
2.062
96
2500
2548
220.75
102.30
22582.73
19207.73
2.13
2.499
43
2378
2430
218.60
102.20
22340.92
18965.92
2.33
2.742

IRSnet
IRSgross
(mm)
area
area
(mm2)
kg/m2.min
kg/m2.min
(mm2)
b
Agross
Anet
Sample 6
20
2444
2484
218.50
100.65
21992.03
18617.03
1.82
2.149
19
2450
2484
219.25
100.02
21929.39
18554.39
1.55
1.832
76
2439
2477
217.10
100.00
21710.00
18335.00
1.75
2.073
15
2410
2440
217.20
98.90
21481.08
18106.08
1.40
1.657
17
2434
2478
218.25
101.00
22043.25
18668.25
2.00
2.357
51
2295
2338
215.70
68.5
14775.45
11400.45
2.91
3.772
61
2540
2575
217.70
100.45
21867.97
18492.97
1.60
1.893
11
2391
2428
217.45
100.05
21755.87
18380.87
1.70
2.013
16
2425
2457
217.30
99.85
21697.41
18322.41
1.47
1.746
78
2415
2447
217.55
99.70
21689.74
18314.74
1.48
1.747
74
2407
2451
216.85
99.50
21576.58
18201.58
2.04
2.417
79
2449
2493
219.75
101.25
22249.69
18874.69
1.98
2.331
80
2466
2510
219.55
101.20
22218.46
18843.46
1.98
2.335
62
2447
2490
218.30
100.80
22004.64
18629.64
1.95
2.308
75
2375
2411
217.00
98.95
21472.15
18097.15
1.68
1.989
73
2264
2310
214.90
99.5
21382.55
18007.55
2.15
2.554
72
2300
2341
214.50
98.50
21128.25
17753.25
1.94
2.309
77
2401
2438
217.00
100.25
21754.25
18379.25
1.70
2.013
71
2295
2334
217.05
99.80
21661.59
18286.59
1.80
2.133
60
2446
2485
217.45
99.60
21658.02
18283.02
1.80
2.133
Sample 7
Sample 8
49
2464
2508
217.60
100.60
21890.56
18515.56
2.01
2.376
2483
2533
219.70
101.20
22233.64
18858.64
2.25
2.651
10
2304
2357
219.40
100.95
22148.43
18773.43
2.39
2.823
46
2489
2535
220.60
102.10
22523.26
19148.26
2.04
2.402
2435
2462
216.40
98.80
21380.32
18005.32
1.26
1.500
56
2328
2359
216.10
98.9
21372.29
17997.29
1.45
1.722
52
2370
2406
217.15
99.75
21660.71
18285.71
1.66
1.969
2304
2333
215.65
97.50
21025.88
17650.88
1.38
1.643
14
2456
2498
218.75
101.05
22104.69
18729.69
1.90
2.242
2502
2554
220.75
102.40
22604.80
19229.80
2.30
2.704
178
Sample 9
IRSnet
IRSgross
(mm)
area
area
(mm2)
kg/m2.min
kg/m2.min
(mm2)
b
Agross
Anet
Dry
mass
(md) gm
Wet
mass
(mw) gm
length
(mm)
2420
2461
217.30
99.75
21675.68
18300.68
1.89
2.240
2430
2457
216.75
99.40
21544.95
18169.95
1.25
1.486
50
2358
2401
218.00
99.00
21582.00
18207.00
1.99
2.362
2497
2534
218.95
100.95
22103.00
18728.00
1.67
1.976
Brick
identifica
tion
2372
2406
217.30
99.65
21653.95
18278.95
1.57
1.860
57
2483
2518
217.75
100.95
21981.86
18606.86
1.59
1.881
55
2412
2443
215.25
100.00
21525.00
18150.00
1.44
1.708
54
2412
2436
216.30
100.00
21630.00
18255.00
1.11
1.315
48
2506
2550
221.00
101.85
22508.85
19133.85
1.95
2.300
12
2493
2536
220.75
101.35
22373.01
18998.01
1.92
2.263
Sample 10
58
2446
2482
217.60
101.75
22140.80
18765.80
1.63
1.918
94
2240
2263
210.00
98.25
20632.50
17257.50
1.11
1.333
35
2398
2437
217.75
100.00
21775.00
18400.00
1.79
2.120
29
2503
2562
220.75
102.50
22626.88
19251.88
2.61
3.065
33
2445
2482
219.25
100.50
22034.63
18659.63
1.68
1.983
34
2495
2534
219.75
101.50
22304.63
18929.63
1.75
2.060
21
2411
2444
219.90
99.25
21825.08
18450.08
1.51
1.789
69
2496
2530
219.50
101.20
22213.40
18838.40
1.53
1.805
26
2318
2359
217.95
99.70
21729.62
18354.62
1.89
2.234
37
2289
2328
214.25
98.35
21071.49
17696.49
1.85
2.204
30
2458
2502
218.35
101.00
22053.35
18678.35
2.00
2.356
68
2412
2452
218.30
98.65
21535.30
18160.30
1.86
2.203
32
2543
2587
221.25
103.05
22799.81
19424.81
1.93
2.265
31
2502
2549
220.50
103.95
22920.98
19545.98
2.05
2.405
28
2509
2559
220.80
102.55
22643.04
19268.04
2.21
2.595
66
2439
2455
214.75
98.85
21228.04
17853.04
0.75
0.896
67
2306
2342
214.40
98.20
21054.08
17679.08
1.71
2.036
22
2477
2515
220.75
99.60
21986.70
18611.70
1.73
2.042
45
2333
2369
214.65
97.75
20982.04
17607.04
1.72
2.045
59
2451
2474
216.00
99.65
21524.40
18149.40
1.07
1.267
Sample 11
Sample 12
22
2443
2473
213.50
99.00
21136.50
17761.50
1.42
1.689
18
2443
2486
215.50
100.55
21668.53
18293.53
1.98
2.351
17
2459
2484
214.95
98.80
21237.06
17862.06
1.18
1.400
12
2449
2493
216.00
100.50
21708.00
18333.00
2.03
2.400
24
2449
2494
217.25
101.00
21942.25
18567.25
2.05
2.424
2449
2478
214.30
100.00
21430.00
18055.00
1.35
1.606
10
2436
2479
215.25
100.75
21686.44
18311.44
1.98
2.348
2452
2486
215.00
100.00
21500.00
18125.00
1.58
1.876
19
2409
2440
213.25
99.25
21165.06
17790.06
1.46
1.743
20
2449
2500
217.00
101.50
22025.50
18650.50
2.32
2.735
179
Sample 13
IRSnet
IRSgross
(mm)
area
area
(mm2)
kg/m2.min
kg/m2.min
(mm2)
b
Agross
Anet
Dry
mass
(md) gm
Wet
mass
(mw) gm
length
(mm)
15
2448
2485
215.40
100.00
21540.00
18165.00
1.72
23
2456
2498
216.00
100.45
21697.20
18322.20
1.94
2.292
2452
2483
215.00
99.50
21392.50
18017.50
1.45
1.721
14
2448
2482
215.10
99.25
21348.68
17973.68
1.59
1.892
13
2447
2492
215.70
100.75
21731.78
18356.78
2.07
2.451
16
2442
2482
215.00
100.25
21553.75
18178.75
1.86
2.200
21
2452
2488
215.00
99.35
21360.25
17985.25
1.69
2.002
2436
2461
214.35
97.95
20995.58
17620.58
1.19
1.419
11
2444
2474
214.75
98.50
21152.88
17777.88
1.42
1.687
2458
2510
216.25
100.75
21787.19
18412.19
2.39
2.824
38
2467
2511
217.25
100.25
21779.31
18404.31
2.02
2.391
37
2444
2479
215.00
99.50
21392.50
18017.50
1.64
1.943
32
2466
2511
216.75
100.60
21805.05
18430.05
2.06
2.442
41
2437
2475
214.90
99.50
21382.55
18007.55
1.78
2.110
27
2454
2482
214.65
99.25
21304.01
17929.01
1.31
1.562
47
2452
2493
216.25
100.75
21787.19
18412.19
1.88
2.227
45
2455
2489
215.25
99.65
21449.66
18074.66
1.59
1.881
34
2465
2507
217.10
101.25
21981.38
18606.38
1.91
2.257
26
2454
2488
214.80
99.65
21404.82
18029.82
1.59
1.886
28
2468
2522
215.75
100.40
21661.30
18286.30
2.49
2.953
36
2463
2492
214.80
99.75
21426.30
18051.30
1.35
1.607
42
2524
2555
214.65
99.65
21389.87
18014.87
1.45
1.721
48
2478
2533
217.30
101.55
22066.82
18691.82
2.49
2.942
43
2428
2453
215.35
98.00
21104.30
17729.30
1.18
1.410
25
2469
2513
216.00
100.75
21762.00
18387.00
2.02
2.393
44
2493
2534
217.00
100.75
21862.75
18487.75
1.88
2.218
31
2448
2470
212.65
98.55
20956.66
17581.66
1.05
1.251
39
2480
2512
215.90
99.50
21482.05
18107.05
1.49
1.767
29
2458
2501
215.50
100.00
21550.00
18175.00
2.00
2.366
40
2458
2492
215.00
98.80
21242.00
17867.00
1.60
1.903
0.168
Brick
identifica
tion
2.037
Sample 14
Sample 15
Sample 16
94
2476
2479
215.50
98.55
21237.53
17862.53
0.14
60
2488
2510
215.25
99.40
21395.85
18020.85
1.03
1.221
79
2456
2494
216.00
100.00
21600.00
18225.00
1.76
2.085
76
2482
2505
215.75
99.00
21359.25
17984.25
1.08
1.279
75
2443
2467
214.50
97.60
20935.20
17560.20
1.15
1.367
86
2463
2494
214.30
100.00
21430.00
18055.00
1.45
1.717
96
2467
2496
216.00
98.55
21286.80
17911.80
1.36
1.619
58
2479
2511
216.00
99.70
21535.20
18160.20
1.49
1.762
65
2450
2471
215.50
98.25
21172.88
17797.88
0.99
1.180
71
2444
2483
216.35
100.50
21743.18
18368.18
1.79
2.123
180
Sample 17
IRSnet
IRSgross
(mm)
area
area
(mm2)
kg/m2.min
kg/m2.min
(mm2)
b
Agross
Anet
Dry
mass
(md) gm
Wet
mass
(mw) gm
length
(mm)
51
2457
2501
216.25
100.95
21830.44
18455.44
2.02
88
2439
2465
215.50
99.00
21334.50
17959.50
1.22
1.448
83
2462
2495
215.45
100.50
21652.73
18277.73
1.52
1.805
53
2450
2480
214.50
99.80
21407.10
18032.10
1.40
1.664
57
2457
2488
215.30
100.25
21583.83
18208.83
1.44
1.702
92
2488
2519
214.95
100.00
21495.00
18120.00
1.44
1.711
56
2480
2503
215.00
99.10
21306.50
17931.50
1.08
1.283
72
2458
2489
214.55
100.25
21508.64
18133.64
1.44
1.710
55
2472
2493
214.25
99.25
21264.31
17889.31
0.99
1.174
74
2489
2504
214.55
98.90
21219.00
17844.00
0.71
0.841
Brick
identifica
tion
2.384
Sample 18
49
2468
2492
214.10
100.25
21463.53
18088.53
1.12
1.327
91
2480
2512
216.85
100.45
21782.58
18407.58
1.47
1.738
89
2433
2457
213.70
98.45
21038.77
17663.77
1.14
1.359
61
2450
2471
216.00
98.30
21232.80
17857.80
0.99
1.176
80
2451
2491
216.00
100.50
21708.00
18333.00
1.84
2.182
95
2477
2499
215.25
98.00
21094.50
17719.50
1.04
1.242
82
2432
2474
216.40
100.25
21694.10
18319.10
1.94
2.293
77
2494
2530
215.80
99.50
21472.10
18097.10
1.68
1.989
54
2443
2468
213.95
99.15
21213.14
17838.14
1.18
1.401
84
2453
2490
215.00
100.25
21553.75
18178.75
1.72
2.035
93
2452
2492
215.35
99.75
21481.16
18106.16
1.86
2.209
66
2449
2489
215.50
100.55
21668.53
18293.53
1.85
2.187
59
2437
2474
215.20
99.70
21455.44
18080.44
1.72
2.046
73
2446
2481
215.50
100.25
21603.88
18228.88
1.62
1.920
68
2443
2484
216.20
100.45
21717.29
18342.29
1.89
2.235
50
2445
2484
215.25
100.00
21525.00
18150.00
1.81
2.149
64
2442
2468
214.15
99.00
21200.85
17825.85
1.23
1.459
90
2441
2476
214.50
99.50
21342.75
17967.75
1.64
1.948
52
2440
2472
214.65
99.90
21443.54
18068.54
1.49
1.771
81
2442
2465
213.75
97.90
20926.13
17551.13
1.10
1.310
Sample 19
Sample 20
11
2340
2385
216.00
100.00
21600.00
18225.00
2.08
2.469
32
2345
2357
214.60
97.25
20869.85
17494.85
0.57
0.686
18
2359
2382
215.00
98.75
21231.25
17856.25
1.08
1.288
31
2351
2393
216.25
99.75
21570.94
18195.94
1.95
2.308
2363
2401
216.10
99.35
21469.54
18094.54
1.77
2.100
2396
2431
217.25
100.60
21855.35
18480.35
1.60
1.894
2380
2422
212.80
100.25
21333.20
17958.20
1.97
2.339
38
2338
2352
214.00
97.55
20875.70
17500.70
0.67
0.800
17
2328
2352
214.00
97.55
20875.70
17500.70
1.15
1.371
29
2344
2384
215.85
99.65
21509.45
18134.45
1.86
2.206
181
Sample 21
IRSnet
IRSgross
(mm)
area
area
(mm2)
kg/m2.min
kg/m2.min
(mm2)
b
Agross
Anet
Dry
mass
(md) gm
Wet
mass
(mw) gm
length
(mm)
13
2355
2392
216.25
100.00
21625.00
18250.00
1.71
25
2307
2326
214.00
98.50
21079.00
17704.00
0.90
1.073
39
2326
2368
215.55
100.10
21576.56
18201.56
1.95
2.307
44
2374
2421
217.85
102.00
22220.70
18845.70
2.12
2.494
22
2358
2378
215.00
98.80
21242.00
17867.00
0.94
1.119
26
2377
2423
216.80
100.00
21680.00
18305.00
2.12
2.513
19
2358
2374
215.00
98.00
21070.00
17695.00
0.76
0.904
41
2371
2411
217.50
100.30
21815.25
18440.25
1.83
2.169
30
2236
2269
215.25
100.15
21557.29
18182.29
1.53
1.815
36
2400
2437
218.50
100.75
22013.88
18638.88
1.68
1.985
Brick
identifica
tion
2.027
Sample 22
40
2347
2388
215.55
99.45
21436.45
18061.45
1.91
2.270
2358
2403
216.80
100.25
21734.20
18359.20
2.07
2.451
37
2300
2334
214.75
98.25
21099.19
17724.19
1.61
1.918
20
2334
2381
217.00
101.00
21917.00
18542.00
2.14
2.535
40
2400
2433
217.75
100.50
21883.88
18508.88
1.51
1.783
35
2383
2410
216.25
98.50
21300.63
17925.63
1.27
1.506
47
2363
2371
214.25
97.35
20857.24
17482.24
0.38
0.458
45
2336
2367
215.25
98.00
21094.50
17719.50
1.47
1.749
16
2361
2373
214.45
97.00
20801.65
17426.65
0.58
0.689
2328
2387
216.25
100.50
21733.13
18358.13
2.71
3.214
24
2334
2372
216.26
99.50
21517.87
18142.87
1.77
2.094
2357
2403
216.90
101.60
22037.04
18662.04
2.09
2.465
27
2341
2379
216.00
99.95
21589.20
18214.20
1.76
2.086
2352
2391
216.85
100.50
21793.43
18418.43
1.79
2.117
15
2482
2499
213.75
98.00
20947.50
17572.50
0.81
0.967
2325
2359
216.00
99.95
21589.20
18214.20
1.57
1.867
14
2366
2422
217.00
101.50
22025.50
18650.50
2.54
3.003
46
2344
2359
214.00
97.25
20811.50
17436.50
0.72
0.860
Sample 23
2354
2404
216.00
99.75
21546.00
18171.00
2.32
2.752
28
2304
2336
216.00
98.00
21168.00
17793.00
1.51
1.798
Sample 24
61
2373
2430
220.70
102.50
22621.75
19246.75
2.52
2.962
62
2359
2428
220.65
102.60
22638.69
19263.69
3.05
3.582
96
2393
2426
216.15
99.15
21431.27
18056.27
1.54
1.828
79
2384
2419
215.75
99.75
21521.06
18146.06
1.63
1.929
76
2310
2360
216.15
100.55
21733.88
18358.88
2.30
2.723
73
2338
2384
216.25
99.25
21462.81
18087.81
2.14
2.543
86
2308
2359
217.25
99.40
21594.65
18219.65
2.36
2.799
70
2356
2412
220.75
102.45
22615.84
19240.84
2.48
2.910
71
2351
2369
216.55
99.90
21633.35
18258.35
0.83
0.986
55
2298
2321
213.90
98.75
21122.63
17747.63
1.09
1.296
182
Sample 25
IRSnet
IRSgross
(mm)
area
area
(mm2)
kg/m2.min
kg/m2.min
(mm2)
b
Agross
Anet
Dry
mass
(md) gm
Wet
mass
(mw) gm
length
(mm)
78
2313
2362
216.30
100.25
21684.08
18309.08
2.26
53
2363
2380
215.00
98.75
21231.25
17856.25
0.80
0.952
80
2379
2427
217.25
101.25
21996.56
18621.56
2.18
2.578
89
2330
2384
217.05
100.50
21813.53
18438.53
2.48
2.929
88
2313
2360
216.25
100.50
21733.13
18358.13
2.16
2.560
77
2288
2319
215.50
99.50
21442.25
18067.25
1.45
1.716
94
2316
2365
215.90
99.75
21536.03
18161.03
2.28
2.698
85
2332
2370
217.30
99.35
21588.76
18213.76
1.76
2.086
74
2377
2392
217.00
99.50
21591.50
18216.50
0.69
0.823
82
2353
2402
216.85
100.25
21739.21
18364.21
2.25
2.668
52
2321
2347
215.25
98.25
21148.31
17773.31
1.23
1.463
50
2342
2346
214.55
98.75
21186.81
17811.81
0.19
0.225
64
2398
2411
216.50
99.15
21465.98
18090.98
0.61
0.719
84
2299
2347
217.75
100.00
21775.00
18400.00
2.20
2.609
56
2357
2375
215.75
99.75
21521.06
18146.06
0.84
0.992
93
2318
2368
216.90
100.10
21711.69
18336.69
2.30
2.727
67
2351
2407
220.50
102.00
22491.00
19116.00
2.49
2.929
90
2361
2380
215.75
97.85
21111.14
17736.14
0.90
1.071
91
2329
2380
215.85
100.30
21649.76
18274.76
2.36
2.791
59
2302
2321
216.90
99.65
21614.09
18239.09
0.88
1.042
57
2393
2416
217.50
100.45
21847.88
18472.88
1.05
1.245
81
2323
2372
216.30
100.25
21684.08
18309.08
2.26
2.676
69
2365
2384
216.00
99.25
21438.00
18063.00
0.89
1.052
66
2387
2392
215.65
99.10
21370.92
17995.92
0.23
0.278
68
2399
2418
216.25
99.40
21495.25
18120.25
0.88
1.049
79
2363
2403
216.60
99.25
21497.55
18122.55
1.86
2.207
65
2312
2339
214.00
98.00
20972.00
17597.00
1.29
1.534
58
2377
2399
217.00
99.90
21678.30
18303.30
1.01
1.202
54
2346
2370
216.95
100.00
21695.00
18320.00
1.11
1.310
63
2301
2348
215.00
99.35
21360.25
17985.25
2.20
2.613
Brick
identifica
tion
2.676
Sample 26
Sample 27
A4

WATER ABSORPTION OF BRICKS
184
Sample 1
Brick
Dry mass
identification
W1(gm)
2415
2670
2460
Saturated A (Water
mass
absorption)%
W2 (gm) A= 100( W2W1)/W1
Sample 2
Brick
Dry mass
Saturated
mass
A (Water
absorption)%
A= 100( W2W1)/W1
identification
W1(gm)
10.559
2390
2590
8.37
2710
10.163
2435
2760
13.35
W2 (gm)
2380
2640
10.924
11
2415
2665
10.35
13
2370
2670
12.658
2435
2650
8.83
2410
2640
9.544
15
2465
2700
9.53
14
2370
2645
11.603
17
2430
2720
11.93
10.54
2370
2625
10.759
12
2420
2675
20
2410
2665
10.581
18
2430
2625
8.02
19
2440
2775
13.730
2410
2690
11.62
10
2485
2745
10.463
2445
2740
12.07
39
2440
2695
10.45
82
2505
2795
11.58
69
2420
2685
10.95
95
2280
2567
12.59
35
2410
2680
11.20
85
2306
2553
10.71
41
2415
2695
11.59
84
2306
2555
10.80
37
2400
2655
10.63
92
2299
2565
11.57
29
2410
2685
11.41
98
2403
2692
12.03
40
2410
2670
10.79
81
2447
2712
10.83
68
2430
2745
12.96
100
2399
2669
11.25
63
2435
2735
12.32
89
2288
2594
13.37
71
2440
2710
11.07
2420
2676
10.58
99
2400
2684
11.83
19
2450
2715
10.82
86
2281
2576
12.93
71
2295
2596
13.12
97
2472
2774
12.22
79
2449
2752
12.37
43
2378
2706
13.79
72
2300
2586
12.43
91
2265
2517
11.13
61
2540
2816
10.87
90
2318
2559
10.40
60
2446
2727
11.49
96
2500
2810
12.40
15
2410
2652
10.04
87
2414
2684
11.18
62
2448
2740
11.93
41
2364
2658
12.44
78
2415
2687
11.26
88
2292
2542
10.91
2376
2642
11.20
11
2386
2673
12.03
2483
2790
12.36
77
2401
2676
11.45
55
2412
2662
10.36
16
2425
2688
10.85
2430
2676
10.12
76
2439
2722
11.60
10
2304
2589
12.37
20
2444
2731
11.74
14
2456
2740
11.56
17
2434
2734
12.33
56
2328
2576
10.65
74
2407
2701
12.21
12
2493
2792
11.99
80
2466
2786
12.98
48
2506
2795
11.53
73
2263
2556
12.95
2497
2803
12.25
51
2296
2570
11.93
54
2412
2664
10.45
Sample 3
Sample 5
Sample 7
16
Sample 4
42
Sample 6
75
Sample 8
185
Sample 9
Brick
Dry mass
Sample 10
Brick
Dry mass
identification
W1(gm)
W2 (gm)
A (Water
absorption)%
A= 100( W2W1)/W1
identification
W1(gm)
49
2464
2757
11.89
22
2464
46
2489
2760
12.01
2805
12.70
58
2489
2747
10.37
2304
2562
11.20
37
2304
2572
11.63
2435
2670
9.65
66
2422
2665
10.03
52
2370
2644
11.56
67
2307
2577
11.70
2420
2709
11.94
26
2322
2619
12.79
57
2483
2759
11.12
59
2450
2702
10.29
2502
2821
12.75
45
2382
2606
9.40
50
2358
2668
13.15
28
2518
2824
12.15
2372
2657
12.02
2384
2707
13.55
29
2503
2832
13.14
2447
2738
11.89
21
2411
2687
11.45
2452
2729
11.30
31
2502
2819
12.67
12
2449
2744
12.05
34
2495
2797
12.10
20
2449
2760
12.70
94
2240
2487
11.03
2449
2706
10.49
30
2458
2759
12.25
2452
2710
10.52
33
2445
2742
12.15
19
2409
2659
10.38
69
2496
2774
11.14
24
2449
2761
12.74
35
2398
2680
11.76
11
2444
2699
10.43
32
2543
2836
11.52
2436
2711
11.29
22
2443
2684
9.86
34
2465
2770
12.37
2436
2654
8.95
41
2437
2709
11.16
21
2452
2722
11.01
32
2466
2767
12.21
15
2448
2727
11.40
27
2454
2713
10.55
23
2456
2745
11.77
38
2467
2766
12.12
17
2459
2710
10.21
48
2478
2796
12.83
16
2442
2724
11.55
45
2455
2728
11.12
18
2443
2735
11.95
40
2458
2720
10.66
2458
2759
12.25
29
2458
2736
11.31
14
2448
2712
10.78
2444
2713
11.01
47
2452
2743
11.87
75
2482
2672
7.66
44
2493
2783
11.63
86
2463
2717
10.31
42
2524
2789
10.50
91
2480
2761
11.33
43
2428
2678
10.30
71
2444
2738
12.03
36
2463
2736
11.08
65
2450
2687
9.67
25
2469
2760
11.79
79
2456
2735
11.36
31
2448
2672
9.15
80
2451
2734
11.55
26
2454
2720
10.84
96
2467
2721
10.30
28
2468
2757
11.71
83
2462
2729
10.84
39
2480
2728
10.00
58
2479
2723
9.84
Saturated A (Water
mass
absorption)%
W2 (gm) A= 100( W2W1)/W1
Sample 11
Sample 13
Sample 15
68
Sample 12
13
10
Sample 14
37
Sample 16
Saturated
mass
186
Sample 17
Brick
Dry mass
Sample 18
Brick
Dry mass
identification
W1(gm)
W2 (gm)
A (Water
absorption)%
A= 100( W2W1)/W1
identification
W1(gm)
74
2489
2709
8.84
88
2439
61
2450
2692
10.37
2675
9.18
93
2452
2703
76
10.24
2482
2712
9.27
84
2453
2724
11.05
60
2488
2707
8.80
92
2488
2744
10.29
49
2468
2718
10.13
66
2449
2731
11.51
55
2472
2709
9.59
68
2443
2734
11.91
95
2477
2706
9.25
73
2446
2725
11.41
89
2433
2655
9.12
59
2437
2715
11.41
94
2476
2711
9.49
81
2442
2673
9.46
72
2458
2713
10.37
2450
2709
10.57
57
2457
2731
11.15
19
2358
2560
8.57
52
2440
2704
10.82
44
2374
2697
13.61
51
2457
2754
12.09
30
2236
2496
11.63
56
2480
2712
9.35
41
2371
2665
12.40
77
2494
2740
9.86
36
2400
2665
11.04
54
2443
2690
10.11
2363
2634
11.47
64
2442
2692
10.24
38
2338
2536
8.47
90
2441
2696
10.45
2396
2675
11.64
82
2432
2728
12.17
25
2307
2537
9.97
50
2445
2724
11.41
2344
2618
11.69
10.32
Saturated A (Water
mass
absorption)%
W2 (gm) A= 100( W2W1)/W1
Sample 19
Sample 21
53
Sample 20
29
Sample 22
Saturated
mass
2380
2680
12.61
69
2365
2609
18
2374
2579
8.64
66
2387
2617
9.64
13
2355
2641
12.14
58
2377
2649
11.44
31
2351
2627
11.74
63
2301
2556
11.08
22
2358
2586
9.67
79
2363
2614
10.62
11
2341
2624
12.09
61
2373
2705
13.99
26
2377
2663
12.03
70
2356
2670
13.33
32
2345
2547
8.61
71
2351
2612
11.10
39
2326
2600
11.78
65
2312
2540
9.86
17
2328
2520
8.25
2393
2633
10.03
55
2298
2512
9.31
57
2393
2687
12.29
78
2313
2617
13.14
56
2357
2615
10.95
73
2338
2618
11.98
93
2318
2620
13.03
79
2384
2631
10.36
85
2332
2626
12.61
86
2308
2602
12.74
84
2299
2609
13.48
76
2310
2609
12.94
94
2316
2604
12.44
53
2363
2583
9.31
82
2353
2653
12.75
81
2323
2619
12.74
67
2351
2689
14.38
62
2308
2620
13.52
54
2346
2630
12.11
68
2399
2671
11.34
74
2377
2660
11.91
Sample 23
96
Sample 24
187
Sample 25
Brick
Sample 26
Brick
identification
W1(gm)
W2 (gm)
A (Water
absorption)%
A= 100( W2W1)/W1
12.71
20
2334
2607
11.70
2572
8.94
35
2383
2572
7.93
2342
2566
9.56
15
2482
2566
9.34
59
2302
2571
11.69
45
2336
2571
10.06
80
2379
2673
12.36
37
2300
2673
11.65
89
2330
2642
13.39
2357
2642
12.09
52
2321
2569
10.69
14
2366
2569
8.58
77
2288
2557
11.76
27
2341
2557
9.23
91
2329
2624
12.67
47
2363
2624
11.05
64
2398
2665
11.13
2358
2665
13.02
2352
2647
12.54
Dry mass
Saturated A (Water
mass
absorption)%
W2 (gm) A= 100( W2W1)/W1
identification
W1(gm)
88
2313
2607
90
2361
50
Sample 27
9
2325
2608
12.17
24
2334
2614
12.00
16
2361
2548
7.92
2328
2623
12.67
2354
2646
12.40
40
2400
2672
11.33
46
2344
2551
8.83
28
2304
2568
11.46
41
2347
2623
11.76
Dry mass
Saturated
mass
A5

COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF BRICKS
189
Brick
Identific
ation
FACING BRICK BED FACE

Dimension 1 (mm)
Area 1
Dimension 2 (mm)
mm2
Length
Width
Length
Width
Area 2
mm2
Sample 1
Smaller Max load Compressive
area
Kn
strength
mm2
N/mm2
18
216.10
98.50
21285.85
216.20
98.50
21295.70 21285.85
894.10
42.00
12
212.85
100.00
21285.00
217.85
99.90
21763.22 21285.00
988.80
46.46
14
217.75
99.35
21633.46
217.90
99.65
21713.74 21633.46
944.90
43.68
10
218.95
99.95
21884.05
218.75
99.65
21798.44 21798.44
1036.90
47.57
17
219.50
100.55
22070.73
219.40
100.75
22104.55 22070.73
840.90
38.10
11
217.25
99.40
21594.65
217.10
99.85
21677.44 21594.65
820.90
38.01
16
219.50
100.25
22004.88
220.10
100.20
22054.02 22004.88
776.90
35.31
217.20
99.80
21676.56
217.45
99.65
21668.89 21668.89
913.90
42.18
215.20
97.60
21003.52
215.55
98.20
21167.01 21003.52
694.90
33.08
216.60
98.70
21378.42
216.30
98.65
21338.00 21338.00
844.90
39.60
71
217.05
100.50
21813.53
218.15
100.75
21978.61 21813.53
1064.30
48.79
63
219.25
101.00
22144.25
219.50
101.10
22191.45 22144.25
957.30
43.23
39
217.30
99.50
21621.35
217.35
99.45
21615.46 21615.46
964.30
44.61
68
219.90
101.45
22308.86
220.50
101.35
22347.68 22308.86
977.00
43.79
69
217.50
99.85
21717.38
217.05
100.05
21715.85 21715.85
1091.90
50.28
35
217.55
99.10
21559.21
217.70
99.00
21552.30 21552.30
1106.00
51.32
40
216.95
99.25
21532.29
217.00
99.15
21515.55 21515.55
1113.00
51.73
41
217.50
99.55
21652.13
217.10
99.50
21601.45 21601.45
1187.00
54.95
29
217.00
100.00
21700.00
217.20
99.85
21687.42 21687.42
965.00
44.50
37
217.00
99.40
21569.80
216.45
99.25
21482.66 21482.66
1159.90
53.99
Sample 2
Sample 3
96
220.85
102.25
22581.91
221.25
102.25
22622.81 22581.91
803.40
35.58
91
214.00
97.95
20961.30
214.00
97.65
20897.10 20897.10
874.10
41.83
90
214.25
98.35
21071.49
214.20
98.40
21077.28 21071.49
942.30
44.72
43
219.20
101.95
22347.44
219.20
101.80
22314.56 22314.56
797.90
35.76
41
218.20
101.30
22103.66
218.00
101.30
22083.40 22083.40
684.80
31.01
88
214.35
97.95
20995.58
214.40
97.15
20828.96 20828.96
947.80
45.50
87
217.20
100.45
21817.74
217.75
100.25
21829.44 21817.74
885.90
40.60
82
219.90
101.70
22363.83
220.20
101.50
22350.30 22350.30
793.90
35.52
42
217.45
100.15
21777.62
217.00
100.10
21721.70 21721.70
930.90
42.86
89
215.95
99.75
21541.01
215.50
99.65
21474.58 21474.58
776.90
36.18
Sample 4
51
216.00
98.60
21297.60
216.10
98.80
21350.68 21297.60
777.90
36.53
80
219.50
101.10
22191.45
219.55
101.45
22273.35 22191.45
912.90
41.14
15
215.25
98.75
21255.94
214.30
98.50
21108.55 21108.55
1020.90
48.36
62
218.60
101.75
22242.55
219.40
101.88
22352.47 22242.55
855.80
38.48
78
218.20
101.70
22190.94
218.65
101.20
22127.38 22127.38
676.70
30.58
11
215.35
97.66
21031.08
214.50
97.59
20933.06 20933.06
614.70
29.37
73
217.80
101.35
22074.03
217.35
100.15
21767.60 21767.60
589.60
27.09
20
219.00
101.85
22305.15
220.01
101.45
22320.01 22305.15
853.70
38.27
75
217.95
100.65
21936.67
217.14
100.55
21833.43 21833.43
777.60
35.62
72
215.55
99.95
21544.22
215.75
99.95
21564.21 21544.22
639.60
29.69
190
Brick
Identific
ation
Dimension 1 (mm)
Area 1
mm2
Sample 5
Dimension 2 (mm)
Length
Width
Length
Width
216.85
98.95
21457.31
216.10
98.80
Area 2
mm2

area
Kn
strength
mm2
N/mm2
21350.68 21350.68
1203.00
56.34
221.30
102.65
22716.45
221.00
102.40
22630.40 22630.40
928.00
41.01
57
217.70
101.75
22150.98
217.80
101.65
22139.37 22139.37
1276.90
57.68
48
221.20
101.45
22440.74
221.30
101.50
22461.95 22440.74
938.00
41.80
12
220.55
101.35
22352.74
220.30
101.40
22338.42 22338.42
761.90
34.11
55
215.30
100.00
21530.00
215.25
99.98
21520.70 21520.70
1000.90
46.51
217.25
99.50
21616.38
217.35
99.54
21635.02 21616.38
1123.80
51.99
217.20
99.65
21643.98
217.30
99.55
21632.22 21632.22
1275.80
58.98
10
219.45
100.95
22153.48
219.40
100.55
22060.67 22060.67
882.70
40.01
219.50
101.35
22246.33
219.35
101.50
22264.03 22246.33
935.80
42.07
32
220.00
102.95
22649.00
221.00
103.75
22928.75 22649.00
903.90
39.91
31
220.65
102.25
22561.46
220.60
102.10
22523.26 22523.26
879.00
39.03
69
219.35
101.15
22187.25
219.10
101.30
22194.83 22187.25
1015.90
45.79
35
217.70
100.00
21770.00
217.70
99.90
21748.23 21748.23
1055.90
48.55
34
220.25
101.75
22410.44
219.85
101.75
22369.74 22369.74
904.00
40.41
33
219.25
100.95
22133.29
219.30
101.25
22204.13 22133.29
958.00
43.28
29
221.25
102.50
22678.13
221.00
102.75
22707.75 22678.13
877.90
38.71
21
220.00
99.25
21835.00
219.85
99.30
21831.11 21831.11
1066.00
48.83
94
210.00
98.35
20653.50
209.80
98.70
20707.26 20653.50
1126.90
54.56
68
218.65
98.70
21580.76
218.45
98.50
21517.33 21517.33
1238.90
57.58
Sample 6
Sample 7
21
215.50
99.35
21409.93
215.50
99.55
21453.03 21409.93
1322.10
61.75
18
215.60
100.45
21657.02
215.75
100.50
21682.88 21657.02
1280.10
59.11
13
215.75
100.75
21736.81
215.95
100.75
21756.96 21736.81
1190.10
54.75
214.00
98.75
21132.50
214.00
97.50
20865.00 20865.00
1512.10
72.47
15
215.75
100.00
21575.00
215.25
100.00
21525.00 21525.00
1292.10
60.03
23
215.75
100.50
21682.88
216.00
100.50
21708.00 21682.88
1291.10
59.54
22
213.65
99.25
21204.76
213.75
99.15
21193.31 21193.31
1348.10
63.61
17
215.00
99.00
21285.00
215.00
98.75
21231.25 21231.25
1404.10
66.13
10
215.25
100.00
21525.00
215.40
100.25
21593.85 21525.00
1007.10
46.79
216.50
100.70
21801.55
216.25
100.75
21787.19 21787.19
967.10
44.39
44
217.00
100.85
21884.45
216.95
100.75
21857.71 21857.71
993.70
45.46
47
215.95
100.75
21756.96
216.25
100.75
21787.19 21756.96
1112.70
51.14
28
215.85
100.25
21638.96
215.80
100.25
21633.95 21633.95
1087.70
50.28
29
215.50
100.25
21603.88
215.45
100.35
21620.41 21603.88
1077.80
49.89
26
215.25
99.75
21471.19
214.75
99.80
21432.05 21432.05
617.80
28.83
37
215.00
99.40
21371.00
215.10
99.50
21402.45 21371.00
1183.80
55.39
39
215.75
99.25
21413.19
214.95
99.45
21376.78 21376.78
1208.80
56.55
40
214.85
98.90
21248.67
215.00
98.80
21242.00 21242.00
1127.80
53.09
31
213.00
98.75
21033.75
213.00
98.55
20991.15 20991.15
1435.30
68.38
45
215.25
99.75
21471.19
215.25
99.90
21503.48 21471.19
1142.30
53.20
Sample 8
191
Sample 9
Brick
Identific
ation
Dimension 1 (mm)
Length
Area 1
mm2
Width
Dimension 2 (mm)
Length
Width
Area 2
mm2

area
Kn
strength
mm2
N/mm2
43
215.45
98.00
21114.10
215.50
97.90
21097.45 21097.45
1128.30
53.48
38
217.30
100.25
21784.33
216.75
100.35
21750.86 21750.86
916.20
42.12
25
216.25
101.00
21841.25
216.25
100.65
21765.56 21765.56
1169.80
53.75
48
217.35
101.30
22017.56
217.45
101.60
22092.92 22017.56
1066.80
48.45
42
214.30
99.75
21376.43
214.50
99.75
21396.38 21376.43
1020.30
47.73
32
216.75
100.50
21783.38
216.75
100.50
21783.38 21783.38
1098.30
50.42
36
216.70
99.85
21637.50
215.00
99.85
21467.75 21467.75
1089.30
50.74
27
214.90
99.40
21361.06
214.75
99.35
21335.41 21335.41
1161.90
54.46
41
214.95
99.55
21398.27
214.90
99.65
21414.79 21398.27
1299.80
60.74
34
217.30
101.50
22055.95
217.25
101.35
22018.29 22018.29
1049.80
47.68
50
215.25
99.80
21481.95
215.35
99.75
21481.16 21481.16
1035.60
48.21
54
214.00
99.00
21186.00
213.95
99.20
21223.84 21186.00
1105.60
52.19
77
215.95
99.60
21508.62
215.90
99.75
21536.03 21508.62
1126.60
52.38
82
216.50
100.40
21736.60
216.65
100.25
21719.16 21719.16
881.60
40.59
64
214.15
99.25
21254.39
214.25
99.10
21232.18 21232.18
1177.50
55.46
56
215.25
99.00
21309.75
215.00
99.15
21317.25 21309.75
1139.50
53.47
51
216.45
100.75
21807.34
215.25
101.00
21740.25 21740.25
1091.50
50.21
52
215.00
99.80
21457.00
214.75
99.85
21442.79 21442.79
1007.50
46.99
57
215.65
100.25
21618.91
215.45
100.15
21577.32 21577.32
1077.50
49.94
59
215.25
99.75
21471.19
215.15
99.70
21450.46 21450.46
1043.50
48.65
39
215.50
100.00
21550.00
215.45
100.00
21545.00 21545.00
977.00
45.35
13
216.15
99.80
21571.77
216.00
100.40
21686.40 21571.77
931.00
43.16
31
216.45
99.95
21634.18
216.25
100.00
21625.00 21625.00
922.00
42.64
Sample 10
Sample 11
18
215.00
98.85
21252.75
215.35
98.30
21168.91 21168.91
1132.00
53.47
217.90
100.25
21844.48
218.25
100.50
21934.13 21844.48
838.00
38.36
17
214.00
97.50
20865.00
214.25
97.50
20889.38 20865.00
842.00
40.35
29
215.75
99.75
21521.06
215.75
99.75
21521.06 21521.06
886.00
41.17
25
214.65
98.25
21089.36
214.00
98.25
21025.50 21025.50
1025.00
48.75
32
215.35
97.75
21050.46
214.40
97.70
20946.88 20946.88
928.00
44.30
26
216.90
100.00
21690.00
216.75
100.20
21718.35 21690.00
945.00
43.57
69
216.10
99.15
21426.32
216.25
99.15
21441.19 21426.32
1109.00
51.76
62
221.00
102.60
22674.60
220.75
102.75
22682.06 22674.60
797.00
35.15
65
214.25
98.00
20996.50
214.25
97.50
20889.38 20889.38
998.00
47.78
76
216.30
100.50
21738.15
216.25
100.50
21733.13 21733.13
869.00
39.99
86
217.55
99.30
21602.72
217.50
99.40
21619.50 21602.72
904.00
41.85
96
216.35
99.75
21580.91
216.00
99.25
21438.00 21438.00
971.00
45.29
81
216.35
99.75
21580.91
216.45
99.75
21590.89 21580.91
914.00
42.35
71
216.50
99.85
21617.53
216.45
99.40
21515.13 21515.13
1270.00
59.03
70
220.75
102.45
22615.84
220.75
102.50
22626.88 22615.84
769.00
34.00
61
220.50
102.45
22590.23
220.80
102.50
22632.00 22590.23
815.00
36.08
Sample 12
192
Brick
Identific
ation
Dimension 1 (mm)
Area 1
mm2
Sample 13
Dimension 2 (mm)
Area 2
mm2

area
Kn
strength
mm2
N/mm2
Length
Width
Length
Width
64
216.50
99.15
21465.98
216.25
99.10
21430.38 21430.38
1374.00
64.11
74
217.20
99.40
21589.68
217.00
99.50
21591.50 21589.68
1056.00
48.91
88
216.35
100.45
21732.36
216.35
100.55
21753.99 21732.36
889.00
40.91
90
215.25
97.80
21051.45
215.65
97.50
21025.88 21025.88
1216.00
57.83
54
216.75
100.00
21675.00
216.75
100.05
21685.84 21675.00
1109.00
51.16
84
217.70
100.25
21824.43
218.05
99.90
21783.20 21783.20
838.00
38.47
67
220.60
102.30
22567.38
220.55
102.00
22496.10 22496.10
881.00
39.16
85
217.35
99.50
21626.33
217.75
99.50
21666.13 21626.33
924.00
42.73
82
216.70
100.10
21691.67
216.95
100.00
21695.00 21691.67
856.00
39.46
77
215.25
99.75
21471.19
215.30
99.75
21476.18 21471.19
790.00
36.79
Sample 14
40
215.75
99.25
21413.19
216.10
99.30
21458.73 21413.19
844.00
39.41
46
214.35
97.75
20952.71
214.00
97.40
20843.60 20843.60
865.00
41.50
28
215.95
93.00
20083.35
216.00
98.00
21168.00 20083.35
1007.00
50.14
217.10
100.25
21764.28
217.00
100.45
21797.65 21764.28
905.00
41.58
216.30
100.70
21781.41
216.25
100.55
21743.94 21743.94
866.00
39.83
216.70
100.00
21670.00
216.50
100.00
21650.00 21650.00
891.00
41.15
16
215.00
97.00
20855.00
214.65
97.00
20821.05 20821.05
1179.00
56.63
47
214.25
97.45
20878.66
214.15
97.35
20847.50 20847.50
1013.00
48.59
27
215.90
99.70
21525.23
216.25
99.75
21570.94 21525.23
936.00
43.48
14
217.10
101.10
21948.81
217.00
101.30
21982.10 21948.81
892.00
40.64
FACING BRICK STRETCHER FACE
Sample 1
27
218.00
67.50
14715.00
214.90
67.45
14495.01 14495.01
570.00
39.32
38
217.00
67.30
14604.10
216.50
66.75
14451.38 14451.38
569.00
39.37
30
217.55
64.50
14031.98
217.30
64.50
14015.85 14015.85
488.00
34.82
217.25
67.75
14718.69
217.00
68.00
14756.00 14718.69
573.00
38.93
60
217.10
68.35
14838.79
217.15
68.00
14766.20 14766.20
581.00
39.35
43
217.95
66.90
14580.86
217.50
67.00
14572.50 14572.50
540.00
37.06
66
216.85
67.30
14594.01
216.85
68.00
14745.80 14594.01
538.00
36.86
25
218.00
67.10
14627.80
217.65
66.00
14364.90 14364.90
529.00
36.83
23
216.50
67.90
14700.35
216.50
68.00
14722.00 14700.35
544.00
37.01
44
217.70
67.75
14749.18
217.00
67.75
14701.75 14701.75
490.00
33.33
Sample 2
74
217.00
68.80
14929.60
217.55
70.00
15228.50 14929.60
504.90
33.82
76
217.25
68.75
14935.94
217.00
68.00
14756.00 14756.00
394.80
26.76
77
217.30
68.75
14939.38
217.25
68.70
14925.08 14925.08
499.80
33.49
61
217.80
69.25
15082.65
217.95
69.50
15147.53 15082.65
491.80
32.61
79
220.65
67.20
14827.68
220.75
67.50
14900.63 14827.68
427.90
28.86
97
218.30
68.80
15019.04
218.55
70.00
15298.50 15019.04
569.90
37.95
92
214.85
68.00
14609.80
214.25
67.75
14515.44 14515.44
455.90
31.41
100
217.10
67.85
14730.24
217.25
67.70
14707.83 14707.83
410.00
27.88
98
218.50
68.00
14858.00
218.95
67.50
14779.13 14779.13
456.00
30.85
95
219.75
68.60
15074.85
219.75
68.20
14986.95 14986.95
404.00
26.96
193
Brick
Identific
ation

Dimension 1 (mm)
Area 1
Dimension 2 (mm) Area 2
mm2
mm2
Length
Width
Length
Width
Sample 3
area
Kn
strength
mm2
N/mm2
37
214.50
68.55
14703.98
214.25
68.00
14569.00 14569.00
513.90
35.27
66
214.30
66.20
14186.66
214.25
66.80
14311.90 14186.66
535.00
37.71
59
216.00
68.00
14688.00
216.00
67.55
14590.80 14590.80
634.00
43.45
30
218.25
69.50
15168.38
217.75
69.65
15166.29 15166.29
516.00
34.02
28
220.55
69.00
15217.95
220.75
68.25
15066.19 14482.86
497.80
34.37
52
217.00
66.85
14506.45
217.15
66.55
14451.33 14451.33
429.80
29.74
46
220.65
68.05
15015.23
220.45
68.00
14990.60 14990.60
336.60
22.45
219.25
69.25
15183.06
219.35
69.30
15200.96 15183.06
522.80
34.43
216.50
66.95
14494.68
216.55
66.88
14482.86 14482.86
506.80
34.99
214.25
66.35
14215.49
214.20
66.40
14222.88 14215.49
503.80
35.44
215.00
67.20
14448.00
215.00
67.00
14405.00 14405.00
495.10
34.37
16
215.10
67.20
14454.72
214.75
67.00
14388.25 14388.25
514.10
35.73
12
216.00
67.25
14526.00
215.70
66.95
14441.12 14441.12
479.10
33.18
14
215.00
67.25
14458.75
214.75
66.70
14323.83 14323.83
576.20
40.23
11
215.00
67.35
14480.25
214.40
67.00
14364.80 14364.80
496.20
34.54
37
214.50
68.55
14703.98
214.25
68.00
14569.00 14569.00
513.90
35.27
66
214.30
66.20
14186.66
214.25
66.80
14311.90 14186.66
535.00
37.71
59
216.00
68.00
14688.00
216.00
67.55
14590.80 14590.80
634.00
43.45
30
218.25
69.50
15168.38
217.75
69.65
15166.29 15166.29
516.00
34.02
28
220.55
69.00
15217.95
220.75
68.25
15066.19 14482.86
397.80
27.47
49
213.90
67.00
14331.30
214.00
62.75
13428.50 13428.50
549.60
40.93
60
215.25
67.00
14421.75
215.00
66.20
14233.00 14233.00
704.60
49.50
55
214.00
67.00
14338.00
213.80
67.00
14324.60 14324.60
639.50
44.64
76
215.25
66.75
14367.94
215.40
66.85
14399.49 14367.94
651.50
45.34
72
214.00
67.00
14338.00
214.15
67.00
14348.05 14338.00
557.50
38.88
95
214.75
67.00
14388.25
215.00
67.50
14512.50 14388.25
644.50
44.79
58
215.75
67.00
14455.25
215.90
67.25
14519.28 14455.25
635.50
43.96
94
215.25
67.00
14421.75
215.25
67.00
14421.75 14421.75
513.50
35.61
89
213.25
66.00
14074.50
213.25
66.25
14127.81 14074.50
774.50
55.03
61
215.25
67.00
14421.75
214.85
67.00
14394.95 14394.95
618.50
42.97
90
213.85
67.00
14327.95
214.00
66.75
14284.50 14284.50
541.50
37.91
68
216.00
67.45
14569.20
215.75
67.70
14606.28 14569.20
412.50
28.31
73
215.15
67.25
14468.84
215.35
67.45
14525.36 14468.84
487.50
33.69
92
214.55
67.75
14535.76
214.85
67.55
14513.12 14513.12
551.50
38.00
53
214.50
66.90
14350.05
214.25
66.85
14322.61 14322.61
487.50
34.04
81
213.95
66.50
14227.68
214.00
66.90
14316.60 14227.68
680.50
47.83
84
215.00
67.00
14405.00
215.30
67.30
14489.69 14405.00
539.50
37.45
93
215.25
66.75
14367.94
214.90
66.25
14237.13 14237.13
539.50
37.89
66
215.20
67.00
14418.40
215.25
67.45
14518.61 14418.40
506.50
35.13
88
215.40
66.90
14410.26
215.25
67.00
14421.75 14421.75
531.50
36.85
Sample 4
Sample 5
Sample 6
194
Brick
Identific
ation

Dimension 1 (mm)
Area 1
Dimension 2 (mm) Area 2
mm2
mm2
Length
Width
Length
Width
Sample 7
area
Kn
strength
mm2
N/mm2
11
215.55
67.50
14549.63
215.50
67.65
14578.58 14549.63
323.00
22.20
217.00
67.75
14701.75
217.25
68.00
14773.00 14701.75
460.00
31.29
22
215.00
67.00
14405.00
214.85
66.75
14341.24 14341.24
653.00
45.53
19
214.70
67.20
14427.84
214.55
66.75
14321.21 14321.21
541.00
37.78
44
217.95
68.25
14875.09
217.55
68.25
14847.79 14847.79
285.00
19.19
30
214.85
63.10
13557.04
214.90
65.75
14129.68 13557.04
407.00
30.02
41
217.40
67.85
14750.59
217.45
67.75
14732.24 14732.24
481.00
32.65
38
214.00
66.35
14198.90
214.55
66.75
14321.21 14198.90
227.00
15.99
36
218.50
69.00
15076.50
217.80
68.00
14810.40 14810.40
411.00
27.75
216.00
67.80
14644.80
216.10
67.95
14684.00 14644.80
351.00
23.97
93
216.50
67.70
14657.05
216.50
67.45
14602.93 14602.93
422.00
28.90
89
217.30
67.80
14732.94
217.65
67.75
14745.79 14732.94
350.00
23.76
56
215.75
66.75
14401.31
215.45
66.75
14381.29 14381.29
381.00
26.49
57
217.20
68.90
14965.08
217.25
68.80
14946.80 14946.80
382.00
25.56
80
217.00
67.95
14745.15
217.35
68.55
14899.34 14745.15
373.00
25.30
94
216.25
67.45
14586.06
216.25
67.50
14596.88 14586.06
407.00
27.90
91
215.55
67.25
14495.74
215.95
68.00
14684.60 14495.74
430.00
29.66
52
214.95
67.00
14401.65
215.25
66.55
14324.89 14324.89
443.00
30.93
59
216.55
65.00
14075.75
216.65
66.25
14353.06 14075.75
435.00
30.90
50
214.35
66.00
14147.10
214.00
66.25
14177.50 14147.10
486.00
34.35
70
98.50
67.30
6629.05
62
100.35
67.75
45
67.25
100.10
Sample 8
FACING BRICK HEADER FACE
Sample 1
98.75
66.95
6611.31
6611.31
62.60
9.47
6798.71
99.50
67.00
6666.50
6666.50
62.20
9.33
6731.73
100.50
67.30
6763.65
6731.73
60.30
8.96
99.15
66.75
6618.26
100.25
67.25
6741.81
6618.26
60.80
9.19
16
99.55
66.85
6654.92
99.25
67.50
6699.38
6654.92
53.00
7.96
36
100.00
67.05
6705.00
100.95
67.00
6763.65
6705.00
56.30
8.40
64
100.65
67.30
6773.75
99.75
67.45
6728.14
6728.14
53.30
7.92
24
100.31
66.80
6700.71
100.20
66.50
6663.30
6679.68
61.20
9.16
99.80
66.65
6651.67
99.50
66.45
6611.78
6611.78
57.90
8.76
19
100.00
66.95
6695.00
99.95
67.10
6706.65
6695.00
61.00
9.11
17
101.10
68.95
6970.85
101.55
6948.05
6948.05
18.50
2.66
Sample 2
68.42
60
99.65
68.05
6781.18
99.91
68.00
6793.88
6781.18
27.00
3.98
16
100.85
67.25
6782.16
100.65
67.00
6743.55
6743.55
23.60
3.50
19
100.10
67.85
6791.79
100.15
67.77
6787.17
6787.17
26.70
3.93
71
100.00
68.75
6875.00
99.95
68.30
6826.59
6826.59
15.60
2.29
84
98.55
67.95
6696.47
97.25
67.55
6569.24
6569.24
29.70
4.52
81
100.15
67.30
6740.10
100.25
67.85
6801.96
6740.10
24.30
3.61
99
100.10
68.20
6826.82
99.85
68.25
6814.76
6814.76
20.80
3.05
85
96.45
67.70
6529.67
98.55
68.05
6706.33
6529.67
27.90
4.27
86
98.60
67.95
6699.87
99.00
68.30
6761.70
6699.87
28.40
4.24
195
Brick
Identific
ation

Dimension 1 (mm)
Area 1
Dimension 2 (mm)
mm2
Area 2
mm2
Sample 3
area
Kn
strength
mm2
N/mm2
Length
Width
Length
Width
45
98.15
69.10
6782.17
98.20
69.10
6785.62
6782.17
34.10
5.03
67
97.50
67.75
6605.63
97.35
67.75
6595.46
6595.46
28.00
4.25
58
101.00
67.75
6842.75
101.35
67.75
6866.46
6842.75
31.70
4.63
22
100.75
68.75
6926.56
99.30
68.75
6826.88
6826.88
14.90
2.18
26
99.50
68.80
6845.60
99.90
68.80
6873.12
6845.60
31.60
4.62
14
100.80
68.10
6864.48
100.95
68.42
6907.00
6864.48
47.30
6.89
56
99.00
66.20
6553.80
99.15
66.15
6558.77
6553.80
30.60
4.67
49
100.50
67.75
6808.88
100.65
67.70
6814.01
6808.14
31.80
4.67
97.65
67.60
6601.14
97.80
67.68
6619.10
6601.14
35.90
5.44
50
98.80
71.00
7014.80
98.90
70.95
7016.96
7014.80
17.60
2.51
24
100.50
67.25
6758.63
100.25
67.30
6746.83
6746.83
36.50
5.41
19
100.35
67.10
6733.49
100.20
67.25
6738.45
6733.49
36.10
5.36
20
101.25
67.00
6783.75
100.25
66.85
6701.71
6701.71
34.40
5.13
99.50
66.70
6636.65
99.25
66.60
6610.05
6610.05
41.00
6.20
98.80
66.50
6570.20
99.30
66.75
6628.28
6570.20
26.70
4.06
45
98.15
69.10
6782.17
98.20
69.10
6785.62
6782.17
34.10
5.03
67
97.50
67.75
6605.63
97.35
67.75
6595.46
6595.46
28.00
4.25
58
101.00
67.75
6842.75
101.35
67.75
6866.46
6842.75
31.70
4.63
22
100.75
68.75
6926.56
99.30
68.75
6826.88
6826.88
34.90
5.11
26
99.50
68.80
6845.60
99.90
68.80
6873.12
6845.60
31.60
4.62
83
99.70
67.30
6709.81
99.75
6658.31
6658.31
70.80
10.63
Sample 4
Sample 5
66.75
96
99.50
67.25
6691.38
99.00
67.25
6657.75
6657.75
37.30
5.60
79
100.25
67.00
6716.75
100.00
67.00
6700.00
6700.00
28.70
4.28
65
99.25
66.25
6575.31
98.55
66.60
6563.43
6563.43
47.10
7.18
71
100.75
67.00
6750.25
100.25
67.00
6716.75
6716.75
37.00
5.51
86
99.50
67.25
6691.38
99.80
67.60
6746.48
6691.38
76.40
11.42
74
98.80
66.75
6594.90
99.10
66.50
6590.15
6590.15
50.30
7.63
80
100.00
67.25
6725.00
100.25
66.65
6681.66
6681.66
44.50
6.66
91
100.80
67.00
6753.60
100.25
67.30
6746.83
6746.83
40.80
6.05
75
98.30
66.10
6497.63
97.75
66.25
6475.94
6475.94
49.00
7.57
Sample 6
1
98.55
67.95
6696.47
97.25
67.55
6569.24
6569.24
29.60
4.51
100.15
67.30
6740.10
100.25
67.85
6801.96
6740.10
37.90
5.62
100.10
68.20
6826.82
99.85
68.25
6814.76
6814.76
26.80
3.93
96.45
67.70
6529.67
98.55
68.05
6706.33
6529.67
30.80
4.72
100.22
67.55
6769.86
100.34
67.95
6818.10
6769.86
28.60
4.22
98.73
68.10
6723.51
99.96
68.55
6852.26
6723.51
33.60
5.00
99.55
69.10
6878.91
98.99
68.56
6786.75
6786.75
31.70
4.67
100.33
68.44
6866.59
98.95
67.99
6727.61
6727.61
21.20
3.15
97.10
69.99
6796.03
100.22
67.89
6803.94
6796.03
20.20
2.97
10
98.60
67.95
6699.87
99.00
68.30
6761.70
6699.87
46.00
6.87
196
Brick
Identific
ation

Dimension 1 (mm)
Area 1
Dimension 2 (mm)
mm2
Length
Width
Length
Width
Area 2
mm2
Sample 7
area
Kn
strength
mm2
N/mm2
79
99.45
66.25
6588.56
99.95
66.90
6686.66
6588.56
36.00
5.46
80
99.50
66.30
6596.85
99.80
66.70
6596.85
6596.85
15.80
2.40
58
99.75
67.50
6733.13
99.75
67.40
6723.15
6723.15
21.30
3.17
73
99.75
66.70
6653.33
99.65
66.55
6631.71
6631.71
24.80
3.74
78
100.05
67.00
6703.35
100.45
66.85
6715.08
6703.35
37.23
5.55
66
98.25
67.00
6582.75
99.10
67.00
6639.70
6582.75
20.80
3.16
63
99.70
66.30
6610.11
99.45
66.25
6588.56
6588.56
28.00
4.25
53
98.50
66.55
6555.18
98.80
66.75
6594.90
6555.18
37.00
5.64
55
97.25
64.75
6296.94
99.25
66.55
6605.09
6296.94
4.70
0.75
69
99.25
67.00
6649.75
99.50
67.50
6716.25
6649.75
19.60
2.95
40
100.60
67.75
6815.65
100.25
68.00
6817.00
6815.65
57.00
8.36
45
97.75
66.85
6534.59
97.50
66.75
6508.13
6508.13
58.00
8.91
15
98.25
66.20
6504.15
98.50
66.10
6510.85
6504.15
36.00
5.53
35
99.00
67.00
6633.00
99.35
67.25
6681.29
6633.00
40.00
6.03
Sample 8
37
98.50
67.00
6599.50
97.00
66.10
6411.70
6411.70
47.00
7.33
100.50
66.75
6708.38
100.35
66.85
6708.40
6708.38
43.00
6.41
20
100.00
66.85
6685.00
100.55
66.85
6721.77
6685.00
41.00
6.13
99.65
66.90
6666.59
99.95
67.00
6696.65
6666.59
46.00
6.90
99.90
66.45
6638.36
99.35
66.50
6606.78
6606.78
32.00
4.84
24
99.70
66.75
6654.98
99.45
66.50
6613.43
6613.43
38.00
5.75
197
Brick
Identific
ation
-
COMMON BRICKS BED FACE

Dimension 1 (mm)
Area 1
Dimension 2 (mm)
mm2
Length
Width
Length
Width
Area 2
mm2
Sample 1
Smaller
area
mm2
Max load Compressive

Kn
strength
N/mm2
216.10
99.25
21447.93
216.20
99.50
21511.90
21447.93
825.30
38.48
215.90
97.45
21039.46
215.50
97.45
21000.48
21000.48
829.30
39.49
217.50
100.05
21760.88
217.45
100.25
21799.36
21760.88
631.30
29.01
218.55
99.15
21669.23
219.05
99.95
21894.05
21669.23
866.30
39.98
217.85
98.95
21556.26
217.70
101.45
22085.67
21556.26
671.30
31.14
217.25
100.80
21898.80
217.25
101.20
21985.70
21898.80
791.30
36.13
217.95
99.65
21718.72
217.70
100.25
21824.43
21718.72
546.30
25.15
219.20
101.25
22194.00
219.25
100.40
22012.70
22012.70
866.30
39.35
218.80
100.85
22065.98
219.45
101.20
22208.34
22065.98
613.30
27.79
219.00
100.65
22042.35
219.50
101.50
22279.25
22042.35
750.30
34.04
214.75
100
21475
215.7
99.75
21516.075
21475
850
39.58
214.25
100.75
21585.688
213.85
100.00
21385
21385
813
38.02
215.50
100.8
21722.4
215.55
100.75 21716.663
21716.66
783
36.06
214.55
100.25
21508.638
215.5
99.45
21431.475
21431.48
582
27.16
214.90
100.75
21651.175
215.10
100.70
21660.57
21651.18
855
39.49
216.55
100.75
21817.413
216.25
100.95 21830.438
21817.41
730
33.46
216.00
100.25
21654.00
216.45
101.00
21654
543
25.08
216.25
100.5
21733.125
216.15
100.15 21647.423
21647.42
786
36.31
21861.45
216.20
100.75
21782.15
216.25
101.45 21938.563
21782.15
745
34.20
215.70
100.4
21656.28
215.5
99.90
21528.45
21528.45
695
32.28
216.20
99.05
21414.61
216.20
21479.47
21414.61
830.00
38.76
215.90
97.00
20942.30
215.50
97.45
21000.48
20942.30
790.00
37.72
216.50
100.25
21704.13
217.45
100.30
21810.24
21704.13
636.00
29.30
217.75
99.25
21611.69
219.05
99.95
21894.05
21611.69
840.00
38.87
217.85
98.35
21425.55
217.70
101.25
22042.13
21425.55
567.00
26.46
217.35
100.20
21778.47
217.25
101.20
21985.70
21778.47
794.00
36.46
218.20
99.15
21634.53
217.70
100.25
21824.43
21634.53
543.00
25.10
218.75
101.05
22104.69
219.25
100.40
22012.70
22012.70
833.00
37.84
218.80
100.85
22065.98
219.45
101.20
22208.34
22065.98
614.00
27.83
219.00
100.65
22042.35
219.50
101.50
22279.25
22042.35
749.00
33.98
216.00
98.60
21297.60
216.00
98.60
21297.60
21297.60
607.90
28.54
219.50
101.10
22191.45
219.50
101.35
22246.33
22191.45
573.90
25.86
214.25
98.35
21071.49
214.20
98.40
21077.28
21071.49
473.90
22.49
Sample 3
99.35
Sample 4
219.60
101.95
22388.22
219.20
101.80
22314.56
22314.56
562.90
25.23
218.20
101.30
22103.66
218.45
101.30
22128.99
22103.66
501.90
22.71
214.35
97.00
20791.95
214.40
97.55
20914.72
20791.95
512.90
24.67
217.20
101.45
22034.94
217.25
100.25
21779.31
21779.31
462.90
21.25
219.80
101.65
22342.67
220.15
101.55
22356.23
22342.67
544.90
24.39
217.45
100.45
21842.85
217.34
100.15
21766.60
21766.60
437.80
20.11
215.95
99.95
21584.20
215.35
99.75
21481.16
21481.16
475.90
22.15
198
Brick
Identific
ation

Dimension 1 (mm)
Area 1
Dimension 2 (mm)
mm2
Length
Width
Length
Width
219.25
98.00
220.55
218.20
Area 2
mm2
Sample 5
Smaller
area
mm2

Kn
strength
N/mm2
21486.50
219.20
101.20
22183.04
21486.50
452.10
21.04
100.65
22198.36
220.85
100.95
22294.81
22198.36
604.10
27.21
99.65
21743.63
218.40
100.15
21872.76
21743.63
851.10
39.14
220.25
100.25
22080.06
220.75
101.00
22295.75
21798.44
849.20
38.96
221.25
102.95
22777.69
221.25
103.75
22954.69
22070.73
744.20
33.72
221.40
101.60
22479.00
221.60
101.95
22592.12
21594.65
711.20
32.93
218.95
100.75
22306.05
219.30
100.85
22116.41
22004.88
779.20
35.41
220.00
100.95
22103.00
219.80
100.95
22188.81
21668.89
687.20
31.71
218.20
100.70
22154.00
218.45
100.45
21943.30
21003.52
824.20
39.24
219.30
100.00
21820.00
219.25
100.25
21979.81
21338.00
857.20
40.17
216.35
97.60
21115.76
216.00
98.00
21168.00
21115.76
434.90
20.60
218.50
100.10
21871.85
218.75
101.25
22148.44
21871.85
573.90
26.24
214.20
98.25
21045.15
214.25
98.45
21092.91
21045.15
400.80
19.04
219.55
101.95
22383.12
219.25
100.80
22100.40
22100.40
560.00
25.34
217.20
100.30
21785.16
218.40
101.30
22123.92
21785.16
502.80
23.08
214.05
97.35
20837.77
214.25
97.75
20942.94
20837.77
512.90
24.61
216.20
101.25
21890.25
217.30
100.25
21784.33
21784.33
450.90
20.70
218.80
100.65
22022.22
219.50
101.45
22022.22
14999.66
542.90
36.19
218.45
101.45
22161.75
217.00
100.55
21819.35
21819.35
400.80
18.37
215.05
99.95
21494.25
215.35
99.65
21459.63
21459.63
465.90
21.71
216.35
97.60
21115.76
216.00
98.00
21168.00
21115.76
625.03
29.60
218.50
100.10
21871.85
218.75
101.25
22148.44
21871.85
828.94
37.90
214.20
98.25
21045.15
214.25
98.45
21092.91
21045.15
564.01
26.80
219.55
101.95
22383.12
219.25
100.80
22100.40
22100.40
680.69
30.80
217.20
100.30
21785.16
218.40
101.30
22123.92
21785.16
623.05
28.60
214.05
97.35
20837.77
214.25
97.75
20942.94
20837.77
700.15
33.60
216.20
101.25
21890.25
217.30
100.25
21784.33
21784.33
690.56
31.70
218.80
100.65
22022.22
219.50
101.45
22268.28
22022.22
466.87
21.20
218.45
101.45
22161.75
217.00
100.55
21819.35
21819.35
440.75
20.20
215.05
99.95
21494.25
215.35
99.65
21459.63
21459.63
987.14
46.00
Sample 6
Sample 7
Sample 8
-
214.55
97.75
20972.26
215.00
98.25
21123.75
20972.26
872.50
41.60
213.45
96.80
20661.96
213.30
96.80
20647.44
20647.44
883.60
42.79
213.45
96.80
20661.96
213.30
97.45
20786.09
20661.96
751.60
36.38
216.00
98.70
21319.20
215.50
98.60
21248.30
21248.30
815.50
38.38
214.85
98.50
21162.73
215.00
98.50
21177.50
21162.73
876.60
41.42
215.00
98.00
21070.00
214.95
97.50
20957.63
20957.63
1017.60
48.56
212.25
98.00
20800.50
212.25
97.75
20747.44
20747.44
1032.60
49.77
217.00
99.75
21645.75
217.00
99.00
21483.00
21483.00
849.60
39.55
214.00
98.00
20972.00
214.95
97.75
21011.36
20972.00
913.60
43.56
212.45
96.25
20448.31
212.25
96.00
20376.00
20376.00
832.60
40.86
199
Brick
Identific
ation

Dimension 1 (mm)
Area 1
Dimension 2 (mm)
mm2
Length
Width
Length
Width
Area 2
mm2
Sample 9
Smaller
area
mm2

Kn
strength
N/mm2
216.36
96.75
20932.83
216.25
98.25
21246.56
20932.83
713.50
34.09
213.25
96.80
20642.60
213.30
96.80
20647.44
20642.60
793.60
38.44
210.30
97.80
20567.34
210.30
97.45
20493.74
20493.74
751.60
36.67
215.45
98.70
21264.92
215.50
98.60
21248.30
21248.30
758.50
35.70
214.85
98.50
21162.73
215.00
98.50
21177.50
21162.73
856.60
40.48
212.55
98.30
20893.67
214.95
97.50
20957.63
20893.67
988.60
47.32
212.25
98.00
20800.50
212.25
97.75
20747.44
20747.44
1015.60
48.95
217.00
99.75
21645.75
217.00
99.00
21483.00
21483.00
792.60
36.89
214.00
98.00
20972.00
214.95
97.75
21011.36
20972.00
953.60
45.47
212.45
96.25
20448.31
212.25
96.00
20376.00
20376.00
832.60
40.86
215.50
97.75
21065.13
215.75
97.55
21046.41
21046.41
1081.50
51.39
215.25
98.95
21298.99
214.90
98.00
21060.20
21060.20
1221.60
58.01
214.00
97.45
20854.30
214.10
97.50
20874.75
20854.30
1077.60
51.67
213.85
97.70
20893.15
214.15
97.95
20975.99
20893.15
1027.50
49.18
215.00
98.00
21070.00
215.00
98.00
21070.00
21070.00
1061.60
50.38
214.50
98.00
21021.00
214.35
98.25
21059.89
21021.00
1032.60
49.12
214.00
98.50
21079.00
214.65
97.25
20874.71
20874.71
980.60
46.98
214.70
97.75
20986.93
214.65
97.25
20874.71
20874.71
974.60
46.69
211.10
96.25
20318.38
211.25
96.35
20353.94
20318.38
958.60
47.18
215.40
98.35
21184.59
215.25
98.10
21116.03
21116.03
722.60
34.22
216.00
98.00
21168.00
216.25
98.25
21246.56
21168.00
813.80
38.44
215.90
97.35
21017.87
215.40
97.60
21023.04
21017.87
926.60
44.09
213.45
98.00
20918.10
213.75
99.15
21193.31
20918.10
928.00
44.36
214.95
97.60
20979.12
215.25
97.25
20933.06
20933.06
797.60
38.10
212.75
96.00
20424.00
213.00
96.00
20448.00
20424.00
1002.60
49.09
213.80
98.75
21112.75
214.25
98.00
20996.50
20996.50
948.60
45.18
212.00
96.65
20489.80
216.65
97.00
21015.05
20489.80
1001.60
48.88
214.45
98.35
21091.16
214.55
98.25
21079.54
21079.54
833.60
39.55
212.00
94.75
20087.00
212.20
95.75
20318.15
20087.00
967.60
48.17
216.00
97.25
21006.00
215.75
97.00
20927.75
20927.75
691.60
33.05
Sample 10
Sample 11
Sample 12
-
213.00
96.95
20650.35
213.50
97.75
20869.63
20650.35
1003.50
48.59
215.75
99.65
21499.49
215.45
99.30
21394.19
21394.19
740.60
34.62
212.25
96.95
20577.64
212.00
97.25
20617.00
20577.64
914.60
44.45
212.95
97.25
20709.39
213.00
97.25
20714.25
29709.39
765.50
25.77
217.40
98.75
21468.25
217.95
98.50
21468.08
21468.08
899.60
41.90
212.60
97.35
20696.61
212.55
96.90
20596.10
20596.10
1032.60
50.14
214.25
98.75
21157.19
214.20
98.75
21152.25
21152.25
952.60
45.04
215.10
99.00
21294.90
215.35
99.25
21373.49
21294.90
930.60
43.70
214.40
97.75
20957.60
214.90
97.30
20909.77
20909.77
870.60
41.64
215.40
98.35
21184.59
215.25
98.10
21116.03
21116.03
722.60
34.22
STATISTICAL TABLES
201
Table B1:
5 per cent points of the F-distribution (Adapted from Loveday, 1975)
2
3
4
1
161.4
18.5
10.13
7.71
2
199.5
19.0
9.55
6.94
3
215.7
19.2
9.28
6.59
4
224.6
19.2
9.12
6.39
5
230.2
19.3
9.01
6.26
6
234.0
19.3
8.94
6.16
7
236.8
19.4
8.89
6.09
8
238.9
19.4
8.85
6.04
10
241.9
19.4
8.79
5.96
12
243.9
19.4
8.74
5.91
24
249.0
19.5
8.64
5.77
254.3
19.5
8.53
5.63
5
6
7
8
9
6.61
5.99
5.59
5.32
5.12
5.79
5.14
4.74
4.46
4.26
5.41
4.76
4.35
4.07
3.86
5.19
4.53
4.12
3.84
3.63
5.05
4.39
3.97
3.69
3.48
4.95
4.28
3.87
3.58
3.37
4.88
4.21
3.79
3.50
3.29
4.82
4.15
3.73
3.44
3.23
4.74
4.06
3.64
3.35
3.14
4.68
4.00
3.57
3.28
3.07
4.53
3.84
3.41
3.12
2.90
4.36
3.67
3.23
2.93
2.71
10
11
12
13
14
4.96
4.84
4.75
4.67
4.60
4.10
3.98
3.89
3.81
3.74
3.71
3.59
3.49
3.41
3.34
3.48
3.36
3.26
3.18
3.11
3.33
3,20
3.11
3.03
2.96
3.22
3.09
3.00
2.92
2.85
3.14
3.01
2.91
2.83
2.76
3.07
2.95
2.85
2.77
2.70
2.98
2.85
2.75
2.67
2.60
2.p1
2.79
2.69
2.60
2.53
2.74
2.61
2.51
2.42
2.35
2.54
2.40
2.30
2.21
2.13
15
16
17
18
19
4.54
4.49
4.45
4.41
4.38
3.68
3.63
3.59
3.55
3.52
3.29
3,.24
3.20
3.16
3.13
3.06
3.01
2.96
2.93
2.90
2.90
2.85
2.81
2.77
2.74
2.79
2.74
2.70
2.66
2.63
2.71
2.66
2.61
2.58
2.54
2.64
2.59
2.55
2.51
2.48
2.54
2.49
2.45
2.41
2.38
2.48
2.42
2.38
2.34
2.31
2.29
2.24
2.19
2.15
2.11
2.07
2.01
1.96
1.92
1.88
20
21
22
23
24
4.35
4.32
4.30
4.28
4.26
3.49
3.47
3.44
3.42
3.40
3.10
3.07
3.05
3.03
3.01
2.87
2.84
2.82
2.80
2.78
2.71
2.68
2.66
2.64
2.62
2.60
2.57
2.55
2.53
2.51
2.51
2.49
2.46
2.44
2.42
2.45
2.42
2.40
2.37
2.36
2.35
2.32
2.30
2.27
2.25
2.28
2.25
2.23
2.20
2.18
2.08
2.05
2.03
2.00
1.98
1.84
1.81
1.78
1.76
1.73
25
26
27
28
29
4.24
4.23
4.21
4.20
4.18
3.39
3.37
3.35
3.34
3.33
2.99
2.98
2.96
2.95
2.93
2.76
2.74
2.73
2.71
2.70
2.60
2.59
2.57
2.56
2.55
2.49
2.47
2.46
2.45
2.43
2.40
2.39
2.37
2.36
2.35
2.34
2.32
2.31
2.29
2.28
2.24
2.22
2.20
2.19
2.18
2.16
2.15
2.13
2.12
2.10
1.96
1.95
1.93
1.91
1.90
1.71
1.69
1.67
1.65
1.64
30
32
34
36
38
4.17
4.15
4.13
4.11
4.10
3.32
3.29
3.28
3.26
3.24
2.92
2.90
2.88
2.87
2.85
2.69
2.67
2.65
2.63
2.62
2.53
2.51
2.49
2.48
2.46
2.42
2.40
2.38
2.36
2.35
2.33
2.31
2.29
2.28
2.26
2.27
2.24
2.23
2.21
2.19
2.16
2.14
2.12
2.11
2.09
2.09
2.07
2.05
2.03
2.02
1.89
1.86
1.84
1.82
1.81
1.62
1.59
1.57
1.55
1.53
40
60
120
4.08
4.00
3.92
3.84
3.23
3.15
3.07
3.00
2.84
2.76
2.68
2.60
2.61
2.53
2.45
2.37
2.45
2.37
2.29
2.21
2.34
2.25
2.18
2.10
2.25
2.17
2.09
2.01
2.18
2.10
2.02
1.94
2.08
1.99
1.91
1.83
2.00
1.92
1.83
1.75
1.79
1.70
1.61
1.52
1.51
1.39
1.25
1.00
1 =
2 = 1
202
Table B2:
Distribution of tc (Adapted from Kennedy and Neville, 1985)
Degrees of
freedom (df)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
40
60
120
0.10
6.314
2.920
2.353
2.12
2.015
1.943
1.895
1.860
1.833
1.812
1.796
1.782
1.771
1.761
1.753
1.746
1.740
1.734
1.729
1.725
1.721
1.717
1.714
1.711
1.708
1.706
1.703
1.701
1.699
1.697
1.684
1.671
1.658
1.645
Probability,
0.05
0.01
12.706
63.657
4.303
9.925
3.182
5.841
2.776
4.604
2.571
4.032
2.447
3.707
2.365
3.499
2.306
3.355
2.262
3.250
2.228
3.169
2.201
3.106
2.179
3.055
2.160
3.012
2.145
2.977
2.131
2.947
2.120
2.921
2.110
2.898
2.101
2.878
2.093
2.861
2.086
2.845
2.080
2.831
2.074
2.819
2.069
2.807
2.064
2.797
2.060
2.787
2.056
2.779
2.052
2.771
2.048
2.763
2.045
2.756
2.042
2.750
2.021
2.704
2.000
2.660
1.980
2.617
1.960
2.576
0.001
636.619
31.598
12.941
8.610
6.859
5.959
5.405
5.041
4.781
4.587
4.437
4.318
4.221
4.140
4.073
4.015
3.965
3.922
3.883
3.850
3.819
3.792
3.767
3.745
3.725
3.707
3.690
3.674
3.659
3.646
3.551
3.460
3.373
3.290
203
Table B3:
Range coefficient d (Adapted from Kennedy and Neville, 1985)
Number of
observations,
n
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
Table B.4:
Number in
subgroup
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
Coefficient,
d
0.8862
0.5908
0.4857
0.4299
0.3945
0.3698
0.3512
0.3367
0.3249
0.3152
0.3069
0.2998
Number of
observations,
n
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
24
50
100
1000
Coefficient,
d
0.2935
0.2880
0.2831
0.2787
0.2747
0.2711
0.2677
0.2567
0.2223
0.1994
0.1543
Factors for control lines for mean and range charts values (BS
2846:1991)
For mean
Warning Action
line
line
Lower
action
line
For range
Lower
Upper
warning warning
line
line
Upper
action
line
'
A0.025
'
A0.001
'
D0.999
'
D0.975
'
D0.025
'
D0.001
1.229
0.668
0.476
0.377
0.316
0.274
0.244
0.220
0.202
0.186
1.937
1.054
0.750
0.594
0.498
0.432
0.384
0.347
0.317
0.294
0.00
0.04
0.10
0.16
0.21
0.26
0.29
0.32
0.35
0.38
0.04
0.18
0.29
0.37
0.42
0.46
0.5
0.52
0.54
0.56
2.81
2.17
1.93
1.81
1.72
1.66
1.62
1.58
1.55
1.53
4.12
2.99
2.58
2.36
2.22
2.12
2.04
1.99
1.94
1.90

Properties of Malaysian Fired Clay Bricks and Their Evaluation With International Masonry Specifications

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Properties of Malaysian Fired Clay Bricks and Their Evaluation With International Masonry Specifications

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PROPERTIES OF MALAYSIAN FIRED CLAY BRICKS AND THEIR

EVALUATION WITH INTERNATIONAL MASONRY SPECIFICATIONS

ZAINAB ARMAN ALI

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA

PROPERTIES OF MALAYSIAN FIRED CLAY BRICKS AND THEIR

ZAINAB BINTI ARMAN ALI

A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the

Faculty of Civil Engineering

This thesis is dedicated to the people very dear to my heart:

The author wish to acknowledge the guidance, advice and assistance

LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS

History and Development of Masonry

Manufacturing of Clay Bricks

Construction Requirements for Masonry and

the Needs for Specification

Masonry Standardisation and International

Defining the Contents for Standard

Aim and Objectives of the Research

Brick Strength and Masonry Strength

Effects of Brick Type and Geometry

Effects of Test Methods and

Initial Rate of Suction

Soluble Salt Content and Efflorescence

Brick Specifications in International

Initial Rate of Suction (IRS)

Soluble Salt Content

Test Methods and Measurements in

Methods of Sampling for Tests in

Initial Rate of Suction

LABORATORY TESTS ON PHYSICAL

Initial Rate of Suction

Water Absorption (5-hours boiling test)

Soluble Salt Content

STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF TEST SPECIMENS

General Approach for Analysing Sample

Histograms and Normal Distribution

Log-normal Distribution Curve

Derivation of Population Estimates

Application of Statistical Methods for

Samples Under Investigation

Description and Presentation of

Test for Data Homogeneity

Determination of Sample Variance

Using the ANOVA

Estimates of Population Mean

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Overall Dimension of 24 Bricks

Dimension of Individual Brick for

Length, Width and Height

Initial Rate of Suction

Soluble Salt Content

APPLICATION OF RESEARCH FINDINGS

Relationship of Aspect Ratio to Compressive

Relationship of Water Absorption to Porosity

and Compressive Strength

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

FOR FURTHER WORK

Initial Rate of Suction

Soluble Salt Content

Recommendations for Further Work

orientations (Hendry, 1997)

Aspect Ratio Factor (Ka)

Limits of durability indices (Surej et al., 1998)