Attitude change

How to control or change attitudes? Researchers in consumer behavior at least identified 4 ways to induce consumers to change attitudes. 1. By changing the basic motivational function of a product or combining several functions (Cf. the functional theory of attitude) 2. By altering components of the multiattribute model. (Cf. the strategic implications of the multiattribute models) 3. By using a consumer model which is based on the consistency principle:  Cognitive dissonance theory (Festinger)  Balance theory (Heider) Basic theory: consumers seek to reduce inconsistency 4. By improving the likelihood of cognitive elaboration of advertisements.  ELM model (Petty et Cacioppo, 1986) The model based on the consistency principle: According to this principle of cognitive consistency, consumers value harmony among their thoughts, feelings and behaviours and they are motivated to maintain consistency among these elements. If consumers perceive inconsistency they will change their beliefs or their beviours in order to maintain consistency among these elements. This motivation means that, if necessary, consumers will change their thoughts, feelings or eventual behaviours to make them consistent with their other experiences. The cognitive dissonance theory (Festinger, 1957) According to the cognitive dissonance theory, discomfort or dissonance occurs when a consumer holds conflicting thoughts about a belief or an attitude object. Ex: in postpurchase situations, consumers often begin to feel cognitive dissonance when they think to the positive qualities of the not selected brands, especially when the product is expensive. Consumers try to change attitudes in order to reduce dissonance, thus dissonance reduction occurs: 1. By avoiding information that would create cognitive dissonance because it is incompatible with their beliefs (selective exposure) 2. By either eliminating, adding or changing elements. Ex: a smoker experiencing dissonance could: a. Stop smoking (eliminating) process of elimination; b. Remember a heavy smoker who died at age 95 (adding a new belief); c. Alternatively, he or she might question the research that links cancer and smoking (changing some present information). All the process in the examples are unconscious. Implication for marketers : 1. Develop tactics of reassurance to reduce postpurchase dissonance especially when the perceived risk is high. 2. Avoid inconsistent or painful messages in advertisements 3. Using manipulative advertising strategies that separate a product from its intended purpose in order to induce consumers to cognitively match up the claim. (compenser) condition: the valence of the message has to be positive

Ex: Dyson vacuum cleaner they love the way they look while using it (this positively inconsistent message is likely to induce consumers to reduce the dissonance by positively modifying the beliefs related to the brand. The balance theory Considers relations among elements a person might perceive as belonging together. This perspective involves relations between 3 elements, which result in an attitude structure called triad. (tested and proved in various contexts) Each triad contains:  A person and their perceptions;  An attitude object;  Some other object or person. The person s perceptions can be either positive or negative. The theory specifies that people desire the relations among elements in a triad to be harmonious or balanced. Triad imbalance occurs when the product of the 3 valences is negative. In this case, people will alter their perceptions in order to make relations inside the triad consistent.  An imbalance situation of interest is when 2 of the relations are positive and 1 is negative. 2 types of relation considered: relation of sentiment feelings: liking/disliking, and relation of belonging. SCHEMA: Each relation has a valence ether positive/negative Balanced triad: the person doesn t possess the object ( -), but it likes the X person, that doesn t like the object either, as opposed to 1 of the 2 persons doesn t want to posses the object and the other person likes it. Ex of triad imbalance: Monica likes George Clooney, that s know to like coffee, because Monica doesn t use coffee => triad imbalance, because Monica really likes George Monica will change her habit to consume coffee, can change either her habit in terms of buying coffee/changing her beliefs. Elements can be perceived as going together in 1 of 2 ways. They can have:  A unit relation (where 1 element is seen to belong to the other) Or  A sentiment relation (where the 2 elements are linked because 1 has expressed a preference or dislike for the other) may involve persons/ground. Thus, balance theory helps to explain theoretically why consumers like to be associated with positively valued objects: forming an unit relation with a popular product may improve one s chances of being included as a positive sentiment relation in other people s triad. (the need to buy popular products). The celebrity endorsement mechanism: In celebrity endorsements, marketers hope that a star s popularity will transfer to the product or will discourage harmful behaviors to the brand. (this type of strategy may produce But creating a unit relation between a product and a star can backfire if the public s opinion of the celebrity endorser shifts from positive to negative or if people question the link between the star and the product. Ex: the late singer Michael Jackson, who did promotions for Pepsi, confessed that he did not drink soda at all. The elaboration likelihood model: This model proposes a global view that consumer attitudes are changed by 2 distinctly different routes to persuasion : a central route or a peripheral route. Its integrative function makes it a valuable theory of influence.

SCHEMA: In this model at the 1st stage we have a certain no of variables which are extracted from the ad (stimulus) and consumers may have 2 ways of elaborating info: if they take the central route they will inconsively elaborate, a central route with a high depth of processing; consumers my take the peripheral route that consumers don t have the motivation to elaborate info superficial, shallow and the consequence is that the attitude will slightly change and it will be a low predictor of the behaviors. Attitude change: adding of a new attribute, altering the beliefs, reinforcing the attitude positively/ negatively The central route: The central route is particularly relevant to attitude change when a consumer s motivation or ability to assess the attitude objet is high; that is, attitude change occurs because the consumer actively seeks out information relevant to the attitude object. In the central route, beliefs are carefully formed and the alternatives of choice duly evaluated. Thus, the resulting strong attitudes will be more likely to be consistent with behavior. The implication is that the quality of arguments presented, will be the most important communication factor in determining attitude change along the central route. In the contrary the quality of arguments is of no interest in the peripheral route. The peripheral route: In contrast, when a consumer s motivation or assessment skills are low, attitude change tends to occur via the peripheral route without the consumer focusing on information relevant to the attitude object itself. Thus, the consumer is not motivated to think deeply about the presented arguments. In the peripheral route, attitude change is rather an outcome of secondary inducements (coupons, free samples, beautiful background scenery, great packaging, celebrity endorsements peripheral ques. Sources of information extraneous to actual message content are called peripheral cues. In the peripheral route, consumer s attention is focused on peripheral cues to the detriment of the message arguments. As a consequence of the shallow nature of the cognitive elaboration, attitude is relatively temporary and a weak predictor of behavior. This theory is based of a special understanding of the stages of info processing. Stages of information processing (MacInnis and Jaworski, 1989) A typical info-processing model postulates a stage approach consisting of the following stages: attention, elaboration and behavior. The peripheral route has for upper bounds the level of the heuristic assessment. At this level, consumers use easy-to-process cues in order to make a heuristic assessment of the message. The central route goes beyond the heuristic assessment. At the 4th level, consumers use their prior knowledge and experience, which leads to central processing of the message. At the 5th level, users are strongly involved; that is, they relate their own experience to the message. At the 6th and deepest level, users embellish the message information, adding either positive or negative attributes as well as concepts or uses which are not mentioned in the message. SCHEMA: Central route that consumers take if 2 conditions are satisfied: 1- consumers are strongly and 2- his abilities are high, then he takes the central route and there is a lot of thinking about products (quality of argument) then the attitude will strongly change and reinforcements of attitude. Then you have the peripheral route and the cues, result of the cues: attitude, but not strong. The main aspect of the motivation in this model is 1ly the personal relevance (enduring involvement) and the need for cognition The ability to process information

The ability to process information will increase with:  The number of message repetitions;  The existence of consumer s prior knowledge and schemas related to the message content;  The comprehensibility of the message;  The availability of consumer s cognitive resources (no distraction);  The written vs. audio nature of the message (consumer can process written messages at their own pace). Peripheral cues: The source  Attractiveness (movie star, etc)  Credibility (experts) The message  Repetition of arguments  Number of arguments  Style and atmosphere (humor, etc)  Images, background scenery, colors, typography, etc) semiotic icons The channel  Music, video, images (the radio and the tv the best channels for peripheral cues) Basic implications of the ELM for marketers:  The advertiser has to choose what route he wants to favor. It depends on the category of product and the strategic objectives of the company. From this decision will result the selection of the copy strategy (basic theme and fundamental elements of the ad) as well as the diffusion channels.  Whatever the advertiser s choice for a given route is, the ad has to include some striking peripheral cues. In the peripheral type of ads, peripheral cues are critical inputs which are likely to endorse classical conditioning.

Conditioning processes
3 main forms of conditioning are studied in consumption behavior:  The classical conditioning It remains the prerogative of large firms with large advertising budgets.  The instrumental conditioning One of the conceptual foundations of the relationship marketing  The vicarious conditioning A specific method in the field of advertising. Associative learning Learning can be described as a relatively stable change in attitudes and behavior that results from prior experiences. The most basic form of learning, termed associative learning occurs when a connection in LMT is drawn between 2 events in the environment. One form of associative learning, classical conditioning, occurs when an initially neutral stimulus (the conditioned stimulus) is associated with another stimulus (the unconditioned stimulus), that is

connected inherently to some response (the unconditional response) the quality of the response if important. SCHEMA: THE PAVLOV S EXPERIENCE Pavlov psychologist interested in linking the stimulus: the ringing of the bell, that has to precede the presentation of the meat, at the end, the response of salivation response to an unconditioned stimulus, after numerous pairing of the stimulus, this response is transferred to the ringing of the bell the transfer of the unconditional response as a response to the conditioned stimulus. Ex: George Clooney, included in the schema of classical conditioning: global unconditioned stimulus : movie star and what else? brand signature and I have the specific emotion related to perception of elegance, refined, for marketers is to transfer that response to the brand, that will be embedded with signs of seduction and refinement brand addictive. Classical conditioning: Optimal conditioning, that is the creation of a strong between the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus, requires: 1. Forward conditioning ( the CS should precede the US) 2. Repeated pairings of the CS and the US conditioning will not occur if the CS is only occasionally presented with the US. 3. A lack of association results in the extinction of the classical conditioning. Ex: the distinctive croc logo of Lacoste that was initially saved for polos started to appear on baby clothes and many other items, resulting in a less efficient conditioning. 4. An US that is distinctive, striking, and somewhat unfamiliar at the very beginning of the pairing. This stimulus has to be discriminated among other stimuli in order to create a unique and strong association for the conditioned brand. Repetition management Repetition increases the strength of the association between a CS and an US and allows avoiding the process of forgetting. However, at some point an individual can become satiated with numerous exposures and both attention and retention will decline. y This effect is called advertising wearout. Marketers try to avoid wearout by using cosmetic variations in their aid (using different backgrounds, different spokespersons, etc) while repeating the same advertising theme. Stimulus generalization: Pavlov found that a dog could learn to salivate not only to the sound of a bell, but also to the somehow similar sound of jangling keys. Hence, making the same response to slightly different stimuli is called stimulus generalization (will be exploited by follower brands) It can be the basis for me-too product -> follower brands it is the principle of licensing, concept rented by smaller companies, and you can use SG in product extension line, since it s typical of the brand. Operating conditioning (Skinner, 1953) Operant conditioning (or instrumental learning) is a 2nd type of associative learning that occurs when some response becomes Extinction is the lack of any consequence following a behavior: when a behavior is inconsequential. It diminishes to the point of extinction.

Offering no incentives while competitors systematically offer. Dual type of consequences: 1. Reinforcement is a consequence that causes a behavior to occur with greater frequency. 2. Punishment is a consequence that causes a behavior to occur with less frequency. TABEL: Reinforcement schedules: Consumer researches identified 4 relevant types of reinforcement schedules: 1. Continuous reinforcement; 2. Fixed radio reinforcement; 3. Variable radio reinforcement; 4. Fixed interval reinforcement 1. In a continuous reinforcement schedule, reinforcement follows each and every response, this schedule leads to faster operant conditioning but it s difficult to reverse. Ex: free shipping of Amazon.com, free after-dinner drink at a restaurant. 2. A fixed radio reinforcement schedule provides reinforcement every nth time the product is purchased. This schedule motivates people to continue performing the same behavior again and again. (loyalty programs) Ex: giving a gift/credit voucher/coupon after a given purchasing amount. 3. A variable ratio reinforcement schedule rewards consumers on a random basis or on an average frequency basis (such as every 10th transaction). Customers do not know how many responses are required and tend to respond at very high stakes. Ex: lotteries, sweepstakes, contests, etc. 4. After a specific period has passed, the 1st response that is made brings the reward. Under such conditions, people tend to concentrate their responses at the time of the next reinforcement. Ex: the 40% reductions in the traditional remote sale at the end of a season sales.

Shaping: Reinforcement performed before the desired consumer behavior actually takes place. Thus, shaping consists to reinforce successive approximations of the desired response (ex: behavioral responses which are needed to enable the target behavior). Ex: many retailers provide some form of shaping to encourage consumers to visit their stores: loss leaders (popular products at severely discounted prices to stimulate other, profitable sales); showroom visits, gifts to test a product, etc. we can consider that shaping is a form of positive reinforcement of the approximated response. Vicarious conditioning: Vicarious conditioning represents a combination of classical conditioning and observational learning principles. What distinguishes vicarious conditioning from classical conditioning is that, in the former, US is a strong emotional reaction on the part of a social model. It s the process through which individuals learn behavior by observing the behavior of a social model and noting the consequences of such a behavior. Implications of vicarious conditioning: The main implications for marketers concern the selection of advertising models. Consumers models with whom target audience can identify are shown achieving positive outcomes to common problem situations through the use of the advertised product.

Sometimes, ad depicts negative consequences for certain types of behavior. Ex: using no deodorant has negative social effects. Concluding remarks regarding conditioning: 1. The classical conditioning requires large advertising budgets and in particular television advertising financing. 2. It is difficult to definitely extinguish classical conditioning: it leaves memory traces that may hinder the development of a new marketing strategy. 3. Marketers recognize the importance of operant conditioning in the shaping of their relationship programs. However, successful relationship marketing has to control in the long term other equally important variables, such as trust or gratitude.

Individual decision making

Perspectives on decision-making: Traditionally, consumer researchers have approached decision-making from a rational perspective. In this view, people carefully integrate as much as information as possible with what they already know about the product and take the time to weigh the pros and cons of each alternative. Model of Engel and others, 1996 individual decision making process, in this rational perspective you have a sequence of stages, the 1st corresponds to the recognition, consumer is conscious of experiencing a need then search of info and then, 3rd stage, evaluation of each alternative of choice and then the consumer can adapt his behavior and make a choice. How valid is the rational perspective of individual decision making? Actually, the rational process does not accurately describe many of consumer s decision processes. In fact, decision-makers actually possess a repertoire of strategies: y Low-involvement hierarchy strategy y Experimental hierarchy strategy y Online flow information control decision strategy Types of consumer decisions: One way to characterize consumer decision making is LOW Routine choice Low-cost products And frequent purchasing Low involvement Familiar products and Brands Little info search Or time given to Purchase Little thought MIDDLE Limited-problem solving HIGH Extended pb-solving high risk and expensive prod high involvement

The compensatory model Consumers may use a compensatory model that is, a model which each attribute is considered and rated for each brand as in a multi-attribute model of Fishbein. Types of consumer decisions: However, the continuum of the decision types according the cognitive effort is unable to take the role of brand and product category into account. Adapted from Asseel (1998) Brand inertia 1. Problem solving Problem solving is similar to the notion of extended-problem solving in the former continuum. This type of decision involves unfamiliar, expensive products which are purchased infrequently. In problem solving, consumers use a compensatory model. 2. Brand laziness The brand laziness refers to the consumer inertial movement toward a product based on convenience rather than a fundamental commitment to the brand. 3 dimensions: - Physical; - Time convenience; - Cognitive convenience. Most daily consumers decisions lack interest, risk and emotions. So, brand laziness is quite pervasive especially for commodity products. 3. Brand loyalty In contrast to brand laziness, brand loyalty involves intrinsic commitment to a brand based on the values it provides. Both brand laziness and loyalty consists of minimal information processing. The difference between them is the level of involvement or commitment. Thus, the personal relevance regarding the brand or the product is an important factor of brand loyalty. Ex: clothes. 4. Variety seeking The variety seeking is defined as the desire to choose new alternatives over more familiar ones. There are 2 types of variety seeking: 1. The derives varied behavior, in which the behavior is a by-product of other constraints (ex: outof-stock products) or goals (buying whole bread rather than white bread after health problems). 2. The intrinsic variety seeking occurs when consumers seek variety for the inherent pleasure of change and the positive stimulation it brings. Intrinsic variety seeking is particularly prevalent among products which belong to a category comprised of parity products (brands easily substitutable within the category). Repetitive advertising and promotional incentives are assumed to be particularly relevant to increase intrinsic variety seeking.