Hypersonic flow: introduction

Van Dyke: Hypersonic flow is flow past a body at high Mach number, where nonlinearity is an essential feature of the flow. Also understood, for thin bodies, that if is the thickness-to-chord ratio of the body, M is of order 1. Special Features Thin shock layer: shock is very close to the body. The thin region between the shock and the body is called the Shock Layer. Entropy Layer: Shock curvature implies that shock strength is different for different streamlines stagnation pressure and velocity gradients rotational flow

The Hypersonic Tunnel For Airbreathing Propulsion

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Velocity-Altitude Map For Re-Entry

Altitude Typical re-entry case: Very little deceleration until Vehicle reaches denser air (Deliberately so - to avoid large fluctuations in aerodynamic loads and landing point ) Velocity

Atmosphere Troposphere: 0 < z < 10km Stratosphere: 10 < z < 50km Mesosphere: 50 < z < 80km Thermosphere: z > 80km Ionosphere 65 < 365 km NO+ NO+, O2+ NO+, O2+, O+ N + , O+ Contains ions and free electrons

60 <z < 85 km 85 <z < 140 km 140 <z < 200 km Z> 200 km

A Simple Model for Variation of density with altitude

dp = " !gdz
!RT p= M
Neglect dissociation and ionization Molecular weight is constant Assume isothermal (T = constant) poor assumption

dp gM "! dz p RT & gM # ( ' (0 loge $ z! RT " %

Non-lifting body moving at velocity V, which is inclined at angle to the x-axis:

d 2x dt
2 2

D
= " DCos!

m m m

d 2z dt d 2z dt 2

= DSin" ! mg = 1 #U 2CDS sin" ! mg 2

& m # $ $C S ! ! % D "

is the Ballistic Parameter.

Assuming that the drag force is >> weight and that is constant because gravitational force is too weak to change the flight path much

&U # 1 )0CDS & ' gMz # !=' Loge $ exp$ ! $U ! 2 m sin( RT " % % e"

High Angle of Attack Hypersonic Aerodynamics

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Croccos Theorem:

r r T#s = #h0 = u " !

Implies vorticity in the shock layer. Viscous Layer: Thick boundary layer, merges with shock wave to produce a merged shock-viscous layer. Coupled analysis needed. High Temperature Effects: Very large range of properties (temperature, density, pressure) in the flowfield, so that specific heats and mean molecular weight may not be constant. Low Density Flow: Most hypersonic flight (except of hypervelocity projectiles) occurs at very high altitudes Knudsen No. =

! L

= ratio of Mean Free Path to characteristic length

Above 120 km, continuum assumption is poor. Below 60 km, mean free path is less than 1mm.

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Summary of Theoretical Approaches

Newtonian Flow: Flow hits surface layer, and abruptly turns parallel to surface. Normal force decomposed into lift and drag. Modified Newtonian Flow: Account for stagnation pressure drop across shock. Local Surface Inclination Method : Cp at a point is calculated from static pressure behind an oblique shock caused by local surface slope at freestream Mach number. Tangent Coneapproach: similar to local surface slope arguments. Mach number independence: Shock/expansion relations and Cp become independent of Mach number at very high Mach number. Blast wave theory: Energy of Disturbance caused by hypersonic vehicle is like a detonation wave. Hypersonic similarity: Allows developing equivalent shock tube experiments for hypersonic aerodynamics.

Local Surface Inclination Methods

Approximate methods over arbitrary configurations, in particular, where Cp is a function of local surface slope. Newtonian Aerodynamics Newton (1687) concept was that particles travel along straight lines without Interaction with other particles, let pellets from a shotgun. On striking a surface, they would lose all momentum perpendicular to the surface, but retain all tangential momentum i.e., slide off the surface. Net rate of change of momentum = $ "U " 2Sin 2#!A
Cp = 2Sin 2!

In 3D flows we replace U "Sin! r2 U! n Cp = 2 2

U!

r r U! n with

Shadow region:

Cp = 0

r r Shadow region is where U ! n > 0

Remarks on Newtonian Theory: Poor in low speed flow. Predicts . Cl " ! 2 (1) Works well as Mach number gets large and specific heat ratio tends towards 1.0 Why? Because shock is close to surface, and velocity across the shock is very large most of the normal momentum is lost. (2) Tends to overpredict cp and cd (CD) see figure 3.11 (3) Works better in 3-D than in 2-D (4) In 3-D, works best for blunt bodies; not good for wedges, cones, wings etc.

Modified Newtonian Was proposed by Lester Lees in 1955, as a way of improving Newtonian Cp dependence on M! theory, and bringing in Mach Number and . He proposed replacing 2 with C p

max

Cp = Cpmax sin !
p pmax is the Here at the stagnation point. That is,

coefficient behind a Normal shock wave,

Cpmax

p02 " p! = 1 2 # !U ! 2

From Rankine-Hugoniot relations,

p02 p(
Then

& () + 1)2 M( 2 =$ ! 2 $ 4)M( ' 2() ' 1)! % "

) # ) '1 & 1 ' )

$ $ %

+ 2)M( ! ) +1 ! "
(3.17)

2#

p02 "1 p! cp = # 2 M! 2

In the limit as

2( & # (( + 1) ( '1 ! 4 cp = $ $ ( )( ( '1 ! ( + 1 % 4( "

As As

M! " !,

We get

" ! 1 .4 ,
" ! 1,

c pmax ! 1.839 c pmax = 2

Proposed by Newton

Exercise: Compute cp values for configurations shown on Figures 3.8, 3.6, 3.11 and 3.12 using Newtonian and Modified Newtonian theories. Biconvex Airfoil. y/c = 0.05 -0.2 (x/c)2

Mach Number Independence

Where does freestream Mach number appear in the above? Only in the dependence of downstream pressure, density, temperature. As freestream Mach number becomes large,

$2 (# + 1) " $1 (# ! 1)

* 'U ' 2

p2

p2 p' & 2( 2 2 #& 1 # = = M' sin ) ! $ 2! p' * 'U ' 2 $ ( + 1 % " % (M ' "

2" sin2 ! " +1

Why nondimensionalize by " !U ! 2 Because p2 ~ O " !U ! 2 And it allows cancellation of Mach number Examine other relations for properties downstream of the shock freestream Mach number does not appear anywhere.

The blast wave theory argues that the sudden addition of energy to the fluid by the body is equivalent to a high explosive of energy E being exploded at time t=0. A shock wave associated with the explosion spreads away from the origin with time

x t= U!

In 2-D problem: the shock wave is a plane wave:

Shock wave moves outward with t Blast wave origin

Hypersonic Shock & Expansion Relations Why? 1. Simpler than exact expressions - for analysis 2. Key parameter is seen to be M where is the flow turning angle, for M>>1 and <<1 Oblique Shock Relations
tan $ = 2 cot " tan $ ! 2 cot # M12 # + cos 2 " + 2 M12 (" + 1) M12 sin 2 " ! 1

M12 sin 2 #

M1 >>1, small

M1 >>1, small Pressure jump: M1 >>1

& 2) # * '$ ! ( + 1" %

p2 2" = 1+ M12 sin2 ! p1 " +1 p2 2" # M12 sin2 ! p1 " + 1

p2 & 2) # = 1+ $ M12 sin2 ( ' 1! p1 %) + 1 " & 2* # ( 1+ $ M12 ) 2 ' 1! %* + 1 "

p2 ' (' + 1) 2 1 & (' + 1)# = 1+ K + K2 $ ! + 2 p1 4 % 4 " K

Defining pressure coefficient

' p2 $ % ( 1" %p " & 1 # Cp ) ! M12 2

, p2 ) * - 1' 2 ' &/ + 1 Cp * p1 1 # , / + 1) + ( = 2$ . + * ' + 2! 2 / 2 + 4 ( 0 K ! $ 4 K % " 2

Next

u2 M12 sin2 # ! 1 = 1! v1 (" + 1)M12

In the hypersonic limit,
u2 2 sin2 $ " 1! v1 # +1

Also

v 2 2 M12 sin2 # ! 1 Cot# = v1 (" + 1)M12

v 2 sin 2 # ! v 1 (" + 1)

Density Jump Across Shock

(# + 1)M12 sin2 " $2 = $1 (# ! 1)M12 sin2 " + 2

In the hypersonic limit, for large M1 >>1, finite

$2 (# + 1) " $1 (# ! 1)
Then
T2 p2 $2 2(" ! 1)M12 sin2 # = = T1 p1 $1 (" + 1)2

' p2 $ % ( 1" %p " & 1 # Cp ) ! M12 2

4Sin 2 " Cp = ! +1

M1 >> 1

Hypersonic Shock Relations in the Limit of Large but Finite Mach number and small turning angle We define a similarity parameter

K = M1!

which can be used to collapse a variety of data

For large but finite M, small and

tan$ = 2 cot "

M12 # + cos2 " + 2

M12 sin2 " ! 1

becomes

* ) +1 ' + ( 4

& () + 1)2 1 # $ + 2 2! $ 16 M1 ( ! % "

Works for finite values of M1 = K

Hypersonic Expansion Wave Relations From Prandtl-Meyer theory, " = ! 2 # ! 1

/ =
For

- . +1 2 *$ . + 1' tan!1+ M ! 1 ( " ! tan!1 M 2 ! 1 % + . !1 ( . ! 1& , )#

M1 >> 1

M12 " 1 ! M12

Also

tan'1(x ) =

( & 1# ' tan'1$ ! 2 %x"

From Taylor series

1 1 ' 1$ 1 tan!1% " = ! + ! .. 3 5 & x # x 3x 5x

# +
# =
Then

" + 1 * ! 1 " + 1' 1 ! $ + $ " $ 1 ( 2 M " $ 1% M 2 ) &

! " +1 2 ! $ $ 2 " $ 1 (" $ 1)M 2

* = ) 2 ')1 =

2 & 1 1 # ' (( ' 1) $ M1 M2 ! % "

' (% %M " " & 2#
2) M1 $ ) !1

p2 ' 1 + (( =% p1 % 1 + (( &

( + 1)M12 $ ( !1 " )M22 " +1 #

2( $ ( !1

p2 ' ( ! 1 = 1! M1) " p1 % 2 & #

' ( !1 = %1 ! K" 2 & #

2( $ ( !1

- p2 * 2/ + ' 1( & # +p ( Cp , 1 ) = 2 $ &1 ' / ' 1 K # / '1 ' 1! . ! ! / 2 2 % " 02 /K 2 $ $ K $ ! % " 2

Note that Cp # f (K , ! ) 2 "

Mach Number Independence Consider flow over a blunt body: Where does freestream Mach number appear in the above? Only in the dependence of downstream pressure, density, temperature. As freestream Mach number becomes large,

$2 (# + 1) " $1 (# ! 1)

* 'U ' 2

p2

p2 p' & 2( 2 2 #& 1 # = = M' sin ) ! $ 2! p' * 'U ' 2 $ ( + 1 % " % (M ' "

2" sin2 ! " +1

Why nondimensionalize by " !U ! 2 Because p2 ~ O " !U ! 2 And it allows cancellation of Mach number Examine other relations for properties downstream of the shock freestream Mach number does not appear anywhere.

This Mach number independence is also observed in experiments. Sphere drag coefficient, for example.

Hypersonic Aerodynamics Roadmap Supersonic Aero

Non-Equilibrium Gas Dynamics Stagnation Point: CFD Full shock-expansion method With real gas effects Hypersonic Small Disturbance: Mach Number Independence Blast Wave Theory Conical Flow / Waveriders

Local Surface Inclination Methods Newtonian Newton Aerodynamics Buseman