Radioactivity

Chemistry Project Work/2010

Acknowledgement

With completion of my project successfully, I would like to mention that I am very much grateful to those who have provided me with help and supported me while doing my project. Firstly, without fail to remember I would take a chance to thank my friend Sonam Tenzin of Jakar Higher Secondary School who suggested me this topic, RADIOACTIVITY. I specially thank and pay my heartiest gratitude to Bhutan Board of Examinations for letting us write project woks on relevant topics and my utmost gratitude goes to our subject teacher who took the hardest task f reading the entire draft copy of my project work and also other fellow mates. I would also like to thank our school librarians for their support and allowing us to refer the books that which were related to my project work and contained information regarding my topic. I would also not forget to thank my friends who were actively involved helping me to dig out some necessary and required extracts on relevance to my project without which my project would have been left in complete. They have guided me in every way or any way possible by sacrificing so e of their time for me and my project work. Lastly, but not the least I would like to take this opportunity to mention that this project is an outcome not only of my work but of a collective and cooperative effort put in by all the individuals mentioned above. Without their support it wouldn t have been possible that I could be successful in completing this project work of mine with no struggles and difficulties in the middle while carrying out the small references. So, I express my sincere gratitude from the core of my grateful heart for lending me help in coming up with this project!!!

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Introduction

One of the most exciting and far-reaching events or achievement in the history of the field of chemistry was the discovery of RADIOACTIVTY . Up to the last decade of the fifteenth century atoms of different elements were thought to be small solid particles which were indivisible. In the first decade of the twentieth century the model changed to the positively charged electrons. The nuclei of the individual atoms are now thought to consist of different numbers of the same fundamental particles, the proton and the neutron. Becquerel discovered Radioactivity and it was further advanced by Marie Curie and Pierre Curie. We can find the application of Radioactivity in nuclear fission and fusion. It is very much important to know about Radioactivity thus, I chose to work on the topic, RADIOACTIVITY and presented it to Physics Department of my School. Moreover I found the topic very much interesting and informative though challenges were on my way while looking for references and guide books regarding this particular chosen topic of mine but it wasn t of a big and torturing trouble. With this, may I not fail to say that the discovery of RADIOACTIVITY is the greatest and most appreciable achievement made by the scientists in flow of history of the physics through the generations of its success so far! Physics is yet to make more new discoveries which are going to be as remarkable as discovery of radioactivity proved to be and we will be experience many incredible thing s coming up with the discoveries.

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The discovery of radioactivity

In early 1896 Henri Becquerel was carrying out a series of experiments of fluorescence. He placed a piece of photographic film between two pieces of black paper. He put a thin layer of potassium uranium sulphate. The small parcel was left in sunlight for a few hours. When Becquerel developed the film he found that it had the same appearance as if it had been exposed to light. He set up a further set of similar experiments, but the weather was against him. It was very cloudy for several days. In the mean time he stored his photographic plates and uranium compound in drawer. Perhaps for no reason other than boredom or impatience, Becquerel developed one of the plates. To his surprise the plate had been blackened. This was the most unexpected result. For some time Becquerel, and others, thought that he had discovered a new type of fluorescence, but we know that the blackening of plate was clue to the radiation given off by the uranium compound. In this rather strange way Becquerel had discovered radioactivity. In fact the name radioactivity was invented some time later by Marie Curie. This remarkable woman won the Nobel twice. For physics in 1903 in conjunction with her husband for the discovery of a new radioactive element called radium , and for chemistry in her own right in 1911. In the winter of 1879-1898, Marie Curie set about a task of establishing the nature of the radiation from pitch blended, the major ingredient of which was uranium. Secondly she began testing all the then known elements to see if they were radioactive. It was found that beside uranium, other elements, and other elements like thorium, polonium, etc are also radioactive but also discovered a new radioactive element called radium for which the Curies were honored by Nobel prize in 1903.

Nature and properties of radioactive radiation

Experiments which were performed to identify the radiations emitted from the radioactive substance may be found elsewhere. It was found that the radiation have three types of rays Alpha rays ( -ray), Beta rays ( ray) and Gamma ray ( ray). Diagram I. II. III. -particles are deflected towards the negative plate in electric and magnetic fields and thus they are positively charged. The velocity of -particle is much less than velocity of light and is about 1.410 to 2.210 m/s. -particle can penetrate through matter, but their penetrating power is minimum compared to -particle and -rays.
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IV.

V.

VI. VII. VIII. IX. X.

-particles cause intense ionization in a gas through which they pass. Their ionizing power is 100 times greater than that of -particles and 10,000 times greater than that of -rays. -particles are scattered when passing through thin foils of gold or mica. While most of the particles are scattered through small angles, some of them scatter through very large angles, even greater than 90 . -particles produce fluorescence in substance like zinc sulphide and barium platinocyanide. They affect a photographic plate, through feebly. They produce heating when stopped and causes incurable burns on human body. -particles have a positive charge of 3.210 coulomb and a mass of 6.64510 kg. -particles have been identified as helium nuclei.

Properties of -particles
I. II. III. IV. -particles have a negative charge of 1.610 coulomb and can be identified as fast moving electron. -particles are deflected towards positive plates in electric and magnetic and thus they are negatively charged. The velocities of -particles vary from 1% to 99% of the velocity of light. The penetrating power of -particles is about 100 times larger than the penetrating power of -particles.
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V. VI. VII.

The ionizing power of -particles is much smaller, only ( ) th of the ionizing power of -particles and 100 times that of -rays. -particles produce fluorescence in calcium tungstate, barium platinocyanide and inc sulphide. -particles affect photographic plates more than the -particles do.

Properties of -rays
I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. VIII. IX. -rays are not deflected by electric and magnetic fields and thus they are electrically neutral. -rays travel with the speed of light. (310 ms) The penetrating power of -rays is much more than that of and particles. They can pass through 30cm thick iron sheet. -rays ionize gasses but their ionizing power is minimum compared to that of and particles. -rays produce fluorescence. -rays affect photographic plate more than particles do. -rays are diffracted by crystals in the same way as X-rays. -rays are identified as electromagnetic waves. -rays are absorbed by substances and gives rise to the phenomenon of pairproduction. When a -ray photon strikes the nucleus of some atom, its energy is converted into an electron and photon and a position and its own existence is extinguished. hv e+ e (position) ( -rays) (electron)

Radioactive decay law and decay constant

The radioactive decay law
Mathematically, a radioactive decay curves an exponential. We say that the count rate shows an exponential decrease. Every radioactive decay is governed by the equation: = Or = e- t
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exp ( t)..Radioactive decay Law

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Here  is the count at time t, and is the starting count at time o, decay constant, which is different for each radioactive nuclide.

is constant, called the

There is a connection between the decay constant and half-life. It is that

half life

Rutherford and Soddy Law for Radioactive Decay

Rutherford and Soddy made experimental study of the radioactive decay of various radioactive materials and found that the decay of all radioactive materials is governed by the same general law. According to this law, the rate of decay of radioactive atoms at any instant is proportional to the number of atoms present at that instant. Let N be the number of atoms present in a radioactive substance at any instant t. Let dN be the number that disintegrates in a short intervals dt. Then, the rate of disintegration dN/dt is preoperational to N that is

= N,

Where is a constant for the given subsistence and is called `decay constant . For a given element, the value of is constant, but for different elements it is different, from the above eq, We have = dt Integration both side, we get . dt + c

Where c is integration constant to determine c we apply the initial condition. Suppose there were atoms , in the beginning, that is
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N=

at t = o Then, =C

Substituting this value of C in the above eq, we have N= t+ Or Or Or Or = N= N= t = t

Here and N are numbers of atoms in a radioactive substance at time t = o and after time t respectively. According to this equation. The decay of a radioactive substance is exponential, that is the decay is rapid in the beginning and then its rate decreases continuously. It means that radioactive substance will take infinite time decaying completely. Putting t = / in equation N= N= N= Therefore, radioactive decay constant is defined as the reciprocal of time in which the number of atoms of radioactive substances is reduced to of their initial number. e- = e-1 e- t,We have

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Detecting and measuring radiation of radioactivity.

By Geiger - Muller Tube


The apparatus used to measure radiation in the Geiger Miller Tube. It consists of a metal tube, the outside of which is earthed. A metal wire runs down the centre of the tube and the wire and tube are connected to terminals through the insulated stopper. The wire is maintained at a positive potential of 400-450V.Avery thin mica window, which allows the radiation to pass quite easily, closes the end of the tube. Inside there is argon containing a trace of bromine, and Pressure is about of the atmospheric pressure .This is quite an intense electric field between the wire and the outside tube. When a radioactive particles enter through the mica window, ionization is produced in a gas , and there is an electrical impulses produced a voltage across the resistor (R) which is amplified and recorded on a scale. This scalar usually contains the voltage supply for the tube , amplifier and counter .The digital counter records the number of ionization and hence the number of radiations entering the tube .

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Geiger-Muller tube

Half life
Radioactive decay is a random process and different radioactive substance decay at different rates. The time taken for the number of particles emitted per unit time drop top half of its original value is known as the half life of the substance. In this time half of the atoms of the original materials will have given off radioactive particles and changed into another substance. This new substance may or may not be unstable. Suppose a sample of radioactive material is emitting 1056 particles per minute and has a half life of 5 days. A graph of particles emitted per minute against time in days may be plotted and smooth curve drawn though the points. From this graph the rate of emission at any other time, e.g. after seven days, may be determined. A very misleading and ambiguous definition of half life is that it is the time taken for the mass of radioactive substance to decrease to half the original mass. This gives the false impression that th substance is fading away. The total number of atoms in a sample does not alter, only the number of them that are radioactive. This means that the total mass of the sample stays almost constant. The daughter products (a daughter products is the elements produced when a radioactive particle is emitted) do not separate from the original substance.
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Suppose for an example, from particle emission, the original mass of an element is 1g. After 5 days the mass of the sample is still approximately 1g but only half of it is the original radioactive element. After 25 days the mass of the sample is still approximately 1g but only g is still radioactive. (this assumes that the daughter produced is stable.) Determining the half life of a substance may be complicated by the presence of daughter products which are also radioactive. Radium emits -particles and rays, but daughter products are produced which emits particle. Thus a radium source may be regarded as emitting all three types of radiation. Half lives vary considerably. A few life are given in the table below Element Thorium Radium Bismuth(210) Polonium(218) Polonium(214) Uranium(235) Uranium(238) Iron(59) Half-life 10 years 1620 years 5 days 3 minutes 10 second 7.0410 years 4.4710 years 44.6 days

Relationship between half life and decay constant

Let be the number of atoms present in the radioactive substance at time t=0,and N the number at a later t.Then,by Rutherford-Soddy law, We have N = e- t , where is the decay constant for the substance. If the Half- Life of the Substance be T,Then at time t = T the number of atoms left will be  /2.So,putting t = T and =  /2 in the above equation, We have Or = = Or =2 -

  

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T=

This is the relation between half-time and decay constant which states that half-time of a radioactive substance is inversely proportional to its radioactive decay constant.

Graphical explanation of the constancy of half-life

If the radioactivity is plotted against time for a radioactive decay, it will be observed that the half-life period is constant and it is independent of the decaying substance. Half-life period only depends on disintegration constant ( ). The constancy of half-life is shown graphically in the figure below.

Units of Radioactivity
Units of radioactivity of an element are the measure of the rate of which it changes to the daughter element. Radioactivity of the substance is measured in following two units.

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I.

Curie: Radioactivity of a substance is said to be 1 curie if its atoms disintegrates at the rate of 3.710 disintegration per second. This is the activity of 1g of radium. 1 curie (Ci) =3.710 disintegrations/sec 1 milli-curie (m Ci) 1 micro-curie ( Ci) =3.710 disintegrations/sec =3.710 disintegrations/sec

II.

Rutherford (rd): radioactivity of a substance is said to be 1 Rutherford if its atoms disintegrates at the rate of 10 disintegrates per second.

Nuclear Reactors
Towers of nuclear reactor

A modern nuclear reactor

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Simple diagram of a nuclear reactor

Average-Life/Mean life of a radioactive substance

Since atoms of a radioactive element are constantly disintegrating one after another, the life of every atom is different. The atoms which integrate earlier have very short life whereas others which integrate at the end have a long life. Hence, the process of disintegration will continue indefinitely. Total decay periods of any radioactive element are therefore, infinity. Use of total decay period or total life periods for radio-elements is thus meaningless. The average of the lives of all the atoms in a radioactive substance is called the `average life or `mean life of that substance. It is denoted by . Average life period of a radioactive element is the reciprocal of the disintegration constant ( ), Thus; L= We have already seen that = =


. (a) . (b)

And l =

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Hence, from equation (a) and (b), we get l=



= 1.44

Thus, average life period (l) = 1.44Half-life period ( ).

Radioactivity and humanity

Nuclear fission Heavy unstable nuclides can be broken up to produce energy in a process called nuclear fission. When uranium decays naturally particles and - particles are emitted.However, when uranium -235 is bombarded by neutrons, it forms uranium 236.Uranium-236 is unstable and breaks down, splitting into two large particles and emitting three neutrons.
 

+







+









When the exact masses of the final products are added together, the sum is found to be appreciably less than the sum of the exact masses of the uranium -235 and the original neutron. This difference in mass appears as energy given by = Another important point arises. The three neutrons released may collide with other nuclides, splitting them in turn. The nine neutrons formed may then split nine other nuclides and so on. In this way a chain reaction may occur, and as a result the quantity of energy released may be very large. A few kilogram of uranium can be produced as much heat energy as thousands of tons of coal. This energy may be released in an uncontrolled manner, e.g in an atomic bomb. Not only is the quantity of normal energy released very large indeed, but damaging radiations are also released which have both short term and long term effects.

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Mushroom of nuclear explosion

Nuclear explosion during the Second World War

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Nuclear Fusion When lighter nuclides fuse together in a process called nuclear fusion, energy is produced and mass is lost. For example two atoms of heavy hydrogen may fuse together to form helium and a neutron,

Fusion of two hydrogen atoms to form Helium and a neutron. The sum of the exact masses of the helium atom and the neutron is less than the sum of exact masses of the two heavy hydrogen atoms. This lost mass is released as energy. It is thought that the suns energy is produced by nuclear fusion. The two heavy hydrogen atoms must move with great speed in order to overcome strong repulsive forces between the positively charged nuclear. The very high temperature required for fusion reactions would melt any known material. Therefore the atoms are held in plasma (hot ionized gas) in an intense magnetic field so that they do not touch the walls of the container. It has not yet been possible to produce a controlled reaction, but in future this problem may be overcome. An uncontrolled fusion reaction has been produced in the hydrogen bomb.

Dangers of Radioactive radiation

The first and only time atomic bombs were used in war was in 1945.When Hiroshima and Nagasaki was devastated. Widespread destruction and damage were produced immediately by the blast. Some of the damage caused by the emitted radiation became evident until years after the event. Some of the effects on humans of exposure to large doses , or prolonged small doses, of radiations are; a) Burns. b) Leukemia (cancer of the blood). c) Sterility (inability to produce children).
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d) Some children born with serious abnormalities. e) Damage to blood may lower resistance to normal disease

Safety Precautions
The growth and use of radioactive has increased considerably since about 1930.Radioactiv sources have become part of normal school equipment and although sources are very weak it is essential to take stringent safety precautions: 1. The sources should only be handled by the provided and never touched by hand. 2. They should never be pointed towards a person. 3. Food should not be taken where the sources are being used, because it may become contaminated. 4. Never smoke near a radioactive source 5. The user should wear rubber gloves, and hands should be washed after the sources have been put away safely

1. Safety precaution 2. A technician handling radioactive material carefully in protective suit

Uses of radioactivity/radiation
i. Smoke detectors

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Smoke alarms contain a weak source made of Americium-241.Alpha particles are emit from here, which ionize the air, so that the air conducts electricity and a small current flow . If enters the alarm, this absorbs the alpha particles, the current reduces, and the alarm sounds.

ii.

Radioactive dating

\ Animals and plants have a known proportion of carbon-14 in their tissues. When they die they stop taking carbon in , then the amount of carbon -14 goes down at a known rate. The age of the ancient organic materials can be found by measuring the amount of carbon 14 that is left. The age of species is known as radioactive dating

iii.

Radioactive tracers

The most common tracer is called Technetium-99 and is very safe because it only emits gamma rays and doesn t cause much ionization. Radio isotope can be used for medical purposes, such as checking for a blocked kidney. To do this, a small amount of iodine -123 is injected into the patient, after 5 min 2 Geiger counters are placed over the kidneys. Also radio isotopes are used in industry to detect leaking pipes. To do this a small amount is injected into the pipe. It is then detected with a GM counter above the ground.

To check blocked kidney

Detecting leak in pipes

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iv.

Cancer treatment

Because of gamma rays can kill living cells, they are used to kill cancer cells without having to resort to difficult surgery. This is called radiotherapy; work because cancer cells cant repair them when damaged by gamma rays, as healthy cells can. It is vital to get the dose correct too much and you will damage many healthy cells, too little and you wont stop the cancer from spreading in time.

Patient treated through radiotherapy v. Thickness control

In paper mills , thickness of the paper can be controlled by measuring how much beta radiation passes through the paper to a Geiger counter. The counter controls the pressure of the rollers to give the correct thickness. With paper or plastic of aluminum foil, beta rays are used, because will not go through the paper. We choose a source with a long half life so that it does not need to be replaced often.

vi.

Sterilizing surgical instruments

Even after, it has been packaged; gamma rays can be used to kill bacteria, mould and insects in food. This prolongs the shelf life of the food, but sometimes changes the taste. Gamma rays are also used to sterilize hospital equipment, especially plastic syringe that would be heated.

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Sterilized surgical instrument

Decay Schemes
Three types of Radioactive decay:
1.

Alpha Decay

The reason alpha decay occurs is because the nucleus has too many protons which cause excessive repulsion. In an attempt to reduce the repulsion, a helium nuclei is emitted. The way it works is that the helium nuclei are in constant collision with the walls of the nucleus and because of its energy and mass, there exist a non zero probability of transmission. That is an alpha particle of tunnel will go out of the nucleus. Here is the example of alph emission with americium-241.

Alpha decay of Americium-241 to Neptunium-237

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2. Beta decay
Beta decay occurs when the neutron or proton ratio is great in the nucleus and causes instability. In basis beta decay, a neutron is turned into a proton and an electron. The electron is then emitted. Below is the diagram of hydrogen -3 decay.

Beta decay of Hydrogen-3 to Helium-3

3. Gamma decay
Gamma decay occurs because the nucleus is at too high an energy. The nucleus falls down to a lower energy state and in the process, emits a high energy proton known as a gamma particle. Here is a diagram of gamma decay with helium-3.

Gamma decay of Helium-3 to Helium-3

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Conclusion
After doing this project work, I came to the conclusion that I have gained lots of new information and good experiences about radioactivity, its uses, its history, etc.

Although we study radioactivity in our classes, I was never clear about some concepts under radioactivity but however after doing this project, I can proudly say that I have really got some special and perfect information as I referred some references, guide books and internet.

Indeed I should also thank our noble prize winners, scientists Madam Marie Curie and her husband for making a great discovery in the history of science and which I have got to write a project. Overall it was challenging and interesting in collecting information on Radioactivity from here and three to make my project a great success.

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Bibliography

 Rowell Gilbert and Herbert Sydney (1987) physics, published by the press Syndicate of the University Of Cambridge, UK. Page no 383.  Madan RD and Bisht SB, ISC chemistry (book II), published by S. Chand and company Ltd, 7361 Ram Nagar, New Delhi-110055. Page no -64 144.

 Sharma KN, ISC physics (xii), published by Mr. Raj Kumar for Kalyani publisher. Page no1283.  Kumar and Mittal, ISC Nootan physics for class xii, published by Nageen Prakashan Pvt .Ltd Western Kutchery road. Page no- 1036

 Mathews Phillip, advanced chemistry, published by Manas Sakia for foundation books.Page no-24.  Jones and marchington, physics published by the press Syndicate of the Cambridge university. Page no -34 41.  http;www.foto search .com/photos-images/radioactivity.  http;www.gcsescience.com  http;enwikipedia.org/wiki/radioactivity.

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