The papers, Entrepreneurial intentions among Indigenous Kalash People by Iqbal M.

. Khan and Toward a Cultural Model of Indigenous Entrepreneurial Attitude by Noel J. Lindsay talk about the effect that culture have on the entrepreneurial intentions. The article by Khan is more focused on the impact of perceived behavioral control and how it affects entrepreneurial intentions amongst Kalasha community and the extent to which social and cultural norms encourage or discourage entrepreneurial intentions in Kalash valley. On the other hand, the article by Lindsay talks about how culture influences attitude towards new venture creation and development and associated entrepreneurial behavioral among indigenous entrepreneurs. Khans paper is based on the people of Kalash and it talks about psychological, environmental and cultural factors that influence the entrepreneurial intentions of the Kalash community. Lindsays paper is generally related to the indigenous communities and the behavior of the entrepreneurs. According to Lindsay culture is important to the indigenous people and culture affects attitude towards new venture creation and development. According to Lindsay, little culture-related research has been undertaken into entrepreneurial attitude. Yet, culture and ethnicity affect attitude (Baskerville 2003) and some cultures produce individuals with higher propensities for entrepreneurial activity than others (Busenitz and Lau 1996). Culture is important to Indigenous people (Anderson 1999; Anderson et al. 2004; Foley 2003; Hindle and Lansdowne 2005) and culture affects attitude (Baskerville 2003) including attitude toward new venture creation and development. This conceptual study examines Indigenous entrepreneurship from two perspectives: cultural dimensions and entrepreneurial attitude. Both the writers believe that there is a strong relationship between culture and entrepreneurship and for this reason there is a need to conduct research keeping this relationship in mind. A lot of research has been conducted on the non indigenous entrepreneurs where as the number of indigenous entrepreneurs is increasing with time. Both the authors also talk about the importance of the entrepreneurship and say that it is a major part of the economies and that it plays a very important role when it comes to the economic growth and stability.

Lindsay puts great importance on indigenous entrepreneurship firstly because there is a growing acceptance and recognition that Indigenous people are the original land and natural resource owners, resulting in the establishment of Indigenous enterprises. Secondly, due to the fact that indigenous entrepreneurship provides the potential for unlocking economic wealth and enabling empowerment of, and prosperity for, a disadvantaged population sector. According to Lindsay, Intention is viewed as a function of attitude with the entrepreneurial behavior partially determined by the strength of the intention. Khan writes that models based on intentional theories have been considered as the best substitute to forecast entrepreneurial actions. These are considered best because the businesses do not emerge quickly, they take some time and a lot of planning. Some of the models discussed by Khan in his paper include Shapero`s Entrepreneurial Model (SEE), according to which intentions for entrepreneurship depends upon the perception of desirability shown by an individual, the tendency to act on an entrepreneurial opportunity and the perception of feasibility. This model concluded that entrepreneurial venture creations are a result of situational and socio-cultural factors and that the individual`s behavior remains the same until a point in time when the inertia breaks .e.g., job loss, winning a lottery, etc. The second model included in Khans paper is based on Ajzens theory of planned behaviour. According to this theory, the intentions are elucidated by an individuals attitude towards behavior, the subjective norms and the individual`s perception towards behavioral control. This theory further states that social pressures play an important role in motivating or de-motivating an individual towards entrepreneurship hence constructing or destroying the intention. On the other hand, an individual`s perception towards behavioral control also demarcates the boundaries of intentions. Behavioral control is a function of an individual`s attitude towards a behavior and the subjective norms towards that behavior, which is the center of attention in expecting the actual behavior. The theory included subjective norms, normative beliefs and control beliefs in the list of the factors that influence the intentions of an individual towards entrepreneurship. Subjective norms are the perceived social values which create a social force to engage or restrict one in a behavior, normative beliefs are the perceived behavioral anticipations of closely related family members or groups which build a social pressure, control beliefs are related with the apparent presence of factors that may make easy or break an act of a behavior.

The model presented by Lindsay is based on Gartner`s conceptual framework for describing new venture creation that integrates four major perspectives in entrepreneurship: characteristics of the individual starting the venture, the organization they create, the environment surrounding the new venture, and the process by which the new venture is created. The model identifies culture as a contextual variable that influences entrepreneurial attitude. Entrepreneurial attitude, in turn, precipitates new venture creation and development behavior. Although there are other factors as well that influence entrepreneurial attitude and behavior but this model focuses on the influence of culture on entrepreneurial attitude and behavior. Individual ethnicity affects attitude and behavior (Baskerville 2003) and culture reflects particular ethnic, social, economic, ecological, and political complexities in individuals (Mitchell et al. 2002a). Thus, cultural environments can produce attitude differences (Baskerville 2003) as well as entrepreneurial behavior differences (North 1990; Shane 1994). Culture is the collective programming of the mind that distinguishes people included in one category from another (Hofstede 1989). Hofstede (1980) measures culture in terms of the following dimensions: Power Distance, Individualism-Collectivism, Uncertainty Avoidance, and Masculinity-Femininity. An additional dimension based on a questionnaire designed by Chinese scholars (The Chinese Culture Connection 1987). This dimension examines Confucian Dynamism that reflects long term versus short term orientation. According to Redpath and Nielsen (1997) identify the following Indigenous cultural dimensional weightings contingent upon the strength of cultural values and practices within particular Indigenous communities: high collectivism/low individualism; low power distance; low uncertainty avoidance; and high femininity/low masculinity. The Confucian Dynamism dimensional weighting is absent from this list because it was considered least relevant and most difficult to apply (Redpath and Nielsen 1997). According to McGrath, MacMillan, and Scheinberg (1992), for example, identified a predictable set of values among entrepreneurs from across eight countries. Based on Hofstedes (1980) original dimensions, they found that (non-Indigenous) entrepreneurship is associated with low collectivism/high individualism, high power distance, low uncertainty avoidance, and low femininity/high masculinity. According to Khan entrepreneurial intentions are strongly influenced by attitude towards entrepreneurship. Without the positive attitude entrepreneurship as a career it is not possible to

decide to run one`s own business. Attitude towards entrepreneurship provides a desire for freedom and self actualization. The findings of Khan`s paper show that personal attitudes and subjective norms are highly significant to entrepreneurial intentions for the people of Kalash. The perceived behavioral controls are also related to entrepreneurial intentions but this relationship is not as strong as the previous one because of the limited option between job and personal business. Also the people there are low on self efficacy because they lack in risk taking propensity. On the contrary, Lindsay concludes that cultural values and practices are embedded in the nature and form of Indigenous entrepreneurship where the focus is on achieving both economic and non-economic objectives. Significant cultural pressures are placed on Indigenous entrepreneurs and this pressure leads to different entrepreneurial decisions that are being taken. According to Lindsay, if there are no significant differences between Indigenous cultural values and Indigenous entrepreneurial values, then there will be no cultural value differences between Indigenous entrepreneurs and Indigenous non-entrepreneurs. Attitude is the predisposition to respond in a generally favorable or unfavorable manner with respect to the object of the attitude (Ajzen 1982; Rosenberg and Hovland 1960; Shaver 1987). Models such as the theory of reasoned action (Fishbein and Ajzen 1975) and the theory of planned behavior (Ajzen 1985) use attitude (as well as social norms and perceived behavioral control) as behavior prerequisites via intentions to perform particular behaviors. While in Khans paper, Ajzen stated intentions as being conjured as instantaneous antecedents of actual behavior. Building an attitude towards a certain idea which drives a specific behavior must be accompanied by a conviction that it will result in definite outcomes. An individuals attitude towards the behavior is of more importance. It is an entrepreneurs attitude towards the venture that defines the boundaries of his success. According to Khan, previously EO (Entrepreneurship orientation) was used to identify firms stability and economic viability. The research conducted by Stevenson and Jarillo concluded that EO injects innovation, practical approach and risk taking characteristics in a society for entrepreneurship promotion, which in relation enhances growth.

According to Lindsay, Entrepreneurial Attitude Orientation (EAO) is a scale which is specifically designed to measure and predict entrepreneurship. Attitudes exist at general and specific levels. Measuring attitude specificity, such as entrepreneurial attitude, requires measurement specificity (Ajzen 1982). Attitude toward achievement generally is not the same as attitude toward entrepreneurial achievement. Entrepreneurial attitude change can occur by influencing thoughts, feelings, and behavioral intentions toward innovation, achievement, selfesteem, and personal control (Robinson et al. 1991). Innovation involves perceiving and acting upon business activities in new and unique ways, achievement is associated with business startup and growth results, self-esteem includes self-confidence and perceived competency of individuals regarding their business affairs, and personal control involves individual perceptions of control and influence over business affairs. Another variable of importance is Entrepreneurial Opportunity Recognition (EOR), which basically covers up the shortcomings of EAO, whereby risk taking ability is absent. Furthermore, if heritage and culture do not feature as important issues in the development of Indigenous ventures then this may not be Indigenous entrepreneurship even if there is Indigenous ownership and/or involvement (Hindle and Lansdowne 2005). A vital similarity between both papers, is, according to Lindsay, the family, the extended family, Indigenous elders and leaders, community opinion, as well as other Indigenous cultural values and practices all play a role in influencing individual attitudes. For these reasons, Indigenous entrepreneurship must be viewed within an Indigenous cultural context and Indigenous culture will shape Indigenous entrepreneur attitudes. Similarly, Khan states this in the form of Normative Beliefs, which are the perceived behavioral anticipations of closely related family members or groups (e.g. spouse, friends, doctor etc); which builds a social pressure referred to as Subjective Norms Moreover, according to Lindsay, Indigenous communities rate high on Hofstedes (1980) femininity dimension and are more likely to emphasize quality of life (Redpath and Nielsen 1997). In contrast, masculine cultures tend to give a high priority to work over other aspects of life (Hofstede 1993). Whilst according to Khans statistical results specific to Kalash, indicates no significant difference between Male and Female Kalash entrepreneurial intentions thus, depicting same level of intentions to start a business.

According to Lindsay, in Indigenous communities, emphasis is placed on personal relationships while maintaining group harmony (Redpath and Nielsen 1997). Problems pertaining to indigenous societies are that indigenous entrepreneurial activity is increasing; however, these enterprises are relatively few per capita of Indigenous populations compared to non-Indigenous entrepreneurial enterprises. This may be a function of high unemployment levels, high welfare dependencies, low socio-economic positions, few marketable skills, low work experience levels, discrimination and prejudice, and poor housing conditions (Anderson 2002; Foley 2003). From a practical perspective, some training intervention programs developed to encourage

entrepreneurship in the community have a western non-Indigenous orientation. Attempts to implement intervention programs into Indigenous communities, as is, without recognizing the validity and effectiveness of existing social and organizational structures, are destined to fail (Blunt and Warren 1996). To train people, you need to first understand their cultural values, history, and way of thinking (Dana 2001) Both papers conclude by emphasizing on the importance of entrepreneurial culture and the need to promote entrepreneurship among indigenous communities. Khan concludes by saying that there are high entrepreneurial intentions among Kalasha and these intentions are due to the environment that provides the people with business opportunities in the form of agriculture to grow seasonal crops and plant fruit trees. Since the Kalasha ancestors were also entrepreneurs so people there have a positive attitude towards running their own business. The other reason for this positive attitude towards entrepreneurship is the support from family and the appreciation they receive from the people. Even the women work in order to support their families. They work alongside men in the farms and also are good at making handicraft. These handicrafts are very popular among the tourists who visit that valley unfortunately the goods are not being exported because of the limited resources and no access to the markets. The reasons that the entrepreneurs of that region have not grown much are cultural restrictions and lack of knowledge. The culture of the region do not permits them to leave their land and it is because of this reason that their exposure to the outer world is very less. Lindsay concludes her article by saying that Culture pervades Indigenous entrepreneurship. This provides an additional layer of complexity for the entrepreneurship paradigm. There is a growing need to understand more about Indigenous entrepreneurship and how it parallels and diverges

from non-indigenous entrepreneurship. The model developed in her research contributes toward this understanding by attempting to explain cultural effects on Indigenous entrepreneur attitude. This provides an important foundation for those who want to learn more about Indigenous entrepreneurship, who want to encourage it, and who want to understand how to avoid Indigenous entrepreneurial failure. The recommendations included by Khan at the end of his paper include the provision of infrastructure to the Kalash valley, provision of education to the people of the valley, establishment of a proper tourism department to promote the scenic beauty of the region and attract tourists from around the world. The provision of these things will help the entrepreneurs of the region and will further promote it. Also the costs of doing business in the region will be reduced and the people will get exposure because of the tourists coming to them. Secondly, for the entrepreneurs there must be a training institute where the entrepreneurs can be trained and they can get advises related to their business. Also, a vocational training centre needs to be placed to help mould the workforce to be skilled and independent. Lastly, both the government and commercial banks must set up a micro finance facility so that the people can easily get short term loans to set up their own businesses.