What is a tsunami?

Tsunami is the Japanese name given to large waves that sometimes devastated the shores and ports of Japan. A tsunami is a wave in the ocean but it is very different to normal waves. Tsunamis have very long wavelengths. Crest to crest they measure between 10 and 500 km and they travel through the ocean at more than 700 km/h. Sometimes there appears to be just one wave but often there are multiple waves travelling a few minutes apart. Wave height [amplitude] may not appear to be great in the open ocean (and often goes unnoticed) but unlike normal waves the tsunami is moving the entire water column, all the way to the sea floor! The water depth therefore has a major influence on the behaviour and appearance of the wave. In addition because of the wavelength, the first sign of the arrival of a tsunami may actually be the sea level falling and bays appearing to empty. In deep open water the wave is almost impossible to see although modern instruments can detect it. However, as the wave approaches shore and the water shallows it slows down. The wave rapidly bunches up as the faster rear sections catch up with the slower front sections resulting in the wave growing in height the closer it gets to shore. This effect is enhanced if the near-shore sea bed provides a long gradual shallowing. Many tsunamis are barely distinguishable from normal sea waves but some turn into monsters rising 30 metres above the shore line! The damage along a shore line may vary because of the influence the local shape of the sea floor has on wave behaviour. Bays and harbours that are funnel shaped also suffer more from a tsunami because they concentrate the effects. Damage in these areas is further increased by the sloshing backwards and forwards of the water, just like in a bathtub!

What causes a tsunami?

Unfortunately tsunamis have been given numerous names in the past that are misleading. Even the word tsunami meaning harbour wave is misleading! All tsunami are caused by the sudden displacement of large volumes of water. All are the result of violent events with enough power to displace large volumes very rapidly. However, tsunami may be caused by events that are not local to the tsunami site. Because the waves have been generated by huge releases of energy and they travel so effectively

through the deep ocean some tsunami are caused by events that literally happen on the other side of the world. The usual causes of a tsunami are: an earthquake - most tsunamis are caused by submarine earthquakes but not all submarine earthquakes cause tsunamis. Movement on the fault must have a vertical component that generates sufficient displacement to set a tsunami running a landslide - underwater landslides or coastal landslides that fall into the ocean can displace enough water to create a tsunami. Sometimes the landslides are caused by earthquakes. a volcanic eruption or explosion - submarine explosions, caldera collapse and massive pyroclastic flows can all cause sufficient displacement of water to generate a tsunami. impact by a meteorite - large meteorites have a high probability of landing in the ocean and causing a tsunami given that about two thirds of the surface of the Earth is covered by water

Tsunami scenarios
1. In November 2004 a magnitude 7.3 earthquake occurred 10km below the surface south west of West Cape on the South Island of New Zealand. Tsunamis were not reported for New Zealand or Australia. Did this earthquake cause a large vertical displacement on the sea floor? Explain your answer. 2. If an earthquake just off shore of West Cape on the South Island of New Zealand were to generate a tsunami it would impact on both New Zealand and Australia. Using a map of the region and assuming a travel time of 950 km/hour how long would the tsunami take to arrive at Hobart? How long would it take the same wave to reach Sydney? 3. Examine a map of New Zealand. Would residents of the coastal city of Christchurch, New Zealand, be affected by this tsunami?. Explain your reasoning. 4. Examine a map of Victoria. Assuming this tsunami has the potential to have a run up height of 20 metres, would residents of coastal villages east of Wilsons Promontory be affected by this tsunami? Explain your reasoning? 5. Examine the map below. Tsunamis are known to be caused by earthquakes and other events off shore of Chile and elsewhere around the pacific. Is the east coast of Australia threatened by tsunamis generated off shore of Chile? Explain your answer. 6. If the Big Island of Hawaii has 15 hours to prepare for a tsunami to arrive from Chile how fast is it travelling? 7. Is Sydney safe from Hawaiian tsunamis? Explain your answer.

Question: How Are Tsunamis Detected? Answer: To help identify and predict the size of a tsunami, scientists can look at the size and type of the underwater earthquake that precedes it. That is often the first information they receive, because seismic waves travel faster than tsunamis. This information is not always helpful, however, because a tsunami can arrive within minutes after the earthquake that triggered it. And not all earthquakes create tsunamis, so false alarms can and do happen. Thats where special open-ocean tsunami buoys and coastal tide gauges can helpby sending real-time information to tsunami warning centers in Alaska and Hawaii. In areas where tsunamis are likely to occur, community managers, educators and citizens are being trained to provide eye-witness information that is expected to aid in the prediction and detection of tsunamis. In the United States, NOAA has primary responsibility for reporting tsunamis and has created a Center for Tsunami Research. Following the Sumatra Tsunami in 2004, NOAA stepped-up its efforts to detect and report tsunamis by:

Developing tsunami models for at-risk communities Staffing NOAA warning centers around the clock Expanding the warning coverage area Deploying Deep-ocean Assessment and Report of Tsunamis (DART) buoy stations

Installing sea level gauges Offering expanded community education through the TsunamiReady program

To see where tsunamis have been reported, check NOAAs Interactive Map of Historical Tsunami Events.

Forecast of tsunami attack probability

Kunihiko Shimazaki (University of Tokyo), a member of Earthquake Research committee of The Headquarters for Earthquake Research Promotion of Japanese government, mentioned the plan to public announcement of tsunami attack probability forecast at Japan National Press Club on 12 May 2011. The forecast includes tsunami height, attack area and occurrence probability within 100 years ahead. The forecast would integrate the scientific knowledge of recent interdisciplinarity and aftermath of the 2011 Thoku earthquake and tsunami. As the plan, announcement will be available from 2014.[30][31][32]

Mitigation
See also: Tsunami barrier In some tsunami-prone countries earthquake engineering measures have been taken to reduce the damage caused onshore. Japan, where tsunami science and response measures first began following a disaster in 1896, has produced ever-more elaborate countermeasures and response plans.[33] That country has built many tsunami walls of up to 4.5 metres (15 ft) to protect populated coastal areas. Other localities have built floodgates and channels to redirect the water from incoming tsunami. However, their effectiveness has been questioned, as tsunami often overtop the barriers. For instance, the Okushiri, Hokkaid tsunami which struck Okushiri Island of Hokkaid within two to five minutes of the earthquake on July 12, 1993 created waves as much as 30 metres (100 ft) tallas high as a 10-story building. The port town of Aonae was completely surrounded by a tsunami wall, but the waves washed right over the wall and destroyed all the wood-framed structures in the area. The wall may have succeeded in slowing down and moderating the height of the tsunami, but it did not prevent major destruction and loss of life.[34]

As a weapon
There have been studies and at least one attempt to create tsunami waves as a weapon. In World War II, the New Zealand Military Forces initiated Project Seal, which attempted to create small tsunamis with explosives in the area of today's Shakespear Regional Park; the attempt failed.[

Characteristics

When the wave enters shallow water, it slows down and its amplitude (height) increases.

The wave further slows and amplifies as it hits land. Only the largest waves crest. Tsunamis cause damage by two mechanisms: the smashing force of a wall of water travelling at high speed, and the destructive power of a large volume of water draining off the land and carrying all with it, even if the wave did not look large. While everyday wind waves have a wavelength (from crest to crest) of about 100 metres (330 ft) and a height of roughly 2 metres (6.6 ft), a tsunami in the deep ocean has a wavelength of about 200 kilometres (120 mi). Such a wave travels at well over 800 kilometres per hour (500 mph), but owing to the enormous wavelength the wave oscillation at any given point takes 20 or 30 minutes to complete a cycle and has an amplitude of only about 1 metre (3.3 ft).[22] This makes tsunamis difficult to detect over deep water. Ships rarely notice their passage. As the tsunami approaches the coast and the waters become shallow, wave shoaling compresses the wave and its velocity slows below 80 kilometres per hour (50 mph). Its wavelength diminishes to less than 20 kilometres (12 mi) and its amplitude grows enormously. Since the wave still has the same very long period, the tsunami may take minutes to reach full height. Except for the very largest tsunamis, the approaching wave does not break, but rather appears like a fast-moving tidal bore.[23] Open bays and coastlines adjacent to very deep water may shape the tsunami further into a step-like wave with a steep-breaking front. When the tsunami's wave peak reaches the shore, the resulting temporary rise in sea level is termed run up. Run up is measured in metres above a reference sea level.[23] A large tsunami may feature multiple waves arriving over a period of hours, with significant time between the wave crests. The first wave to reach the shore may not have the highest run up.[24]

About 80% of tsunamis occur in the Pacific Ocean, but they are possible wherever there are large bodies of water, including lakes. They are caused by earthquakes, landslides, volcanic explosions glacier calvings, and bolides.

Tsunami damage and destruction

A tsunami's tidal waves batter the shoreline can destroy anything in their path. This includes boats, buildings, houses, hotels, cars, trees, telephone lines - and just about anything else in their way. Once the waves have knocked down infrastructure on the shore the waves continue inland for up to another mile. As the water rushed across the land it can sweep away yet more trees, gardens, buildings, cars and other man made equipment. Boats have often been hurled into the sky and iron parking metres have been bent to the ground. Tsunamis often hit poorer and less-developed countries around South Asia that are close to the ''ring of fire'' in the pacific ocean - a area with high seismic activity. Because these countries are poor their buildings are not built strongly to withstand natural disasters such as Tsunamis. This means that when the water hits the buildings they are easily washed away. The water leaves a trail of destruction that looks like an enormous bomb has exploded in the area. Entire towns and villages have been destroyed.

Destruction: Homes are destroyed by the tsunami

Chaos: Palm trees on the coast are battered by the water

Death
There is very little warning before Tsunamis hit. This means that people living in towns and villages on the coast do not have time to escape. Unfortunately one of the biggests and worst effects of a Tsunami is the cost to human life. Hundreds and thousands of people are killed by Tsunamis. The force of the tsunami wave may kill people instantly or they may drown as water rushes on the land.

People may also be killed if a building is knocked down by the tsunami and it hits them. They could also be electrocuted if wires fall down into the water or they may be killed by fires or explosions. The tsunami that struck South Asia and East African on Decmber 24 2004 killed a staggering 31,187 people in Sri Lanka. There were 4,280 missing people and a further 23,189 were injured.

Desperate: A child hit by the tsunami in India is carried away

Disease
Tsunamis flood the areas close to the coast. This can cause disease to spread in the stagnant water. Illnesses such as malaria form when water is stagnant and contaminated. This can cause more deeath and sickness. Often the infastructure such as sewage and fresh water supplies for drinking are damaged from the tsunami. This makes it more difficult for people to stay healthy and for diseases to be treated. In these conditions for diseases are likely to spread.
What causes a Tsunami?

Panic: People flee as a Tsunami wave crashes into trees in Indonesia on Boxing Day,

December 26, 2004 Tsunami is a Japanese word meaning ''harbour wave'' that refers to a series of large ocean waves that hit...

Cost
There is immediately a massive cost when tsunamis happen. Rescue teams come in to the area and victims of the tsunami needed to be treated. Governments around the world may help with the cost of bringing aid to a tsunami hit area. There might also be appeals and donations from people who have seen pictures of the area in the media. After the initial cost of rescue operations there is the clean up cost. Debris from the destruction caused by the tsunami needs to be cleaned away. Damaged buildings that are no longer structurally safe may need to be knocked down. There is also the cost that comes from loss of earnings in the local economy and also future losses as the area will be damaged for some time. The total financial cost of the tsunami could be millions or even billions of dollars. It is difficult to put an excat figure on the monetary cost but is a lot.

Help: Rescue teams carry away a man injured by a tsunami

Psychological effects

Tsunami victims suffer psychology problems in the days and weeks after the destruction. This could even continue for years - often there entire life time. A study by the World Health Organisation on survivors of the tsunami in Sri Lanka on December 24 2004 found that three to four weeks after the tsunami between 14 and 39 per cent of the children had post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). In another study 41 per cent of adolescents and approximately 20 per cent of those adolescents' mothers had PTSD four months after the event. Many people from the Peraliya area of Sri Lanka where 2,000 people died and 450 families became homeless had problems up to two years after the tsunami. They were anxious and stressed because they felt like their life was in danger from another tsunami. They were also suffering from grief because they knew somebody who had died. There were also people who were depressed because they had lost their home, their money or their business in the tsunami. Many still had PTSD.

Sretcher: A woman who was caught in the wave is carried to safety

Tsunami news
Warner decides not to start 'football tsunami' - Stabroek News

Telegraph.co.uk Warner decides not to start 'football tsunami' Stabroek News Warner had promised a football tsunami would follow his suspension by FIFA's Ethics committee last week... - 109 minutes ago
Warner backs down over 'tsunami' claim - ESPN

Warner backs down over 'tsunami' claim ESPN Andy Brassell watched as Paulo Bento's Portugal continued their resurgence with a win over Norway. Read Off The Ball finds the FA Cup... - 3 hours ago
'Deadliest Catch' stars host fundraiser for Japan tsunami relief - Hawaii News Now

'Deadliest Catch' stars host fundraiser for Japan tsunami relief Hawaii News Now HONOLULU (HawaiiNewsNow) - Fishermen around the world felt sadness for the fishing villages in Japan that...

Before 1000 AD
[edit] 6100 BC: Norwegian Sea
Main article: Storegga Slide The Storegga Slides occurred 100 km north-west of the Mre coast in the Norwegian Sea, causing a very large tsunami in the North Atlantic Ocean. This collapse involved an estimated 290 km length of coastal shelf, with a total volume of 3,500 km3 of debris.[4] Based on carbon dating of plant material recovered from sediment deposited by the tsunami, the latest incident occurred around 6100 BC.[5] In Scotland, traces of the subsequent tsunami have been recorded, with deposited sediment being discovered in Montrose Basin, the Firth of Forth, up to 80 km inland and 4 metres above current normal tide levels.

[edit] 1600 BC: Santorini, Greece

Main article: Minoan eruption The volcanic eruption on Santorini, Greece is assumed to have caused severe damage to cities around it, most notably the Minoan civilization on Crete. A tsunami is assumed to be the factor that caused the most damage.

[edit] 426 BC: Maliakos Gulf, Greece

Main article: 426 BC Maliakos Gulf tsunami In the summer of 426 BC, a tsunami hit hard the Maliakos bay in Eastern Greece.[6] The Greek historian Thucydides (3.89.1-6) described how the tsunami and a series of earthquakes intervened with the events of the raging Peloponnesian War (431-404 BC) and correlated for the first time in the history of natural science quakes and waves in terms of cause and effect.[7]

[edit] 373 BC: Helike, Greece

An earthquake and a tsunami destroyed the prosperous Greek city Helike, lying 2 km away from the sea. The fate of the city, which remained permanently submerged, was often commented upon by ancient writers[8] and may have inspired the contemporary Plato to the myth of Atlantis.

[edit] 365 AD: Alexandria, Eastern Mediterranean

Main article: 365 Crete earthquake In the morning of July 21, 365 AD, an earthquake of great magnitude caused a huge tsunami more than 100 feet (30 m) high. It devastated Alexandria and the eastern shores of the Mediterranean, killing thousands and hurling ships nearly two miles inland.[9][10] The Roman historian Ammianus Marcellinus (Res Gestae 26.10.15-19) describes in his vivid account the typical sequence of the tsunami including an incipient earthquake, the sudden retreat of the sea and a following gigantic wave: Slightly after daybreak, and heralded by a thick succession of fiercely shaken thunderbolts, the solidity of the whole earth was made to shake and shudder, and the sea was driven away, its waves were rolled back, and it disappeared, so that the abyss of the depths was uncovered and many-shaped varieties of sea-creatures were seen stuck in the slime; the great wastes of those valleys and mountains, which the very creation had dismissed beneath the vast whirlpools, at that moment, as it was given to be believed, looked up at the sun's rays. Many ships, then, were stranded as if on dry land, and people wandered at will about the paltry remains of the waters to collect fish and the like in their hands; then the roaring sea as if insulted by its repulse rises back in turn, and through the teeming shoals dashed itself violently on islands and extensive tracts of the mainland, and flattened innumerable buildings in towns or wherever they were found. Thus in the raging conflict of the elements, the face of the earth was changed to reveal wondrous sights. For the mass of waters returning when least expected killed many thousands by drowning, and with the tides whipped up to a height as they rushed back, some ships, after the anger of the watery element had grown old, were seen to have sunk, and the bodies of people killed in shipwrecks lay there, faces up or down. Other huge ships, thrust out by the mad blasts, perched on the roofs of houses, as happened at Alexandria, and others were hurled nearly two miles from the shore, like the Laconian vessel near the town of Methone which I saw when I passed by, yawning apart from long decay.[9] The tsunami in 365 AD was so devastating that the anniversary of the disaster was still commemorated annually at the end of the 6th century in Alexandria as a "day of horror."[11] Researchers at the University of Cambridge recently carbon dated corals on the coast of Crete which were lifted 10 metres and clear of the water in one massive push. This indicates that the tsunami of 365 AD was generated by an earthquake in a steep fault in the Hellenic trench near Crete. The scientists estimate that such a large uplift is only likely to occur once in 5,000 years, however the other segments of the fault could slip on

a similar scale - and could happen every 800 years or so. It is unsure whether "one of the contiguous patches might slip in the future."[12]

[edit] 684 AD: Hakuho, Japan ()

Japan is the nation with the most recorded tsunamis in the world.[citation needed] The number of tsunamis in Japan totals 195 over a 1,313 year period (thru 1997), averaging one event every 6.73 years, the highest rate of occurrence in the world.[citation needed] The Great Hakuho Earthquake was the first recorded tsunami in Japan. It hit in Japan on November 29, 684. It occurred off the shore of the Kii Peninsula, Nankaido, Shikoku, Kii, and Awaji region. It has been estimated to be a magnitude 8.4 [13] It was followed by a huge tsunami, but no estimates on how many deaths.[14]

[edit] 869 AD: Sendai, Japan

Main article: 869 Sanriku earthquake and tsunami The Sendai region was struck by a major tsunami that caused flooding extending 4 km inland from the coast. The town of Tagaj was destroyed, with an estimated 1,000 casualties.

[edit] 887 AD: Ninna Nankai, Japan ()

On August 26 of the Ninna era, there was a strong shock in the Kyoto region, causing great destruction and some victims. At the same time, there was a strong earthquake in Osaka, Shiga, Gifu, and Nagano prefectures. A tsunami flooded the coastal locality, and some people died. The coast of Osaka and primarily Osaka Bay suffered especially heavily from the tsunami. The tsunami was also observed on the coast of Hyuga-Nada.[13]

[edit] 10001700
[edit] 1293: Kamakura, Japan ()
Magnitude 7.1 Quake and tsunami hit Kamakura, Japan's de facto capital, killing 23,000 after resulting fires.

[edit] 1303: Eastern Mediterranean

Main article: 1303 Crete earthquake A team from Southern Cross University in Lismore, New South Wales, Australia, has found geological evidence of five tsunamis that have hit Greece over the past 2000 years. "Most were small and local, but in 1303 a larger one hit Crete, Rhodes, Alexandria and Acre in Palestine."[15]

[edit] 1361: Shhei Nankai, Japan ( & ))

On Aug 3 of the Shhei era, a 8.4 Nankaido quake and tsunami hit, with 660 deaths, 1700 houses destroyed. There was a strong earthquake in Tokushima, Osaka, Wakayama, and Nara Prefectures and on Awaji Island. A tsunami was observed on the coast of Tokushima and Kochi Prefectures, in Kii Strait and in Osaka Bay.Yunomine Hot Spring (Wakayama Prefecture) stopped. Yukiminato, Awa completely destroyed by tsunami and more than 1,700 houses washed away. 60 persons drowned at Awa.

[edit] 1498: Mei Nankai, Japan ( )

Main article: 1498 Mei Nankaid earthquake Sep 20 7.5 Quake and tsunami hit in the Mei era. Port in Wakayama damaged by tsunami of several meters in height.30-40 thousand deaths estimated.[13][16] The building around great Buddha of Kamakura (altitude 7m) was swept away by the tsunami.[17]

[edit] 1541: Nueva Cadiz, Venezuela

In 1528, Cristbal Guerra founded Nueva Cdiz on the island of Cubagua, the first Spanish settlement in Venezuela, and one of the first ones in the Americas. Nueva Cdiz, which reached a population between 1000 and 1500, was possibly destroyed in an earthquake followed by tsunami in 1541it also could have been a major hurricane.[18] The ruins were declared a National Monument of Venezuela in 1979.

[edit] 1605: Keich Nankaido, Japan

On Feb 3 of the Keich era, a 8.1 Quake and tsunami hit 700 houses (41%) at Hiro, Wakayama Prefecture washed away. 3,600 drowned in Shishikui area. Awa, wave height 6-7m. 350 at Kannoura 60 at Sakihama drowned, wave height 56 m and 810 m, respectively. Total more than 5,000 drowned. An enormous tsunami with a maximum known rise of water of 30 m was observed on the coast from the Boso Peninsula to the eastern part of Kyushu Island. The eastern part of the Boso Peninsula, the coast of Tokyo Bay, the coast of the prefectures of Kanagawa and Shizouka, and the southeastern coast of Kochi Prefecture suffered especially heavily.[13]

[edit] 1607: Bristol Channel, Great Britain

Main article: Bristol Channel floods, 1607 On 30 January 1607, approximately 2,000 or more people were drowned, houses and villages swept away and an estimated 200 square miles (518 km2) was inundated. Until the 1990s, it was undisputed that the flooding was caused by a storm surge aggravated by other factors, but recent research indicates a tsunami.[19] The probable cause is postulated as a submarine earthquake off the Irish coast.

[edit] 1698: Seikaido-Nankaido, Japan

On December 22, 1698, a large tsunami struck Seikaido-Nankaido, Japan.[13]

[edit] 1700s
[edit] 1700: Vancouver Island, Canada
Main article: 1700 Cascadia earthquake On January 26, 1700, the Cascadia earthquake, one of the largest earthquakes on record (estimated MW 9 magnitude), ruptured the Cascadia subduction zone (CSZ) offshore from Vancouver Island to northern California, and caused a massive tsunami across the Pacific Northwest logged in Japan and oral traditions of the indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest. [20]

[edit] 1707: Hei, Japan ()

Main article: 1707 Hei earthquake On October 28, 1707, during the Hei era, an 8.4 earthquake and tsunami 25.7-meterhigh struck at the Kochi Prefecture. More than 29,000 houses in total wrecked and washed away and about 30,000 deaths. In Tosa, 11,170 houses washed away and 18,441 people drowned. About 700 drowned and 603 houses washed away in Osaka. 20 m high at Tanezaki, Tosa, 6.58 at Muroto. Hot springs at Yunomine, Sanji, Ryujin, SetoKanayana (Kii) and Dogo (Iyo,145 days) stopped.[13]

[edit] 1741: W. Hokkaido, Japan

On 29 August 1741 the western side of Hokkaido was hit by a tsunami associated with the eruption of the volcano on Oshima island. The cause of the tsunami is thought to have been a large landslide, partly submarine, triggered by the eruption.[21] 1,467 people were killed on Hokkaido and another 8 in Aomori Prefecture.[22]

[edit] 1755: Lisbon, Portugal

Main article: 1755 Lisbon earthquake Tens of thousands of Portuguese people who survived the Great Lisbon Earthquake on November 1, 1755 were killed by a tsunami which followed 40 minutes later. Many townspeople fled to the waterfront, believing the area safe from fires and from falling debris from aftershocks. When at the waterfront, they saw that the sea was rapidly receding, revealing a sea floor littered with lost cargo and forgotten shipwrecks. The tsunami struck with a maximum height of 15 metres (49 ft), and went far inland.

The earthquake, tsunami, and many fires killed between 60,000 and 100,000 in Lisbon alone, making it one of the deadliest natural disasters in recorded history. Historical records of explorations by Vasco da Gama and other early navigators were lost, and countless buildings were destroyed (including most examples of Portugal's Manueline architecture). Europeans of the 18th century struggled to understand the disaster within religious and rational belief systems. Philosophers of the Enlightenment, notably Voltaire, wrote about the event. The philosophical concept of the sublime, as described by philosopher Immanuel Kant in the Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime, took inspiration in part from attempts to comprehend the enormity of the Lisbon quake and tsunami. The tsunami took just over 4 hours to travel over 1,000 miles (1,600 km) to Cornwall in the United Kingdom. An account by Arnold Boscowitz claimed "great loss of life." It also hit Galway in Ireland, and caused some serious damage to the Spanish Arch section of the city wall.

[edit] 1771: Yaeyama Islands, Okinawa, Japan ()

Main article: 1771 Great Yaeyama Tsunami An undersea earthquake of estimated magnitude 7.4 occurred near Yaeyama Islands in Okinawa, Japan on 4 April 1771 at about 8 A.M.. The earthquake is not believed to have directly resulted in any deaths, but a resulting tsunami is thought to have killed about 12,000 people, (9313 on the Yaeyama Islands and 2548 on Miyako Islands according to one source [23]). Estimates of the highest seawater runup on Ishigaki Island, range between 30 meters and 85.4 meters. The tsunami put an abrupt stop to population growth on the islands, and was followed by malaria epidemics and crop failures which decreased the population further. It was to be another 148 years before population returned to its pretsunami level. ja:

[edit] 1792: Mount Unzen, Nagasaki Prefecture, Kysh, Japan ( )

Main article: Mount Unzen Tsunamis were the main cause of death for Japan's worst-ever volcanic disaster, due to an eruption of Mount Unzen in Nagasaki Prefecture, Kysh, Japan. It began towards the end of 1791 as a series of earthquakes on the western flank of Mount Unzen which gradually moved towards Fugen-dak, one of Mount Unzen's peaks. In February 1792, Fugen-dak started to erupt, triggering a lava flow which continued for two months. Meanwhile, the earthquakes continued, shifting nearer to the city of Shimabara. On the night of 21 May, two large earthquakes were followed by a collapse of the eastern flank of Mount Unzen's Mayuyama dome, causing an avalanche which swept through Shimabara and into Ariake Bay, triggering a tsunami. It is not known to this day whether the collapse occurred as a result of an eruption of the dome or as a result of the earthquakes. The tsunami struck Higo Province on the other side of Ariake Bay before

bouncing back and hitting Shimabara again. Out of an estimated total of 15,000 fatalities, around 5,000 is thought to have been killed by the landslide, around 5,000 by the tsunami across the bay in Higo Province, and a further 5,000 by the tsunami returning to strike Shimabara. The waves reached a height of 330 ft (100 m), classing this tsunami as a small megatsunami.

[edit] 1800s
[edit] 1833: Sumatra, Indonesia
Main article: 1833 Sumatra earthquake On 25 November 1833, a massive earthquake estimated to have been between 8.8-9.2 on the moment magnitude scale, struck Sumatra in Indonesia. The coast of Sumatra near the quake's epicentre was hardest hit by the resulting tsunami.

[edit] 1854: Nankai, Tokai, and Kyushu Japan ()

Main article: Ansei Great Earthquakes The Ansei Quake which hit the south coast of Japan, was actually set of 3 quakes, two magnitude 8.4 quakes and a 7.4 quake all in 3 days.

The first on Nov 4, 1854 near what is today Aichi Prefecture and Shizuoka Prefecture with tsunami. It was followed by another 8.4 the next day in Wakayama Prefecture, Earthquake generated a maximum wave of 28 meters at Kochi, Japan, and the earthquake that tsunami killed 3,000 people. The tsunami washed 15,000 homes away. The number of homes destroyed directly by the earthquake was 2,598; 1,443 people died.[13] The third was a 7.4 quake on Nov 7, 1854 in Ehime Prefecture and Oita Prefecture.

The total result was 80,000-100,000 deaths.[24]

[edit] 1855: Edo, Japan ()

Main article: 1855 Ansei Edo earthquake The following year, the 1855 Great Ansei Edo Quake hit (Tokyo region), killing 4,500 to 10,000 people. Popular stories of the time blamed the quakes and tsunamis on giant catfish called Namazu thrashing about. The Japanese era name was changed to bring good luck after 4 menacing quake/tsunamis in 2 years.

[edit] 1868: Hawaiian Islands

On April 2, 1868, a local earthquake with a magnitude estimated between 7.5 and 8.0 rocked the southeast coast of the Big Island of Hawaii. It triggered a landslide on the slopes of the Mauna Loa volcano, five miles (8 km) north of Pahala, killing 31 people. A tsunami then claimed 46 additional lives. The villages of Punaluu, Ninole, Kawaa, Honuapo, and Keauhou Landing were severely damaged and the village of pua was destroyed. According to one account, the tsunami "rolled in over the tops of the coconut trees, probably 60 feet high .... inland a distance of a quarter of a mile in some places, taking out to sea when it returned, houses, men, women, and almost everything movable." This was reported in the 1988 edition of Walter C. Dudley's book "Tsunami!" (ISBN 0-8248-1125-9).

[edit] 1868: Arica, Chile

On August 16, 1868, an earthquake with a magnitude estimated at 8.5 struck the oceanic trench currently known as the Peru-Chile Trench. A resulting tsunami struck the port of Arica, then part of Peru, killing an estimated 25,000 in Arica and 70,000 in all. Three military vessels anchored at Arica, the US warship Wateree and the storeship Fredonia, and the Peruvian warship America, were swept up by the tsunami.[25]

[edit] 1883: Krakatoa, Sunda Strait, Indonesia

Main article: 1883 eruption of Krakatoa The island volcano of Krakatoa in Indonesia exploded with devastating fury on August 2627, 1883, blowing its underground magma chamber partly empty so that much overlying land and seabed collapsed into it. A series of large tsunami waves was generated from the collapse, some reaching a height of over 40 meters above sea level. Tsunami waves were observed throughout the Indian Ocean, the Pacific Ocean, and even as far away as the American West Coast, and South America. On the facing coasts of Java and Sumatra the sea flood went many miles inland and caused such vast loss of life that one area was never resettled but reverted to the jungle and is now the Ujung Kulon nature reserve.

[edit] 1896: Meiji Sanriku, Japan ()

Main article: 1896 Meiji-Sanriku earthquake On 15 June 1896, at around 19:36 local time, a large undersea earthquake off the Sanriku coast of northeastern Honsh, Japan, triggered tsunami waves which struck the coast about half an hour later. Although the earthquake itself is not thought to have resulted in any fatalities, the waves, which reached a height of 100 feet (30 m), killed approximately 27,000 people. In 2005 the same general area was hit by the 2005 Sanriku Japan Earthquake, but with no major tsunami.

[edit] 19001950

[edit] 1908: Messina, Italy

The aftermath of the tsunami that struck Messina in 1908. The 1908 Messina earthquake in Italy, triggered a large tsunami that took more than 70,000 lives.

[edit] 1923: Kanto, Japan ()

Main article: Great Kanto Earthquake The Great Kanto Earthquake, which occurred in eastern Japan on 1 September 1923, and devastated Tokyo, Yokohama and the surrounding areas, caused tsunamis which struck the Shonan coast, Boso Peninsula, Izu Islands and the east coast of Izu Peninsula, within minutes in some cases. In Atami, waves reaching 12 meters were recorded. Examples of tsunami damage include about 100 people killed along Yuigahama beach in Kamakura and an estimated 50 people on the Enoshima causeway. However, tsunamis only accounted for a small proportion of the final death toll of over 100,000, most of whom were killed in fire.

[edit] 1929: Newfoundland

The aftermath of the tsunami that struck Newfoundland in 1929. On November 18, 1929, an earthquake of magnitude 7.2 occurred beneath the Laurentian Slope on the Grand Banks. The quake was felt throughout the Atlantic Provinces of Canada and as far west as Ottawa and as far south as Claymont, Delaware. The resulting tsunami measured over 7 meters in height and took about 2 hours to reach the Burin

Peninsula on the south coast of Newfoundland, where 28 people lost their lives in various communities. It also snapped telegraph lines laid under the Atlantic.

[edit] 1933: Showa Sanriku, Japan ()

Main article: 1933 Sanriku earthquake On March 3, 1933, the Sanriku coast of northeastern Honsh, Japan which had already suffered a devastating tsunami in 1896 (see above) was again stuck by tsunami waves as a result of an offshore magnitude 8.1 earthquake. The quake destroyed about 5,000 homes and killed 3,068 people, the vast majority as a result of tsunami waves. Especially hard hit was the coastal village of Taro (now part of Miyako city) in Iwate Prefecture, which lost 42% of its total population and 98% of its buildings. Taro is now protected by an enormous tsunami wall, currently 10 meters in height and over 2 kilometers long. The original wall, constructed in 1958, saved Taro from destruction of the 1960 Chilean tsunami (see below). However it failed to protect Taro from the 2011 Thoku earthquake and tsunami which inundated the village with 12-15 meters of water.[26]

[edit] 1944: Tonankai, Japan ()

Main article: 1944 Tnankai earthquake A magnitude 8.0 earthquake on 7 December 1944, about 20 km off the Shima Peninsula in Japan, which struck the Pacific coast of central Japan, mainly Mie, Aichi, and Shizuoka Prefectures. News of the event was downplayed by the authorities in order to protect wartime morale, and as a result the full extent of the damage is not known, but the quake is estimated to have killed 1223 people, the tsunami being the leading cause of the fatalities. ja:

[edit] 1946: Nankaid, Japan ()

Main article: 1946 Nankaid earthquake The Nankai earthquake on 21 December 1946 had a magnitude of 8.4 and hit at 4:19 [local time]. There was a catastrophic earthquake on the southwest of Japan in the Nankai Trough. It was felt almost everywhere in the central and western parts of the country. The tsunami that washed away 1451 houses and caused 1500 deaths in Japan. It was observed on tide gauges in California, Hawaii, and Peru.[13] The Nankai megathrust earthquakes are periodic earthquakes occurring off the southern coast of Kii Peninsula and Shikoku, Japan every 100 to 150 years. Particularly hard hit were the coastal towns of Kushimoto and Kainan on the Kii Peninsula. The quake led to more than 1400 deaths, tsunami being the leading cause. measuring 8.4.

[edit] 1946: Aleutian Islands

Main article: 1946 Aleutian Islands earthquake

Residents run from an approaching tsunami in Hilo, Hawaii. On April 1, 1946, the Aleutian Islands tsunami killed 159 people on Hawaii and five in Alaska (the lighthouse keepers at the Scotch Cap Light in the Aleutians). It resulted in the creation of a tsunami warning system known as the Pacific Tsunami Warning Center (PTWC), established in 1949 for Oceania countries. The tsunami is known as the April Fools Day Tsunami in Hawaii due to people thinking the warnings were an April Fools prank.

[edit] 19502000
[edit] 1952: Severo-Kurilsk, Kuril Islands, USSR
Main article: 1952 Severo-Kurilsk tsunami The November 5, 1952 tsunami killed 2,336 on the Kuril Islands, USSR.

[edit] 1958: Lituya Bay, Alaska, USA

Main article: 1958 Lituya Bay megatsunami On July 9, 1958, an earthquake caused a megatsunami to reach a height taller than the Empire State Building, measuring over 520 metres (1,706 ft), killing two.

[edit] 1960: Valdivia, Chile

Main article: 1960 Valdivia earthquake The magnitude-9.5 Great Chilean Earthquake of May 22, 1960 is the strongest earthquake ever recorded. Its epicenter, off the coast of South Central Chile, generated one of the most destructive tsunami of the 20th Century. It also caused a volcanic eruption. It spread across the entire Pacific Ocean, with waves measuring up to 25 meters high. The first tsunami arrived at Hilo approximately 14.8 hrs after it originated off the coast of

South Central Chile. The highest wave at Hilo Bay was measured at around 10.7 m (35 ft). 61 lives were lost allegedly due to people's failure to heed warning sirens. Almost 22 hours after the quake, the waves hit the ill-fated Sanriku coast of Japan, reaching up to 3 m above high tide, and killed 142 people. Up to 6,000 people died in total worldwide due to the earthquake and tsunami.[27]

[edit] 1963: Vajont Dam, Monte Toc, Italy

Main article: Vajont Dam

The Vajont Dam as seen from Longarone today, showing approximately the top 60-70 metres of concrete. The 200-250 metre wall of water (megatsunami) that over-topped the dam would have obscured virtually all of the sky in this picture. The Vajont Dam was completed in 1961 under Monte Toc, 100 km north of Venice, Italy. At 262 metres, it was one of the highest dams in the world. On October 9, 1963 an enormous landslide of about 260 million cubic metres of forest, earth, and rock, fell into the reservoir at up to 110 km per hour (68 mph). The resulting displacement of water caused 50 million cubic metres of water to overtop the dam in a 250-metre high megatsunami wave. The flooding destroyed the villages of Longarone, Pirago, Rivalta, Villanova and Fa, killing 1,450 people. Almost 2,000 people (some sources report 1,909) perished in total.

[edit] 1964: Niigata, Japan ()

The 1964 Niigata earthquake in Japan killed 28 people, and liquefacted whole apartment buildings. A subsequent tsunami destroyed the port of Niigata city. ja:

[edit] 1964: Alaska, USA

Main article: 1964 Alaska earthquake After the magnitude 9.2 Good Friday Earthquake, tsunamis struck Alaska, British Columbia, California, and coastal Pacific Northwest towns, killing 121 people. The waves were up to 100 feet (30 m) tall, and killed 11 people as far away as Crescent City, California. This happened on March 27, 1964. The incident was covered in Dennis Powers' The Raging Sea: The Powerful Account of the Worst Tsunami in U.S. History (ISBN 0806526823).

[edit] 1976: Moro Gulf, Mindanao, Philippines

On August 16, 1976 at 12:11 A.M., a devastating earthquake of 7.9 hit the island of Mindanao, Philippines. It created a tsunami that devastated more than 700 km of coastline bordering Moro Gulf in the North Celebes Sea. An estimated number of victims for this tragedy left 5,000 dead, 2,200 missing or presumed dead, more than 9,500 injured and a total of 93,500 people were left homeless. It devastated the cities of Cotabato, Pagadian, and Zamboanga, and the and provinces of Basilan, Lanao del Norte, Lanao del Sur, Maguindanao, Sultan Kudarat, Sulu, and Zamboanga del Sur.

[edit] 1979: Tumaco, Colombia

A magnitude 7.9 earthquake occurred on December 12, 1979 at 7:59:4.3 UTC along the Pacific coast of Colombia and Ecuador. The earthquake and the resulting tsunami caused the destruction of at least six fishing villages and the death of hundreds of people in the Colombian Department of Nario. The earthquake was felt in Bogot, Cali, Popayn, Buenaventura, and several other cities and towns in Colombia and in Guayaquil, Esmeraldas, Quito, and other parts of Ecuador. When the tsunami hit the coast, it caused huge destruction in the city of Tumaco, as well as in the small towns of El Charco, San Juan, Mosquera, and Salahonda on the Pacific coast of Colombia. The total number of victims of this tragedy was 259 dead, 798 wounded and 95 missing or presumed dead.

[edit] 1980: Spirit Lake, Washington, USA

Main articles: Spirit Lake (Washington), 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens, and Mount St. Helens On May 18, 1980, the upper 460m (1400 ft) of Mount St. Helens had failed, in the course of a major eruption of that volcano, causing a major landslide. One lobe of the landslide surged onto the nearby Spirit Lake, creating a megatsunami of 260 meters high.[28]

[edit] 1983: Sea of Japan ()

On May 26, 1983 at 11:59:57 local time, a magnitude-7.7 earthquake occurred in the Sea of Japan, about 100 km west of the coast of Noshiro in Akita Prefecture, Japan. Out of

the 107 fatalities, all but four were killed by the resulting tsunami, which struck communities along the coast, especially Aomori and Akita Prefectures and the east coast of Noto Peninsula. Footage of the tsunami hitting the fishing harbor of Wajima on Noto Peninsula was broadcast on TV. The waves exceeded 10 meters in some areas. Three of the fatalities were along the east coast of South Korea (whether North Korea was affected is not known). The tsunami also hit Okushiri Island, the site of a more deadly tsunami 10 years later. ja:

[edit] 1993: Okushiri, Hokkaido, Japan ()

Main article: 1993 Hokkaido earthquake A devastating tsunami wave occurred along the coasts of Hokkaid in Japan as a result of a magnitude 7.8 earthquake, 80 miles (130 km) offshore, on July 12, 1993. Within minutes, the Japan Meteorological Agency issued a tsunami warning that was broadcast on NHK in English and Japanese (archived at NHK library). However, it was too late for Okushiri, a small island near the epicenter, which was struck with extremely big waves, some reaching 30 meters, within two to five minutes of the quake. Aonae, a village on a low-lying peninsula at the southern tip of the island, was devastated over the course of the following hour by 13 waves of over two meters height arriving from multiple directions, including waves that had bounced back off Hokkaiddespite being surrounded by tsunami barriers. Of 250 people killed as a result of the quake, 197 were victims of the series of tsunamis that hit Okushiri; the waves also caused deaths on the coast of Hokkaid. While many residents, remembering the 1983 tsunami (see above), survived by quickly evacuating on foot to higher ground, it is thought that many others underestimated how soon the waves would arrive (the 1983 tsunami took 17 minutes to hit Okushiri) and were killed as they attempted to evacuate by car along the villages narrow lanes. The highest wave of the tsunami was a staggering 31 meters (102 ft) high. ja:

[edit] 1998: Papua New Guinea

Main article: 1998 Papua New Guinea earthquake On 17 July 1998, a Papua New Guinea tsunami killed approximately 2,200 people.[29] A 7.1-magnitude earthquake 24 km offshore was followed within 11 minutes by a tsunami about 15 metres tall. The tsunami was generated by an undersea landslide, which was triggered by the earthquake. The magnitude of the earthquake was too low to generate a tsunami. The villages of Arop and Warapu were destroyed.

[edit] 2000s
[edit] 2004: Indian Ocean

Main article: 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake

The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake; Tsunami strikes Ao Nang, Thailand. The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake, which had a moment magnitude of 9.19.3,[30] triggered a series of lethal tsunamis on December 26, 2004, that killed approximately 230,210 people (including 168,000 in Indonesia alone), making it the deadliest tsunami as well as one of the deadliest natural disasters in recorded history. It was also caused by the third largest earthquake in recorded history. The initial surge was measured at a height of approximately 33 meters (108 ft), making it the largest earthquake-generated tsunami in recorded history. The tsunami killed people over an area ranging from the immediate vicinity of the quake in Indonesia, Thailand, and the north-western coast of Malaysia, to thousands of kilometres away in Bangladesh, India, Sri Lanka, the Maldives, and even as far away as Somalia, Kenya, and Tanzania in eastern Africa. This transIndian Ocean tsunami is an example of a teletsunami, which can travel vast distances across the open ocean. In this case, it is an ocean-wide tsunami. Unlike in the Pacific Ocean, there was no organized alert service covering the Indian Ocean. This was in part due to the absence of major tsunami events since 1883 (the Krakatoa eruption, which killed 36,000 people). In light of the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, UNESCO and other world bodies have called for an international tsunami monitoring system.

[edit] 2006: South of Java Island

Main article: July 2006 Java earthquake A 7.7 magnitude earthquake rocked the Indian Ocean seabed on July 17, 2006, 200 km south of Pangandaran, a beautiful beach famous to surfers for its perfect waves. This earthquake triggered tsunamis which height varied from 2 meters at Cilacap to 6 meters at Cimerak beach, where it swept away and flattened buildings as far as 400 meters away from the coastline. More than 800 people were reported missing or dead.

[edit] 2006: Kuril Islands

Main article: 2006 Kuril Islands earthquake

On 15 November 2006, a magnitude 8.3 earthquake occurred off the coast near the Kuril Islands. In spite of the quake's large 8.3 magnitude, a relatively small tsunami was generated. The small tsunami was recorded or observed in Japan and at distant locations throughout the Pacific.

[edit] 2007: Solomon Islands

Main article: 2007 Solomon Islands earthquake On April 24, 2007, a powerful magnitude 8.1 (initially 7.6) earthquake hit the East Pacific region about 40 km (25 miles), south of Ghizo Island in the western Solomon Islands at 7:39 a.m., resulting in a tsunami that was up to 12 m (36 feet) tall. The wave, which struck the coast of Solomon Islands (mainly Choiseul, Ghizo Island, Ranongga, and Simbo), triggered region-wide tsunami warnings and watches extending from Japan to New Zealand to Hawaii and the eastern seaboard of Australia. The tsunami that followed the earthquake killed 52 people. Dozens more have been injured with entire towns inundated by the sweeping water which traveled 300 meters inland in some places. A state of national emergency was declared for the Solomon Islands. On the island of Choiseul, a wall of water reported to be 9.1 m (30 feet) high swept almost 400 meters inland destroying everything in its path. The largest waves hit the northern tip of Simbo Island. There two villages, Tapurai and Riquru, were completely destroyed by a 12 m wave, killing 10 people. Officials estimate that the tsunami displaced more than 5000 residents all over the archipelago.

[edit] 2007: Niigata, Japan ()

Main article: 2007 Niigata earthquake On 16 July 2007, a strong earthquake struck northwestern Japan, causing a fire and minor radioactive water leak at one of the world's most powerful nuclear power plants. At least seven people were killed and hundreds injured. Japan's Meteorological Agency measured the quake at 6.8 on the richter scale and sending aftershocks of 6.6. The U.S. Geological Survey, which monitors quakes around the world, said the initial quake registered 6.7. A tsunami watch w[31]

[edit] 2010: Chile

Destruction provoked by the 2010 Chile earthquake and tsunami, in Pichilemu, O'Higgins Region, Chile. Main article: 2010 Chile earthquake The seismic event in the southern Pacific produced waves measuring 1.89 meters along the Sanriku Coastline of northeastern Honshu in Japan.[clarification needed][32]

[edit] 2011: New Zealand

Main article: 2011 Christchurch earthquake On February 22, 2011, a 6.3 magnitude earthquake hit the Canterbury Region of the South Island, New Zealand. Some 200 kilometres (120 mi) away from the earthquake's epicenter, around 30 million tonnes of ice tumbled off the Tasman Glacier into Tasman Lake, producing a series of 3.5 m (11 ft) high tsunami waves, which hit tourist boats in the lake.[33][34]

[edit] 2011: Pacific coast of Japan

Main article: 2011 Thoku earthquake and tsunami On March 11, 2011, off the Pacific coast of Japan, a 9.0 magnitude earthquake produced a tsunami 33 feet (10 m) high along Japan's northeastern coast. The wave caused widespread devastation, with an official count of more than 25,000 people[35][37]

[edit] Highest or tallest

Main article: Megatsunami

The tallest tsunami ever recorded so far is the 1958 Lituya Bay megatsunami, which had a record height of 524 m (1742 ft). The only other recent megatsunamis are the 1980 Spirit Lake megatsunami, which measured 260 m (780 ft) tall and the 1963 Vajont Dam megatsunami which had an initial height of 250 m (750 ft)

[edit] Deadliest
The deadliest tsunami in recorded history was the 2004 Asian tsunami, which killed almost 230,000 people in eleven countries across the Indian Ocean.

[edit] Other historic tsunamis

Other tsunamis that have occurred include the following:

ca. 500 BC: Poompuhar, Tamil Nadu, India, Maldives 1541: a tsunami struck the earliest European settlement in Brazil, So Vicente. There is no record of deaths or injuries, but the town was almost completely destroyed. Tsunamis in South Asia
Source: Amateur Seismic Centre, India[38]

Location 1524 Near Dabhol, Maharashtra 2 April 1762 Arakan Coast, Myanmar 16 June 1819 Rann of Kachchh, Gujarat, India 31 October 1847 Great Nicobar Island, India 31 December 1881 Car Nicobar Island, India 26 August 1883 Krakatoa, Sunda Strait, Indonesia 28 November 1945 Mekran coast, Balochistan

Date

Tsunami Mitigation Strategies

Introduction
While tsunamis can not be prevented, or their destructive effects entirely avoided, actions can be taken to mitigate the risks of this hazard, thereby reducing the impacts on life, physical structures and livelihoods. The first step in mitigating the tsunami hazard and reducing vulnerability is to gain an understanding of the threat and potential effects should a tsunami occur. Some of the more direct physical effects of tsunami include: Loss of life; Damage to, or destruction of buildings, boats, critical facilities and coastal infrastructure; Loss of coastline; and Excessive scattered debris. Less direct effects, and those with sometimes long-term consequences, can include: Contamination of coastal soils;

Diminished domestic water supply due to contamination of shallow wells and aquifers (with salt water and other toxic substances); Disease outbreaks; Interruption of business and economic processes; and Disruption of education and social services. It can take many years for communities to recover from the effects of tsunamis, rebuild homes and physical infrastructure, and regain economic stability. Oftentimes disasters and subsequent recovery processes reveal complex inter-relationships and dependencies. For example, seawater over inland areas due to a tsunami increases salinity of soils and can render land unsuitable for cultivation. If arable land is reduced, food supply is diminished and farmers must seek other employment, which dramatically affects their livelihoods. Tsunami risks can be mitigated through many of the same actions that minimize the effects of other coastal hazards such as flooding, storm surge and high surf. By no means an exhaustive list of all possible mitigation strategies, those outlined here serve as a starting point for consideration. Additionally, because the Tsunami Awareness Kit was developed specifically for the Pacific Islands, this document presents a number of strategies unique to the island environments.
Prepared by the Pacific Disaster Center. 2005. 1

Tsunami Awareness Kit

General Tsunami Resources Land use management to minimize development in areas of potential tsunami inundation. Preservation of natural barriers or dunes along coastlines. Establishment of design standards, building codes, or guidelines for construction of buildings within coastal areas. Increased public awareness and education about tsunami risks, warning signs and preparedness actions. Development of a warning system to alert people to evacuate to higher ground or to upper stories of sturdily built structures.

Strategy 1: Land Use Management

Building Placement The late seismologist, Ian Everingham conducted extensive research and wrote numerous publications concerning earthquake and tsunami phenomena and their effects in the Pacific Islands. Concerning building placement, he suggests: A simple precaution against damage from most tsunamis is for all buildings to be placed 2-3 metres above the high tide level (Everingham, 1976). Special precautions should be made for buildings supplying essential services, however, as is seen by the $300,000

damage caused to a government communications station at Torokima, on the west coast of Bougainville by a 2 metre tsunami following a magnitude 7.7 earthquake in the east Solomon Sea on 20 July, 1975 (Everingham, et al, 1977). The International Tsunami Survey Team (ITST) deployed after the 1998 Aitape, Papua New Guinea tsunami recommended the following land use considerations: Residents should not be relocated in locales fronted by water and backed by rivers or lagoons; and Schools, churches, and other critical facilities should never be located closer than 400m from the coastline, and preferably 800m in at-risk areas.

Strategy 2: Planting and Environmental Preservation

Preserve Dunes And Other Natural Barriers Professor Hugh Davies outlined several environmental mitigation measures in Tsunami PNG 1998 excerpts from Earth Talk:
Prepared by the Pacific Disaster Center. 2005. 2

Tsunami Awareness Kit

General Tsunami Resources Sand dunes and sandy berms topped with shrubs and grasses offer some protection from tsunamis depending upon the height and force of the wave. Once the wave crosses a berm and moves inland it may encounter obstructions or ground features that will cause it to lose energy. Ideally, the ground behind the berm would have an uphill slope to further deter the wave. Conversely, if the ground behind the berm has a gentle or downhill slope, the wave will maintain its energy, and may even gain momentum. Mangroves, and stands of dense vegetation can offer some protection from tsunami by not only providing holding capacity for near-shore areas, but by absorbing some of the energy of the waves, catching and holding logs and other debris, and diverting the flow of water. Ecologist and wetlands specialist Faizal Parish was quoted in a 16 January 2005 article in the New Straits Times: During the 26 December 2005 tsunami, the Malaysia Forestry Department found that the mangrove swamps had acted as an effective buffer zone against the full impact of the tsunami. Based on observations of this tsunami, it was estimated that a mangrove belt 100 meters wide with a density of two to three trees every three meters could have reduced the height [of a tsunami] by 70%, assuming the wave was created by a 7.5 Richter earthquake. Instead of a wave, the water would have reached land like a rising flood. Such a green belt would have also reduced the power of the wave by about 90%. Manmade or enhanced natural channels may divert tsunami flooding away from surrounding areas and should not be overlooked as potential mitigative strategies.

Strategy 3: Structural and Design Considerations

Building Construction Practices

Vertical evacuation is a consideration for near-source tsunamis, where time is a limiting factor, or in densely populated areas, where time or horizontal evacuation is not feasible. While it is recognized that most buildings cannot withstand extreme tsunami loads, multistory buildings of reinforced concrete and structural steel that are built to withstand local seismic forces and/or extreme wind conditions with limited structural damage, may offer protection from smaller tsunami waves. Research (Pacheco, et al. 2005) is underway to validate design considerations for buildings within inundation areas that: Allow flow of water through the ground floor; Allow non-structural elements at lower levels to break away; and Position bearing or structural walls perpendicular to water flow.
Prepared by the Pacific Disaster Center. 2005. 3

Tsunami Awareness Kit

General Tsunami Resources The following table, from the booklet Designing for Tsunamis, page 35, lists the possible effects of tsunamis on physical structures, and suggests design solutions for each of the potential effects. It is important that design measures be based on the local hazard study so that expected forces determine the design solutions. Tsunami Effects and Design Solutions
Phenomenon Effect Design Solution Inundation Flooded basements. Flooding of lower floors. Fouling of mechanical, electrical and communication systems and equipment. Damage to building materials, furnishings, and contents (supplies, inventories, personal property). Contamination of affected area with waterborne pollutants. Choose sites at higher elevations. Raise the building above the flood elevation. Do not store or install vital material and equipment on floors or basements lying below tsunami inundation levels. Protect hazardous material storage facilities that must remain in tsunami hazard areas. Locate mechanical systems and equipment at higher locations in the building. Use concrete and steel for portions of the building subject to inundation. Evaluate bearing capacity of soil in a saturated condition.

Hydrostatic forces (pressure on walls caused by variations in water depth on opposite sides). Elevate buildings above flood level. Anchor buildings to foundations. Provide adequate openings to allow water to reach equal heights inside and outside of buildings. Design for static water pressure on walls. Buoyancy (flotation or uplift forces caused by buoyancy). Elevate buildings Anchor buildings to foundations. Saturation of soil causing slope instability and/or loss of bearing capacity. Evaluate bearing capacity and shear strength of soils that support building foundations and embankment slopes under conditions of saturation. Avoid slopes or provide setback from slopes that may be destabilized when inundated. Currents Hydrodynamic forces (pushing forces caused by the leading edge of the wave on the building and the drag caused by flow around the building and overturning forces that result). Elevate buildings. Design for dynamic water forces on walls and building elements. Anchor building to foundations. Debris impact Elevate buildings. Design for impact loads. Scour Use deep piles or piers. Protect against scour around foundations. Wave break and bore Hydrodynamic forces Design for breaking wave forces. Debris Impact Elevate buildings. Design for impact loads. Prepared by the Pacific Disaster Center. 2005. 4

Tsunami Awareness Kit

General Tsunami Resources
Prepared by the Pacific Disaster Center. 2005. 5

Phenomenon Effect Design Solution Scour Design for scour and erosion of the soil around foundations and piers. Drawdown Embankment instability Design waterfront walls and bulkheads to resist saturated soils without water in front. Provide adequate drainage. Scour Design for scour and erosion of the soil around foundations and piers. Fire Waterborne flammable materials and ignition sources in buildings. Use fire-resistant materials. Locate flammable material storage outside of high-hazard areas.

Strategy 4: Increase Hazard Awareness

Public Outreach and Education By educating the public about the tsunami hazard, communities become informed and empowered to take actions that prepare them for tsunamis. People are taught to recognize the warning signs of an impending tsunami. They can also plan and maintain escape routes to higher ground, and discuss ways to assist children and persons with limited mobility. In remote areas there may be no mechanism to receive advance warning of a tsunami. In situations like these, public awareness of hazard warning signs and preparedness can save lives. In Seismicity and Tsunami Warning in Papua New Guinea, I.D. Ripper indicates, The best warning of the approach of a tsunami following a large local earthquake is the earthquake itself. Should a strong earthquake be felt at medium strength for what seems to be a long period, coastal people should prepare for a tsunami. The tsunami may follow immediately after the earthquake, or up to about an hour later. Sometimes, the first indication of the tsunami is the sea receding from the shore, exposing normally covered coral reefs. The rise in sea level then follows. Hazard awareness and education programs that make scientifically credible information understandable and available, and that are consistent and persistent in delivery of information prove most effective. Several successful educational activities include: Presentations, lectures, and informal talks offered by local experts that describe the tsunami hazard, identify risk areas, and recommend safety precautions.

Leave-behind materials such as brochures and preparedness guidelines that encourage people to seek additional information and take action to safeguard their homes and communities.

Tsunami Awareness Kit

General Tsunami Resources Hazard warning signs placed in recognized risk areas; and other signs that direct residents toward established evacuation routes leading to areas of safety. Evacuation drills practiced in schools and other establishments. Articles concerning the tsunami hazard and safety precautions periodically posted in newspapers, newsletters or popular magazines. Information booths set up during festivals or other community events to educate the public. The ITST deployed after the 1998 Aitape, PNG tsunami recommended the following community planning activities: Every family in an at-risk area should have a designated Casuarina tree (also known as sheoak, ironwood, or Australian pine) with a ladder or carved steps to allow vertical evacuation of the able, when there is no other option. The local Casuarina species withstands the wave attack significantly better than palm trees, and should therefore be planted in front of coastal communities wherever possible. Establish evacuation routes. Evacuation drills should be practiced annually on the anniversary of a previous tsunami disaster to reinforce that all people in at-risk areas know that if they feel the ground moving they should run as far from the beach as possible. Memorials should be built at worst-stricken locales to remind future inhabitants of the disaster, and discourage future habitation of high risk locations. A memorial can be as simple as erecting a large sign or placard.

Strategy 5: Tsunami Warning

Systems and Notification Procedures Tsunami warning is a critical element in saving lives, as recent and historical events have so devastatingly pointed out. Locally generated tsunamis afford little or no time for warning, and in these cases the most effective warning may be ground shaking, or an observed withdrawal of the sea. In coastal areas where communication systems are limited, it is the recognition of these warning signs and preparedness to act that may prove indispensable in saving lives.
Prepared by the Pacific Disaster Center. 2005. 6

Tsunami Awareness Kit

General Tsunami Resources
Prepared by the Pacific Disaster Center. 2005. 7

Tsunamis generated from distant sources allow greater warning time, provided there are systems and procedures in place that allow for receipt of warning messages, analysis of the information, and notification mechanisms established to warn communities. Numerous resources in the Tsunami Awareness Kit discuss new and existing systems and technologies for tsunami detection and warning. Guidance documents for development of emergency plans and procedures are also included. See Resources for Disaster Managers: Tsunami Detection and Warning Systems, and Emergency Planning and Procedures. To find out more information about the NOAA Pacific Tsunami Warning Center, visit: http://www.weather.gov/ptwc/ In the aftermath of the 26 December 2004 tsunami international agreements were forged to improve tsunami detection and warning. With collaboration and foresight, warning systems that engage communities as active participants, employ sound scientific and technical monitoring and expertise, disseminate timely and understandable warnings, and integrate other hazards where appropriate, will result. __________________
References Davies, Hugh. Tsunami PNG 1998 Extracts from Earth Talk. University of Papua New Guinea. Port Moresby, (revised 1999). Everingham, Ian B. Preliminary Catalogue of Tsunamis for the New Guinea/Solomon Islands Region, 1768-1972. Australia Bureau of Mineral Resources Report 180 (1977). Everingham, Ian B. Tsunamis in Papua New Guinea. Science in New Guinea (1976). National Tsunami Hazard Mitigation Program report: Designing for Tsunamis. (2001). Pacheco, K., Robertson, I., and Yeh, H. Engineering Structural Response to Tsunami Loading: The Rationale for Vertical Evacuation. University of Hawaii at Manoa. Oregon State University. March, 2005. Ripper, I.D. Seismicity and Tsunami Warning in Papua New Guinea. Department of Minerals and Energy, Geological Survey of Papua New Guinea Report 79/19 (1980).