Final Exam Review Packet: Science 6.1-6.4, 7.2-7.3, 8.1-8.2, 10.1-10.

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1. According to Bowen s reaction series, minerals can form in two ways. Explain these two rock formation processes. [Pg. 127, 6.1] The first way is characterized by a gradual, continuous, formation of minerals that have similar chemical compositions. The second way is characterized by sudden changes in mineral types. The pattern of mineral formation depends on the chemical composition of the magma. 2. Compare the processes of partial melting and fractional crystallization. [Pg. 129-130, 6.2] Partial melting: The process by which different minerals in rock melt at different temperatures. Fractional crystallization: The crystallization and removal of different minerals from the cooling magma. Partial Melting ~ Different minerals have different melting points. The minerals that have lower melting points are the first to melt. As the temperature increases and as other minerals melt, the magma s composition changes. Fractional crystallization ~ When magma cools, the cooling process is the reverse of the partial melting process. Chemicals in magma combine to form minerals. Minerals with the highest freezing points crystallize first. As they crystallize, they remove specific chemicals from the magma, changing the composition. New minerals form as the composition changes. 3. How does the formation of chemical sedimentary rock differ from the formation of organic sedimentary rock? [Pg. 136, 6.3] Chemical sedimentary rock: Sedimentary rock that forms when minerals precipitate from a solution or settle from a suspension. Organic sedimentary rock: Sedimentary rock that forms from the remains of plants or animals. CSR forms from minerals that were once dissolved in water, while OSR forms from the remains of living things. While chemical limestones precipitate from chemicals dissolved in water; organic limestones form when marine organisms (coral, clams, oysters, plankton) remove the chemical components of the minerals calcite and aragonite from sea water. 4. How are compaction and cementation alike? How do they differ? [Pg. 135, 6.3] Compaction: The process in which sediment is squeezed and in which the size of the pore space between sediment grains is reduced by the weight and pressure of overlying layers. Cementation: The process in which sediments are glued together by minerals that re deposited by water. As water moves through the sediment, minerals precipitate from the water, surround the sediment grains, and form a cement that holds the fragments together.

Both convert loose sediment to sedimentary rock. Both help compress minerals together to form rock. Sediment is squeezed together in compaction. Sediment is glued together in cementation. 5. What is the difference between contact and regional metamorphism? [Pg. 142, 6.4] Contact metamorphism: A change in the texture, structure, or chemical composition of a rock due to contact with magma. Regional metamorphism: A change in the texture, structure, or chemical composition of a rock due to changes in temperature & pressure over a large area, generally as a result of tectonic forces. Contact metamorphism is changes in rock due to contact with magma, while regional metamorphism is changes in rock due to changes in temperature & pressure over a large area, generally as a result of tectonic forces. 6. Compare the formation of coal and petroleum. [Pg. 160-161, 7.2] Petroleum [oil]: Formed from increased heat and pressure on the remains of microorganisms and plant in shallow prehistoric lakes and oceans. Coal: Formed by the carbonization [occurs when partially decomposed plant material is buried in swamp mud and peat. Bacteria consume some of the peat & release the gases methane {CH4} and carbon dioxide {CO2}. As gases escape, the chemical content of peat gradually changes until mainly carbon remains. Can only happen if oxygen in a swamp is absent] of plant remains. 7. Describe the differences between bituminous coal and anthracite. [Pg. 160, 7.2] Bituminous coal: Stage 3. 80% carbon. Also called soft coal. Anthracite: Stage 4. Hardest form of coal. Higher temperature and pressure conditions. 8. Explain how nuclear fission creates a chain reaction. [Pg. 162, 7.2] Nuclear fission: The splitting of the nucleus of a large atom into 2+ smaller nuclei. Releases neutrons and energy. When struck by a neutron, the nucleus splits, forms new elements, and releases neutrons plus energy. The released neutrons strike other nuclei. A chain reaction occurs as more neutrons strike neighboring atoms. 9. What is an oil trap? Why do geologists search for oil traps? 10. Suppose you are the head of an oil exploration company. Would you place the most emphasis on finding petroleum reserves, natural gas reserves, or oil shale? Why? [Pg. 161, 7.2] I d place the most emphasis on finding oil shale because it s where the most abundant amount of oil would be found. 11. Describe one advantage and disadvantage of hydroelectric energy. [Pg. 167, 7.3] Hydroelectric energy: Energy produced by the flow of water.

Advantage: Renewable, clean, non-polluting, prevents floods. Disadvantage: Dams can harm many species that live in the area, land around dam can be destroyed, furious turbines will kill the fish. 12. Describe what causes graded bedding. [Pg. 188, 8.1] Graded bedding: The arrangement of layers in which coarse and heavy particles are located in the bottom layers. Heavy particles settle to the bottom of a lake or river faster than smaller particles do. 13. Explain why rates of erosion may be used to determine the absolute age of geologic features formed within the past 10,000-20,000 years, but not for older features, such as the Grand Canyon. [Pg. 191, 8.2] The method is less dependable because rates of erosion may vary greatly over millions of years. 14. Explain how the law of superposition is used to determine the age of rocks. [Pg. 187, 8.1] Law Of Superposition: The law that a sedimentary rock layer is older than the layers above it and younger than the layers below it if the layers are not disturbed. 15. What is the law of crosscutting relationships? [Pg. 190, 8.1] Law Of Crosscutting Relationships: The principle that a fault or body of rock is younger than any other body of rock that it cuts through. 16. What is an angular unconformity? [Pg. 189, 8.1] Angular Unconformity: The boundary between a set of tilted layers and a set of horizontal layers. Forms when rock deposited in horizontal layers if folded or tilted and then eroded. When erosion stops, a new horizontal layer is deposited on top of a tilted layer. 17. What does half-life mean? [Pg. 195, 8.2] Half-life: The time required for half of a sample of a radioactive isotope to break down by radioactive decay to form a daughter isotope. 18. What is the difference between a parent isotope and a daughter isotope? [Pg. 194, 8.2] Parent isotope: Original radioactive isotope Daughter isotope: Newly formed isotope 19. What is the relative age of an igneous intrusion in a layer of sedimentary rock? [Pg. 190, 8.2] The intrusion is always younger than the rock layers it cuts through. [Law Of Crosscutting Relationships] 20. What is the principle of original horizontality? [Pg. 187, 8.1]

Principle Of Original Horizontality: Sedimentary rocks left undisturbed will remain in horizontal layers. 21. Suppose you found a fossil of a plant in Colorado that is found today only in tropical climates. How would you explain this? [Pg. 239, 10.1] Continental Drift: The hypothesis that states that the continents once formed a single landmass, broke up, and drifted to their present locations. 22. How are earthquakes and volcanoes related? [Pg. 248, 10.2] Earthquakes: The sudden shifts that occur along plate boundaries when tectonic plates move. Volcanoes: Some form when plate motions generate magma that erupts on Earth s surface. Location of volcanoes can help identify the location of plate boundaries. 23. Explain how studying mountain ranges can help scientists learn more about plate tectonics and continental drift. [Pg. 240, 10.1] Plate tectonics: The theory that explains how large pieces of the lithosphere (plates) move and change. Geologic evidence supported Wegener s hypothesis of continental drift. The ages and types of rocks in the coastal regions of widely separated areas, such as western Africa and eastern South America, matched closely. Mountain chains that ended at the coastline of one continent seemed to continue on other continents across the ocean [The Appalachian Mountains extend northward along the eastern coast of North America, and mountains of similar age and structure are found in Greenland, Scotland, and northern Europe]. If the continents are assembled into a model supercontinent, the mountains of similar age fit together in continuous chains. 24. What are the main differences between oceanic crust and continental crust? [Pg. 247, 10.2] Oceanic crust is dense and is made of rock that is rich in iron and magnesium. Continental crust has a low density and is made of rock that is rich in silica. 25. Explain how the nature of continental crust may lead to rifting. [Pg. 255, 10.3] Rifting: The process by which Earth s crust breaks apart. Because continental crust is thick and has a high silica content, continental crust acts as an insulator. This insulating property prevents heat in Earth s interior from escaping. Scientists think that as heat from the mantle builds up beneath the continent, continental rift forms in this zone of weakness, and the continent begins to break apart. 26. Suppose you looked at rural areas in which the San Andreas Fault is located from the air. Would you expect to see signs of the fault? Why/why not? [Pg. 251, 10.2]

Transform boundary: The boundary between tectonic plates that re sliding past each other horizontally. Edges usually don t slide smoothly; they scrape against each other in a series of sudden spurts of motion that re felt as earthquakes. Yes. The San Andreas Fault is a major transform boundary between the North American plate and the Pacific plate. Many earthquakes at that fault. The course of the stream in the photo changed because the plates moved past each other at the San Andreas Fault in California. 27. Suppose accretion occurred on the coast of a continent, creating a large mountain range. Explain why and how this could affect the continent s climate. [Pg. 256, 10.3] Accretion: The process in which a terrane becomes part of a continent. Terrane: A piece of lithosphere that has a unique geologic history and that may be part of a larger piece of lithosphere, such as a continent. 28. Madagascar separated from southeastern Africa about 165 million years ago. How could studying maps of southeastern Africa and Madagascar help you learn about the tectonic movements in the region? [10.3] 29. Describe how volcanoes form at subduction zones. [Pg. 250, 10.2] Subduction zone: The region along a plate boundary where one plate moves under another plate. Deep-ocean trenches form at subduction zones. As the oceanic plate subducts, it heats up and releases fluid into the mantle above it. The addition of these fluids causes material in the overlying mantle to melt to form magma. The magma rises to the surface and forms volcanic mountains. 30. Collisions of oceanic lithosphere and continental lithosphere at convergent boundaries form deep-ocean trenches. However, collisions of two plates made of continental lithosphere at convergent boundaries may cause large mountain ranges to form. Explain why the results of the two collisions differ. When oceanic lithosphere collides with continental lithosphere, the oceanic lithosphere is denser and subducts under the less dense continental lithosphere. When two plates made of continental lithosphere collide, neither plate subducts because neither plate is dense enough to subduct under the other plate. Instead, the colliding edges crumple and thicken, which causes uplift that forms large mountain ranges. 31. Explain why scientists opposed Wegener s hypothesis of continental drift at first. [Pg. 241, 10.1]

Other scientists of the time rejected the mechanism by which Wegener proposed that the continents moved. Wegener suggested that the continents plowed through the rock of the ocean floor. However, this idea was easily disproved by geologic evidence. 32. Describe the forces that move tectonic plates. [Pg. 252-254, 10.2] Convection: The movement of heated material due to differences in density that re caused by differences in temperatures.

Mantle Convection: Scientists think that Earth is a convecting system. Energy generated by Earth s core and radioactivity within the mantle heat mantle material. This heated material rises through the cooler, denser material around it. As the hot material rises, the cooler, denser material flows away from the hot material and sinks in the mantle to replace the rising material. As the mantle material moves, it drags the overlying tectonic plates along with it. Ridge Push: Newly formed rock at a mid-ocean ridge is warm and less dense than older rock nearby. The warm, less dense rock is elevated above nearby rock, and older, denser rock slopes downward away from the ridge. As the newer, warmer rock cools and becomes denser, it begins to sink in the mantle and pull away from the ridge. As the cooling roc sinks, the asthenosphere below it exerts force on the rest of the plate. This force is called ridge push. This force pushes the rest of the plate away from the mid-ocean ridge. Scientists think that ridge push may help drive plate motions, but is not the main driving force of plate motion. Slab Pull: Where plates pull away from each other at mid-ocean ridges, magma from the asthenosphere rises to the surface. The magma then cools to form new lithosphere. As the lithosphere moves away from the mid-ocean ridge, the lithosphere cools and becomes denser. Where the lithosphere is dense enough, it begins to subduct into the asthenosphere. As the leading edge of the plate sinks, it pulls the rest of the plate along behind it. The force exerted by the sinking plate is called slab pull.