1st Quarter Review UNIT 1: INTRO/MEASUREMENT

I. Intro to Earth Science 1. Earth Science is the study of our planet, its changing systems, and its place in the universe. a. Geology- study of rock materials and how the solid Earth changes. b. Meteorology- study of the changing conditions of Earths atmosphere, which is known as weather and climate. c. Astronomy- study of Earths motions and the nature of other objects in space. 2. Observations and Inferences a. Observations- information received directly from any of our five senses (sight, touch, smell, hearing, and taste) 1. In some cases we use instrument to make more accurate measurements. b. Inferences- a conclusion made based on means of an observation. 3. Measurements a. Are observations made using an instrument? They are always expressed with both numbers and a unit. 1. Metric System vs. English System Physical Quantity Length Mass Time Temperature Prefix MilliCentiBasic unit for meter Kilo Metric Basic Unit meter gram second K, C, Meaning Thousandth Hundredth One Thousand Metric Symbol m g s K, C Exponential Notation X 10-3 X 10-2 X 10 0 X 103 US Customary Measure Inch, foot, mile Once, pound, ton Second F

II. Density 1. Definition- The property of matter that relates mass to volume for any particular material

a. Formula D= M/V (found on ESRT pg.1) 2 Density Relationships (size, temp, pressure, state of matter)

III. Percent Error and Rate of Change 1. All measurements can be made with more care or by using better instruments. Percent deviation, or percent error, is a convenient way of comparing a measurement to the commonly accepted value for that measurement. a. % error = accepted- measured accepted x 100

b. rate of change= change in value time UNIT 2: EARTHS SIZE/SHAPE

I. Model- Anything that represents the properties of an object, used as the basis for study or investigation is referred to as a model. Ex- physical, mathematical, mechanical, graphic, etc II. Earth is described as an oblate spheroid 1. flattened at poles & bulges at equator 2. Earths Equatorial diameter is larger than earths polar diameter (ESRT pg 15) 3. Roundness ratio has been calculated to be .99; almost nearly a perfect sphere III. Earth is described to have low relief 1. Earth is relatively smooth IV. Cause for Shape of Earth 1. Gravity- an inward pulling force. This force pulls inward equally in all directions and causes the earth to spin spherical. 2. Centrifugal force- an outward force caused by the spinning or rotating of earth on its axis. 1. Earths rotational speed & centrifugal force is fastest by the equator V. Five Pieces of Evidence for Earths Shape 1. Photographs from space reveal that the Earth is almost a perfect 2. The gradual appearance or disappearance or a ship over the horizon is evidence that the earths surface is curved

3. Earths shadow on the moon (full moon) during a lunar eclipse provides evidence that Earth is spherical. 4. The shorter the distance between two objects, the greater the gravitational force (object/person would weigh more at poles vs. the equator because its closer to the center of gravity). 5. The altitude of Polaris changes as an observer moves north or south (in the Northern Hemisphere); this is because Earth is spherical, and its surface is curved VI. Polaris 1. Description a. It is Earths current North Star b. The altitude of POLARIS is EQUAL to the latitude of the observer!!! 2. Location a. Part of the constellation Ursa Minor (Little Dipper) b. Can be located using the constellation Ursa Major (Big Dipper) c. Extend a line from the 2 pointer stars of the Big Dipper to run into Polaris d. Polaris never moves e. It is located over the celestial North Pole f. It is located above our axis of Rotation 3. Latitude/Longitude/ Reference Points a. Latitude- runs E/W but measures N/S of the Equator b. Longitude- runs N/S but measures E/Q of the Prime Meridian c. Be able to locate: Equator, Prime Meridian, IDL, Tropic of Cancer, Tropic of Capricorn, Arctic Circle, Antarctic Circle, North Pole, and South Pole d. Latitudes are always listed before Longitudes NY is always (N,W) UNIT 3: TOPOGRPAHY/MAPPING

I. Fields: a region of space that has a measurable value at every point 1. Isoline- lines on a field map connecting all points of the same value Ex: Isotherm connect points of equal temperature Isobar connect points of equal pressure II. Features of a Topographic Map: a map showing the shape and elevation of Earths surface. 1. contour line- drawn on a map to indicate elevations and shape of land. 2. elevation- the height above sea level 3. contour interval- the difference in elevation between two consecutive contour lines 4. index contour- heavy, dark contour lines showing numerical values 5. depression contour- lines used to show a hole or crater. 6. benchmark- a marked location indicating the exact elevation above sea level. 7. spot elevation- the elevation changes from place to place 8. profile- a cross sectional view along a line drawn trough a portion of a topographic map III. Rules for Drawing Isolines 1. Isolines connect points of equal value 2. Isolines form smooth curved lines. 3. Isolines are always closed curves even though the map might only show part of it

4. Isolines never cross 5. Isolines tend to follow a parallel trend. IV. Important Topography Rules to Follow 1. Contour Intervals- subtract two known values and divide by the number of contours in between. (Always count your lines to re-check your math) 2. Highest Possible Elevations- Determine what the next contour line would be and subtract 1 unit 3. Gradient a. The closer the lines- steeper the hill-higher the gradient b. The further the contour lines- gentle hill-lower gradient 4. Depressions- A depression contour is equal to the contour line right before it. If a second depression is present within the first, you then count down opposite using the same interval. 5. River Flow a. Water always flows from higher elevation lower elevation b. Contour lines bend upstream when crossing a river c. The apex (or point) of the V, points upstream. V. Making Profiles 1. Mark off all contour lines that intersect the profile line on a slip of paper 2. Assign an elevation to each contour line 3. Create an appropriate scale (distance x-axis) (elevation y-axis) 4. Plot the elevations on a graph 5. Connect points with a smooth curve 2ND Quarter Review UNIT 4: MINERALS

I. Intro to Minerals 1. The 5 Characteristics of all Minerals a. naturally occurring (not made man) Ex: -quartz, pyrite naturally occurring -Cement, steel man made b. inorganic (not formed by or from living things such as plants/animal remains) Ex: -Coal comes from plants so it is ORGANIC (not a mineral) c. solid (cannot be liquid or gaseous) Ex:-solids have a definite size and shape d. definite chemical composition (ESRT pg. 16) Ex: -Quartz Si02 1 silicon, 2 oxygens e. crystalline structure Ex: must demonstrate a cubic, monoclinic, triclinic, tetragonal, hexagonal, or orthorhombic crystal lattice

II. Scientists have identified and classified over 3000 minerals, yet only 12 are commonly found 1. The elements silicon and oxygen make up more than half of the mass of these minerals a. called silicates (ESRT 1) 2. silicon oxygen tetrahedron the building block for all silicates a. one central silicon, 3 surrounding oxygens III. Minerals are identified on the basis of their physical and chemical properties 1. Physical Properties used to Identify Minerals a. color- most obvious, but least reliable method - Some minerals come in multiple colors due to impurities and/or weathering b. luster- the way light is reflected from the freshly cut surface of a mineral produces pg. 16 of the ESRT is divided into two categories 1. Metallic (shiny/sparkly) 2. Non-metallic (dull, pearly, brilliant, waxy, glassy) c. streak- the powered form of the mineral. 1. A minerals color and streak are often different. d. crystal structure- shapes that are based on the internal arrangement of the atoms e. hardness- a measure of how easily a mineral can be scratched. 1.The stronger the bonds the harder the mineral will be. 2. Mohs scale- Based on common minerals, this scale is used to identify and categorize the hardness of other less common minerals. 3. Known hardness of common objects: 2.5 fingernail 3.5 Copper 4.5 iron nail 5.5 glass plate 6.5 steel file 7.0 streak plate f. cleavage- The tendency of a mineral to split along planes of its crystalline structure where bonds are the weakest. g. fracture- The property of a mineral that describes an irregular pattern or breakage 2. Special Properties used to identified a. density- the ratio of mass to volume in a mineral sample - Units (g/cm3) b. specific gravity-the ratio of the density of a substance to the density of water. Specific gravity has no units. Ex: -Density of Diamond 3.52 g//cm3, -Specific Gravity of Diamond 3.52 c. magnetism- Some minerals hold a magnetic tendency. Ex: Magnetite reacts with a compass or any other metal material

d. double refraction- Is the optical doubling effect, which is caused by the splitting of light into two separate components. (Ex: When holding calcite over a paper, over text book font, it appears double) e. chemical reactions Some minerals react with various chemicals (Ex: Calcite will bubble/fizz in the presence of hydrochloric acid) f. radioactivity- Some minerals have radioactive tendencies that can be measured with a Geiger Scale. IV. Miscellaneous 1. Ore- minerals that contain metals and non-metals that can be mined and removed in usable amounts for a profit a. metals- shiny surface/ can conduct heat/electricity Ex: iron used in cars and pots/pans Ex: aluminum used in air planes and soda cans b. non-metals- dull surface/poor conductors of heat/electricity Ex: halitetable salt 2. Alloys- mixture of two or ore metals or a mixture of metals and non-metals * ALLOYS ARE NOT MINERALS* Ex: tin + copper bronze Ex: iron + chromium + limestone steel 3. Common Everyday Examples a. gypsum used in building b. sulfur used on tip of matches c. talc used in powder d. graphite used in pencils e. calcite used in cement 4. Gems- show qualities of hardness, color, luster, clarity, durability, and rarity a. Precious- diamonds, rubies, emeralds b. Semiprecious- garnet, topaz c. Gems that are NOT minerals- amber, pearls UNIT 5: ROCKS

I. Sedimentary Rocks 1. The 2 main groups: a. Inorganic Land-Derived b. Chemically or Organically Formed
2.

Grouped based on texture: a. Clasticinorganic land derived b. Formed by the compaction of mixed sediments or the cementing of rock fragments Ex: Conglomerate & Breccia c. Formed by the compaction of well sorted sediments or the cementing of rock fragments Ex. shale, siltstone and sandstone

d.

e.

Crystallinechemically or organically formed a. Crystallization of sediments from chemical precipitates and evaporates b. Identify the composition: Dolomite Dolostone Gypsum Rock Gypsum Bioclasticchemically or organically formed a. Organically formed Identify the composition: Limestone with shells or fossils Limestone Plant remains (black) Coal Fragmented shells Coquina

II. Igneous Rocks 1. Grouped based on the environment in which they form and the mineral composition 2. Grain size (crystal size) is affected by the rate of cooling a. High Rate/Fast cooling small grains b. Low Rate/Slow cooling large grains 3. Types of Igneous Rocks Include: a. Extrusive cooled outside the earths surface 1. High rate of cooling small crystal if any 2. Texture ranges from glassy to fine w/ or with out gas pockets 3. Fine/ Non- Vesicular Texture Ex: Rhyolite (formed in lava flows) Basalt (most abundant ext. IR) 4. Glassy Fine/Vesicular Texture Ex: Scoria (holes produced by escaping gas) Pumice (similar to scoria, light) 5. Glassy Non-Vesicular Ex: Obsidian (volcanic glass) Basalt glass (volcanic glass) b. Intrusive cooled inside the earths surface 1. Low rate of cooling (slow) large crystals 2. Coarse texture/non-vesicular Ex: Granite (most abundant intrusive IR) Diorite (b & w polka dots) Gabbro (dark in color, common in mountains) III. Metamorphic Rocks 1. Rocks that form when an existing rock physically or chemically changes form 2. Method of Formation a. Heat 1. Causes the expansion of bonds and melting of minerals 2. Change in composition and structure b. Pressure 1. Atoms are forced closer together 2. Size, shape and density will be altered 3. Rocks may become foliated or banded 3. Chemical Activity a. Minerals w/in a rock are altered by solutions of dissolved ions b. range in mineral composition will result

4. Type of Metamorphism A. Regional 1. Occurs when tectonic forces act over a large area 2. Common in mountain landscapes 3. As depth below the surface increases, pressure and temperature increase. B. Contac Metamorphism occurs due to contact with molten rock 5. Classification 1. Based on texture (foliated or non-foliated) a. Foliation-Layering or alignment of mineral grains b. Banding -Minerals separate into separate bands 2. Foliated Metamorphic Rocks metamorphism due to heat/pressure Ex. Slate - met. of shale Low grade met. Phylite - met. of slate Schist - mica crystals Gneiss - banding High grade met. 3. Non-Foliated contact or regional metamorphism Ex. Hornfels - contact w/ lava Quartzite - met.of sandstone Marble - met. of dolomite/calcite Metaconglomerate - met. of conglomerate UNIT 6: DYNAMIC EARTH/PLATE TECTONICS

I. Structure of Earth 1. Lithosphere- rigid outer shell of rock (Lithosphere= Land) a. Oxygen and silicon are the two most common elements within the minerals and rocks that make up the crust b. Continental crust is less dense then oceanic crust c. Read tables on pages 1, 10 of ESRT 2. Hydrosphere- consists of Earths liquid water (Hydrosphere = H20) a. oceans cover over 71 percent of Earths surface b. Read tables on pages 1, 14 of ESRT 3. Atmosphere- the shell of gasses hat surrounds Earth. (Atmosphere=Air) a. Four layers Troposphere, Stratosphere, Mesosphere, and Thermosphere b. Read tables on pages 1, 14 of ESRT

II. Earths Layers 1. Crust continental = thicker/less dense vs. oceanic= thinner/ more dense 2. Moho boundary between the crust and mantle 3. Mantle astehenosphere (plastic mantle) 4. Outer Core liquid iron and nickel 5. Inner Core Solid iron and nickel 6. ESRT pg. 10 a. You must be able to read/interpret this chart b. Temperature trend as depth increases, temp increases c. Pressure trend as depth increase, pressure increases III. Evidence of Crustal Changes 1. Deformed Rock (tilted, faulted, and folded strata) 2. Fossil Evidence a. Marine fossils found at high elevations suggest crustal uplifting b. Shallow water marine fossils found at great ocean depths suggest crustal sinking IV. Continental Drift 1. Proposed by Alfred Wegener 2. Super-continent Pangaea 3. Evidence a. Coastlines of Continents fit together like jig-saw puzzle b. Fossil clues- match up on near continents c. Rock clues- show similar age, type, structure d. Climate clues- coal & coral show that nys was once on the equatorial realm V. Sea Floor Spreading-a spreading ridge where oceanic crust is formed through volcanic activity and then gradually moves away from the ridge. 1. Age evidence- as distance from ridge increases, age of rock increases as well. 2. Magnetic evidence (paleomagnetism)- clues form iron-bearing basalt rock shows the reversal of poles every few million years. VI. Plate Tectonics 1. Plate Motion a. Theory states that Earths lithosphere (curst + upper mantle) is divided into sections called lithospheric plates that move or float on our asthenosphere. 2. Direction of Plates a. Divergent plates move away from each other Ex: Mid Atlantic Ridge (O-O), Great Rift Valley (C-C) b. Convergent plates move apart from each other Ex: Volcano Arcs(O-C), Alluetian Islands (O-O), Himalayan Mtn (C-C) c. Transform- plates slide laterally next to each other Ex: San Andres Fault (C-C)/ earthquake prone areas
3.

Convection Currents- driving force beneath plate tectonics

VI. Earthquakes

Def: natural vibration due to a release of energy, usually from a sudden movement or shift in plate boundaries and faults. 1. Parts of an earthquake a. Fault- a break in earths curst b. Focus- the place underground where the break first occurs c. Epicenter- the location at Earths surface just above the focus 2. Earthquake Scales a. Mercalli Scale- based on peoples observations (I- XII) b. Richter Scale- based on amount of energy release (1-10) 3. Recording Earthquakes a. Seismograph- machine used to measure underground activity b. Seismogram- actual record of the recorded activity (we read these) 4. Types of Waves a. P-Wave (primary, push-push, parallel, fastest, solids and liquids) b. S-Wave (secondary, side to side, shear, perpendicular, slower, solids only) 5. Shadow Zones- places on Earth that does not record P or S waves. P-wave shadow zone occurs between 104 and 140 degrees. The S-wave shadow zone occurs between 105 degrees and 180 degrees latitude 6. Boundary vs. Depth/Strength a. Convergent Boundaries Strong/ Deep earthquakes b. Divergent Boundaries Minor/ Shallow earthquakes c. Transform Boundaries Moderate/ Shallow earthquakes 7. ESRT pg. 11 1. * Know how to interpret graph 2. Finding an epicenter (do this to all three stations) a. read the p and s wave arrival times from the seismogram b. subtract the difference in times of arrival c. put scrap against the y axis and mark off the difference in time d. drag the paper up until they match up between the two curves e. read the distance (y-axis) to find how far away the earthquake was from its epicenter f. using the scale provided, measure out the distance from the step above and adjust your compass g. where all three circles cross is the actual epicenter of the earthquake