The Hydrogen Future: Fuel Replacement Proposal Report Jacob R Lambuth Paradigm Technologies

Hydrogen Future ii Jacob R. Lambuth 2100 Paradox Lane Morgantown, WV 26505 304 298 4332 jrlambuth@paradigm.net April 26, 2011 Angus DeLorean 15023 Eddie Drive Humble, Texas 77396 281 441 2537 Dear Angus DeLorean, Thank you for requesting advisement from Paradigm Technologies. I am submitting this report as requested by your research and development department to address the issue of finding a new fuel to replace gasoline in your future vehicle designs. Our company has placed a significant amount of research in numerous alternative fuel sources for a variety of applications. We have analyzed various options and have concluded that hydrogen fuel is the ideal replacement for gasoline. This report covers several key topics for your research team to consider hydrogen fuel as the new fuel to be used in your vehicles. Key topics such as: - Characteristics of hydrogen - Production of hydrogen - Hydrogen power plants - Hydrogen storage With the information provided in this report, your research team can begin designing new vehicles that are optimized to utilize hydrogen fuel. We are willing to share all current research and technology in hydrogen fuel to ensure your company produces the best vehicle possible for the future.

Very respectfully, Jacob. R. Lambuth

Hydrogen Future iv Abstract The purpose of this research proposal is to present Hydrogen gas as a viable replacement for gasoline in modern day and future vehicle use. Hydrogen is a readily available, abundant, and very efficient fuel source with no polluting by products from combustion. With gasoline becoming more expensive and petroleum reserves rapidly depleting, its replacement with hydrogen is upmost essential as a fuel source for modern vehicles. With application of modern day technology in combustion and storage, vehicles can be made ready to use hydrogen and end fossil fuel use forever.

Hydrogen Future v Table of Contents Section 1- Summary 1.1- Summary paragraph..pg. 1 Section 2- Introduction of Hydrogen Fuel for Vehicle Use 2.1- Current Situation.pg. 2 Section 3- Elements of Hydrogen as Fuel 3.1- Basics of Hydrogen....pg. 3 3.2- Available Sources of Hydrogenpg. 3 3.3- Drawbacks of Hydrogen As Fuel.....pg. 3 3.4- Benefits of Hydrogen As Fuel..pg. 4 Section 4- Hydrogen Vs. Gasoline 4.1- Why Gasoline In The First Place?..................................................pg. 6 4.2- The fault of Gasoline.....pg. 6 4.3- Hydrogen As The Replacement...pg. 6 Section 5- Producing Hydrogen For Modern Needs 5.1- Water Electrolysis......pg. 7 5.2- Prospective Methods.....pg. 9 Section 6- Hydrogen Fueled Power Plants 6.1- Internal Combustion Engines.pg. 11 6-2- Hydrogen Fuel Cellspg. 12 Section 7- Hydrogen Storage and Transportation 7.1- Parameters For Storing Hydrogenpg. 15 7.2- High Compression Storagepg. 15 7.3- Metal Hydride Storagepg. 16 Section 8- Conclusion 8.1- Conclusion Paragraph.pg. 18 Section 9- References 9.1- Works Cited......pg. 19

Hydrogen Future vi List of Figures

Section 3 Figure 3.1 Flame of combusting hydrogen...pg. 3 Figure 3.2 Hydrogen moleculepg. 4

Section 5 Figure 5.1 Electrolysis Figure.....pg. 7 Figure 5.2 Electrolysis machine......pg. 8 Figure 5.3 Solar farm Figure...pg. 9 Figure 5.4 Meyer fuel cell figure...pg. 10 Figure 5.5 Plasma electrolysis reactor....pg. 10

Section 6 Figure 6.1 BMW Hydrogen 7.pg. 12 Figure 6.2 Hydrogen 7 engine..pg. 12 Figure 6.3 PEM fuel cell operation...pg. 13 Figure 6.4 Alkaline fuel cell operation.....pg.14 Figure 6.5 Phosphoric acid cell operation......pg.14

Hydrogen Future vii Section 7 Figure 7.1 Type IV hydrogen composite tank.pg.16 Figure 7.2 Formation of metal hydrides...pg.16 Figure 7.3 Metal hydride storage canisters.pg. 17

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Section 1- Summary 1.1 The use of fossil fuels is rapidly coming to a catastrophic end. The continuous and expanding use of fossil fuels as our primary source of energy in vehicle power plants is soon to become both obsolete and impossible once petroleum resources are depleted. Hydrogen proves to be an efficient and pollution free source of energy to replace gasoline to power modern and future vehicles. Current technology offers 2 usable power plants to operate vehicles of various sizes, while research is working to improve their use. The issues of transportation also have been dramatically reduced with new storage methods have been developed to safely store hydrogen gas. These new methods will offer the vehicle industry a useable replacement to the gasoline-powered engine.

Hydrogen Future 2 Section 2- Introduction to Hydrogen Fuel for Vehicle Use

2.1 Current situation The age of the gasoline powered engine is running out of time. The world use of fossil fuels is now an exponentially growing issue. As developing nations grow and modern nations consume more gasoline on a daily basis, our global stores of petroleum only dwindle at an alarming rate. According to the United States Geological Survey(2004), the production of world fossil fuels shall peak in 2037, and rapidly reduce afterwards. At this point, the cost of gasoline per gallon will reach a price of record highs; the cost effectiveness of fueling even the most efficient of vehicles shall no longer be worthy. By 2100, the era of the gasolinepowered engine shall come to an end, as production shall cease for fossil fuels. The vehicle industry cannot afford to wait for this day to end in order to find a new source of energy to drive vehicles. This act would spell the end of the business that does so. A new energy source is needed that can provided the energy demand of both small and large size vehicles, emit little to no pollution, and is renewable so that a production end is never obtained. There exists numerous possible fuel sources that satisfy these parameters, but only one fuel source complies with them all: hydrogen. The future of the vehicle industry fuel source is hydrogen by far. No other energy source can offer the flexibility, energy density, and minimal impact to environment that hydrogen offers. It emulates the qualities of gasoline in many ways, and supersedes several by far. With current technology, we can use hydrogen with modern day internal combustion engines. Hydrogen can also be used with fuel cells to produce electricity and power electric vehicles with greater efficiency and less weight than on board battery arrays. The previous argument of storage of hydrogen once posed a great hindrance to the conversion of hydrogen from gasoline. This issue is outdated, as newer and safer means of storing hydrogen have been brought. New composite storage tanks and metalhydride matrices now offer a safe and efficient mean to store fuel onboard vehicles. This new fuel is the future of the vehicle industry and the energy market. The vehicle industry stands to only profit from this technology, as it is the obvious replacement to an aging fuel source. To adopt hydrogen as a fuel source early shall ensure dominance in the market now and for the future.

Hydrogen Future 3 Section 3 Elements of Hydrogen as Fuel

3.1 Basics of Hydrogen Di-atomic hydrogen (H2) is the most abundant element in the Universe (McMurry & Fay 2008). Approximately 74% of the universe consists of this simple molecule. A colorless and odorless gas, it also posses a great deal of energy to be readily used. It is the lightest element in existence, with a density of .08988 grams per liter of gas. Its energy density measures at 0.01079 Mega Joule per Liter, which is low in comparison to modern fossil fuels (Simeons 1980). It is highly compressible which allows for a large quantity to be stored and used as a fuel source in vehicles. Solid hydrogen, stored as a hydride, is incredibly dense in energy. 1 kilogram of solid hydrogen has the equivalent energy of 1 gallon of gasoline. Hydrogen is very combustible in the presence of oxygen. The combustion with oxygen is one of the most efficient processes known as it only produces heat and water and goes to near 100% reaction completion. No other by-product is produced with little to no flame visible. It has a ignition temperature of 585 degrees centigrade, and produces approximate 40,000 BTU per kilogram. Relatively cool compared to fossil fuels (Cox & Williamson Jr. 1979).

Figure 3.1 Combustion of Hydrogen on NASA shuttle engine

Hydrogen Future 4 3.2 Available Sources of Hydrogen Unfortunately, very little hydrogen gas is available as itself in our atmosphere, as most if consists of oxygen and nitrogen with some trace gases. Hydrogen gas is readily found in another very abundant source on our world, water. For every molecule of water, it offers 2 molecules of hydrogen and one molecule of oxygen. As 70% of the planet is water, there is exists a limitless source of Hydrogen gas to be used as fuel. Especially since the combustion of Hydrogen produces water in return. Other sources of Hydrogen are found in the catalytic break down of simple hydrocarbons. Common gases such as methane, produced from organic breakdown of matter, can be reduced down to hydrogen gas in an efficient manner.

Figure 3.2 Molecule of water

3.3 Drawbacks of Hydrogen as Fuel Since hydrogen is not a readily found energy source, it must be refined from other sources in order to be used as fuel. Modern sources of hydrogen gas consist of atmospheric extraction, catalytic reduction of hydrocarbons, and simple electrolysis of water. Hydrogen also suffers from a low energy density in comparison to gasoline. One liter of gasoline contains 34.4 mega joules of energy while hydrogen only posses .01079 mega joules. A difference of almost 3200% in comparison(Simeons 1980). This issue of low energy though only exists when stored in its least dense condition, gas. Hydrogen is also incredibly combustible with atmospheric oxygen, which can lead to explosions from vehicle collisions if stored in a gas or liquid state. This danger is not as severe as predicted as hydrogen has an incredibly high volatility rate. Hydrogen gas diffuses into air at a rate of .63 cm2 per centimeter. This rate is 8 times greater than gasoline, which is also incredibly flammable.

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3.4 Benefits of Hydrogen as Fuel Hydrogen boasts numerous advantages over gasoline, which present it as a great fuel replacement. Hydrogen has a low cost value production wise, as the energy demand to produce it is low. The availability of Hydrogen rich sources is also a non-issue as they are great abundance (water, methane). Modern energy companies can readily re-tool to produce hydrogen in demands that the world desires for vehicle usage. An option they will soon face when petroleum sources are depleted. Hydrogen does not suffer from this issue, as it is a renewable energy source. The combustion of 2 molecules of hydrogen with 1 molecule of oxygen produces one molecule of water and energy. No polluting by-products arecreated as in fossil fuel production. Since only water is produced, it replenishes the water used to extract hydrogen,as it is combusted. This cycle is never broken, providing a never ending fuel source. Despite its lower energy during combustion in comparison to gasoline, hydrogen combustion is far more efficient and rapid burning. Gasoline has a flame velocity of about 30 cm per second while hydrogen has a velocity of 270 cm per second (Cox & Williamson 1979).This increased velocity allows less energy to be lost through heat generation than gasoline and more energy to be used in locomotion (Solway 2008). Gasoline produces approximately 32,000 BTU per liter while hydrogen emits only 8000 BTU per liter (Cox & Williamson Jr. 1979). Far less heat is emitted during combustion. The overall combustion process efficiency makes up for the lack of combustion energy in comparison to gasoline. Less energy loss through heat generation results in more energy for locomotion. Hydrogen is highly compressible, allowing for a vast quantity to be storage in a small amount of space. Gasoline cannot improve its energy density, as it is a liquid and cannot be compressed.Super compressing hydrogen gas overcomes the issue of low energy density by allowing one to carry enough hydrogen to meet the demand of modern vehicle demands. Hydrogen also has the ability to be stored in metal hydride matrices, if compression of the gas is a major concern. This method leaves hydrogen in the form of a solid and is completely inert to external energy.

Hydrogen Future 6 Section 4 Hydrogen Vs. Gasoline

4.1 Why Gasoline in the first place? Since the development of the internal combustion engine, the search for an ideal fuel source became a major pursuit. An ideal fuel is cheap, stable, readily available, and dense in energy. Various energy sources were used in the past such as coal, charcoal, alcohol, and even liquid ammonia for use in internal combustion engines. The winning fuel source became gasoline, a liquid mixture of refined hydrocarbons with a carbon structure of 4-12 in analiphatic (non-cyclic) chain. It is a stable liquid, high in energy density, and currently readily available through refinement of complex hydrocarbons (crude oil). Its popularity is nothing but obvious as it is the primary energy source of nearly every internal combustion engine next to diesel and kerosene.

4.2 The faults of Gasoline Gasoline suffers from 2 faults that are both very damaging to the economy and to the environment. The first is the fact that combustion of gasoline produces a large quantity of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases, even under ideal combustion conditions. These greenhouse gases contribute to the ever growing problem of global warming and the depletion of the ozone layer. The second fault lies in its refinement from our finite supply of crude oil. Sources of crude oil decrease at a growing rate and are not predicted to slow but rather increase in the near future. Once petroleum reserves are depleted, so will be our gasoline supply. Synthetic gasoline as been developed, but proves to be far too expensive to be used on any commercial level.

4.3 Hydrogen as the Replacement Hydrogen proves to be the most prominent fuel source to replace gasoline for numerous reasons. Hydrogens 2 major qualities are gasolines 2 major faults. Hydrogen is entirely renewable and produces no pollution at all. Hydrogen can be made readily available and inexpensive much like gasoline is today. Despite the lack of density, Hydrogen can be super compressed to increase its energy density. Since gasoline is a liquid, it cant be compressed beyond its volume at a constant temperature and volume. Modern day internal combustion engines can be converted to operate on hydrogen if necessary, allowing easy transition with minimal cost to the consumer. Future internal combustion engines, in development to use gasoline, can be readily engineered to use hydrogen specifically to be operate at peak efficiency.

Hydrogen Future 7 Section 5- Producing Hydrogen For Modern Needs

5.1 Water Electrolysis Water is the most abundant substance on the planet, with air as a close 2nd. Approximately 70% of the planet surface is water, and endless sea of fuel to be used. Unlike gasoline, which requires vast industrial complexes to break down crude oil into its separate hydrocarbons, water can be made into hydrogen via several simple processes. The most common and industrial standard is electrolysis. Electrolysis is the process of applying an electrical field to water, when a sufficient charge is applied; the molecules of water are forced apart and attracted to their perspective charged poles. This process separates hydrogen and oxygen into their di-atomic states (McMurry & Fay 2008). By itself, this method is incredibly simple, yet can be drastically inefficient. Much of the energy is lost via heat as water is a poor conductor of electricity. Addition of an electrolyte can increase efficiency, as well as super low resistance electrodes. The manner in which the electric field is applied also greatly affects the efficiency of the reaction.

Figure 5.1 Electrolysis Diagram

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Figure 5.2 Industrial Electrolysis Machine

The major drawback to the reaction is the demand for power. Energy is needed to extract the hydrogen from water for use as energy in vehicles. Electrolysis requires a large amount of current at a constant voltage to disassociate the hydrogen molecules from water. Current proposals stand to solve this problem by the creation of solar and wind farms dedicated to producing hydrogen. Solar energy is another very renewable source that only is truly efficient in a large and immobile state. Large solar complexes can be geared to produce hydrogen nonstop to ensure fuel demands are met. Wind power can also do the same where permissive. Hydrogen has already been proposed as a means to store energy from solar cell farms as a large quantity of the energy produced goes to waste. That energy can be turned into hydrogen gas for vehicle use with a very low cost (Rifkin 2002).

Hydrogen Future 9

Figure 5.3 Solar Energy Farm in Spain

5.2 Prospective Methods There is exists other methods currently being developed to disassociate water into hydrogen and oxygen gas. As electrolysis is energy inefficient which will cause a raise in hydrogen gas price. More efficient methods to produce hydrogen gas would prevent overall cost of fuel to be excessive. In the late 1980s, inventor Stanley Meyer developed a new method of disassociating water. The hydrogen reactor worked by using water as a dielectric between metal rods. By using far higher voltage and lower amperage typically used in electrolysis, the amount of energy lost through resistance is reduced. Hydrogen gas is produced as the voltage across the rods reaches the breakdown voltage of water, causing the molecules to disassociate (Meyer 1979). This method is far more efficient as almost no heat is generated, as the amperage is very low. Unfortunately, Stanley Meyer died before completing his work. Majority of his designs are patented but most of the research was lost after his death. Some private institutions are conducting research on the Meyers cell, but little effort is placed.

Hydrogen Future 10

Figure 5.4 Meyer fuel cell Another method of hydrogen production from water currently being used is plasma electrolysis. This method of is relatively new and very early in development. Current studies do show promise that this could be an effective means of producing hydrogen. Plasma electrolysis operates by submerging two electrodes into an electrolytic solution of water. An arc is generated between the electrodes, creating plasma between them. This plasma rapidly disassociates the water into hydrogen and oxygen gas. The efficiency of this process and effectiveness is still being determined if it is a viable method in producing hydrogen gas.

Figure 5.5 Plasma electrolysis reactor

Hydrogen Future 11 Section 6 Hydrogen Fueled Power Plants

6.1 Internal Combustion Engines The internal combustion engine is nothing new in the world of vehicle power plants. The standard 4-cycle engine is the industry standard in vehicles. The internal combustion engine is very versatile in fuels sources. Numerous fuels such as ethanol, liquid petroleum (propane), and even ammonia have been used. Hydrogen is no exception. The modern internal combustion engine can be modified to operate on hydrogen gas with minor alterations and modifications. Current vehicles can be retrofitted to operate on hydrogen gas, but this will come at a significant cost to the consumers. Modification would require the addition of a high-pressure carburetor similar used by propane powered vehicles. The major cost would arrive from addition of hydrogen storage tanks, as the gasoline tank would be rendered useless. Future vehicles can be readily built from modern vehicle factories with minimal retooling. Since 4 cycle engines designed to operate on hydrogen differ only slightly from gasoline powered ones, vehicle factories could readily produce new hydrogen fueled vehicles. The major fault of hydrogen combustion in 4-cycle engines is the production of high temperature water vapor. As hydrogen is combusted, the only by product is water and heat. This water vapor can become highly corrosive to steel and iron parts, readily rendering the metal into brittle and weak oxides. Though gasoline also produces water during combustion, the amount in comparison to hydrogen combustion is far less. Future engines would have to be built with larger amounts of aluminum, stainless steel, or ceramic composites in order to resist oxidation from the water vapor. This fault will cause an increase in engine costs, as these materials are not inexpensive. Numerous vehicle companies have already begun production and design of hydrogen-powered vehicles. For example, BMW has begun research in hydrogen-fueled engines. Their research has produced the Hydrogen 7, a 4-door coup powered by a 12-cylinder engine operating on a combination of gasoline and hydrogen. Though not a completely hydrogen engine, its operation demonstrates the effectiveness of hydrogen. Its performance is not lacking as it can produce up to 260-horsepower and accelerate from 0-60 mph in just 9.4 seconds. Other companies such as Ford, Honda, and Chrysler has become experimenting with Hydrogen-gasoline hybrids as well as true hydrogen only vehicles.

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Figure 6.1 The BMW Hydrogen 7

Figure 6.2 Hydrogen 7 engine

6.2 Hydrogen Fuel Cells The hydrogen fuel cell is a radically different and very efficient method of producing power by hydrogen oxidation. Unlike internal combustion engines that rely on combusting fuel in cylinders to turn explosive energy in to motion, fuel cells produce electricity by electro-chemical reaction (DOE 2010). The byproducts of the reaction are heat and water, much like the combustion of hydrogen. The reaction in a fuel cell is not violent at all, producing no noise or movement. The mechanism by which a fuel cell operates is fairly simple. Hydrogen (separate from oxygen) is fed into a chamber that is separated by a proton-conducting membrane and in contact with the anode. A catalyst, often platinum, aids in separating the electrons from the hydrogen leaving a positively charged proton. At the cathode, the free electrons come in contact with the oxygen to form oxygen ions. The protons traverse the membrane separating the two chambers and react with the oxygen ions to form water and heat. When then reaction occurs, the free electrons acts as the source of electricity (DOE 2010). The proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell is the industry standard for fuel cells. Newer designs are now being tested for used in vehicles due to their cheaper costs and higher efficiency rates in producing electricity. The PEM fuel cell suffers greatly due to its massive cost to produce. According to the Department of Energy, a standard platinum PEM fuel cell operating at 80 kilowatts for vehicle use would cost $61.00 per kilowatt. A rate of $35.00 per kilowatt is the minimum for PEM fuel cells to be sufficiently cost effective for vehicle use.

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Figure 6.3 PEM fuel cell operation There exists many other fuel cell designs currently being developed or have been developed and are being improved on. 2 designs present possible options over PEM fuel cells to be use in vehicles. The two other systems are the alkaline fuel cell and the phosphoric acid fuel cell, each with their own numerous advantages and disadvantages over PEM fuel cell systems. Alkaline fuel cells (AFC) are one of the original fuel cells to be developed. NASA has been using the same fuel cell to provide electricity on board the shuttle. Favored over other designs due to their very high efficiency. The AFC can produce up to 60% efficiency while producing electricity during the shuttle operations (DOE 2010). The fuel cell operates by using a sodium or potassium hydroxide solution as an electrolyte between the anode and cathode, instead of proton exchange membrane found in PEM fuel cells. Older AFC designs operated at high temperatures of up to 482 degrees Fahrenheit. Newer designs have been developed that can operate at lower temperatures of around 74 degrees Fahrenheit (DOE 2010). This reduces wear of the cell and extends its lifespan. The AFC doesnt not require precious metal catalysts such as platinum or vanadium, reducing production costs and over operation price. The AFC is incredibly susceptible to carbon dioxide poisoning. The slightest amount of CO2 can react with the electrolyte rendering it chemically inert in relation to the cell. This requires the entire cell to be flushed and can be very expensive. The durability of the cell is still an issue as no cell has been developed that can operate up to a minimum of 40,000 hours before requiring major repair.

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Figure 6.4 Alkaline fuel cell operation The second possible fuel cell to be used in vehicles is the phosphoric acid fuel cell. The phosphoric acid fuel cell is very similar to the alkaline fuel cell in design, but differs in its use in electrolyte and membrane. Instead of using a basic solution, the cell uses a phosphoric acid solution as an electrolyte and encased in a Teflon bonded silicon carbide matrix along with carbon electrodes laced with precious metals like platinum (DOE 2010). The phosphoric acid fuel cell is very resistant to impurities such as CO2 or sulfur as the catalyst is far more resistant and the electrolyte doesnt react well to common impurities. The major issue lies in that the phosphoric acid cell is not efficient. It averages around 37%, which is barely higher than combustion based power plants (DOE 2010).

Figure 6.5 Phosphoric acid fuel cell operation

Hydrogen Future 15 Section 7 Hydrogen Storage and Transportation

7.1 Parameters for storing hydrogen The storage of any high energy fuel source always is dangerous, and hydrogen is no exception. One of the greatest issues hindering wide spread hydrogen use in vehicles is safe and efficient storage of hydrogen. As hydrogen exists as a gas, the need to increase its density can only be achieved by either extremely high rate of compression, cryogenic liquid storage, or as a solid. Despite these options, only 2 are viable as cryogenic storage of hydrogen gas is virtually impossible to utilize on any commercial level for vehicles. An ideal storage system of hydrogen should be low in cost, does not require extensive amounts of space on board the vehicle, can safely contain hydrogen during major collisions, and able to store enough fuel for at least 300 miles of travel (DOE 2010). Currently, only two options exist that can provide most of these demands. 7.2 High compression storage Hydrogen gas has the physical property of being high compressible. Its simple molecular structure of one electron and proton occupies the least amount of space out of all the elements. Because of this, hydrogen gas can obtain much higher energy densities through extremely high compression. Hydrogen compressed to 700 bar (approx. 10,000 PSI) has an energy density of 143 mega joules per kilogram, 3 times greater than liquid gasoline (DOE 2010). Storage of hydrogen at such high pressures originally required extremely heavy gas tanks. The amount of weight and size of such tanks would drastically increase the overall mass of any vehicle and drop fuel efficiency to unacceptable levels. In the past 10 years, the use of spun composite fiber gas tanks have become the front runner in storage of gas at pressures in excess of 300 bar (approx. 4,000 PSI). These tanks are made of high tensile composite strands of carbon fiber or Kevlar and spun into the shape of a tank, then bonded with an extremely strong epoxy laminate. The strongest category of the tanks, type IV, are far lighter, stronger, more durable, and cost effective than metal tanks of equivalent capability. Since type IV composite tanks are incredibly strong, the can survive a great deal of abuse and damage, much like in a vehicle collision. Sandia National Labs performed numerous tests on tank strength with impact tests. Tests demonstrated that type IV tanks required projectiles of significant size and velocity in comparison to high caliber weapon force to penetrate the tanks and induce critical failure. Lincoln composites performed numerous field studies on use of type IV tanks and discovered majority of tanks survived even catastrophic collisions.

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Figure 7.1- Type IV composite hydrogen tank

7.3 Metal-hydride storage Another option to store hydrogen is through metal hydride matrices. A radically different approach to storing hydrogen as it remains in solid form at low pressures and room temperature. Hydrides form when hydrogen is introduce to a metal (usually alkali metal). The hydrogen acts much like a halogen element and steals an electron from the metal electron shell and binds to the metal molecule. The reaction is exothermic in this direction and can be reversed when heat is applied. The reaction allows a large quantity of hydrogen to be stored in a small amount of space. Once the hydrogen is bonded to the metal, it is essentially inert and is not able to react. This makes storage of hydrogen incredibly safe as hydrogen is released at a safe rate if exposed to excessive heat.

Figure 7.2- Formation of metal hydrides

Hydrogen Future 17 Metal hydrides store hydrogen in the form a solid that is the most energy dense form of hydrogen over gas or liquid phases. Energy Conversion Devices Inc. developed a hydride storage unit that can contain 3 kilograms of solid hydrogen in hydride form into a type IV composite tank. Such tank utilizing compressed hydrogen could only contain .78 kg of hydrogen gas compressed to 5,000 PSI. This is a vast improvement to compressed gas in fuel density as 1 kilogram of hydrogen is the equivalent of 1 gallon of gasoline (ESD 2010). Metal hydride systems are smaller in size which are ideal for smaller cars even motorcycles.

Figure 7.3- Metal hydride storage canisters The major issues in metal hydride usage are the cost and mass of the units. Since metal hydride storage systems require super pure alkali metals in order to achieve maximum efficiency, the production process is expensive. Storage tanks can become heavy when large quantities of hydrogen are needed. An issue for larger vehicles that have heavy fuel demands.

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Section 8- Conclusion

As petroleum reserves rapidly deplete, energy demands increase, and pollution becomes and every pending factor, the need for a clean and renewable energy source has never become more important. The need to replace gasoline as our primary source of fuel for vehicles is an upmost priority. The concept of using alternative fuels is no longer a topic of controversy but rather of necessity. The information presented before you demonstrates the capable technology to not only replace gasoline, but to exceed its performance in the near future. The benefits of hydrogen are undeniable. Its complete absence of pollution means we can eliminate a massive source of carbon emissions from society forever. Hydrogen is the only fuel source that renews itself without requiring heavy industrial refineries to produce more. It is my recommendation that future car designs beginusing hydrogen fuel as its primary energy source and eliminates the use of gasoline before it is no longer available. This is not just to secure a future market in the growing alternative fuel market, but also to ensure survival of the company when gasoline becomes obsolete.

Hydrogen Future 19 Section 9- References Section 9.1- Works cited Berry, Gene D. (1996). Hydrogen as a transportation fuel: costs and benefits. Lawrence livermore national laboratory. Virginia: National technical information service. National Research Council and National Academy of Engineering. (2004). The hydrogen economy: opportunities, costs, barriers, and r&d needs.Washington DC: National Academies Press. Rifkin, Jeremy. (2002). The hydrogen economy. NY: tarcher/putnum. Simeons, Charles. (1980). Hydro-power: the use of water as an alternative source of energy. New York: Pergamon Press. McMurry, John, E. & Fay, Robert C. (2008). Chemistry, fifth edition. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. United States Department of Energy. (2009, April). Energy efficiency and renewable energy. Retrieved April 9, 2011, from http://www.eere.energy.gov/ Energy Conversion Devices (2011) Hydrogen storage. Retrieved April 9, 2011, from http://www.energyconversiondevices.com/hydrogen.php BMW. (2011). BMW hydrogen 7. Retrieved April 11, 2011, from http://www.bmw.com/com/en/insights/technology/cleanenergy/phase_2/cle anenergy.html Meyer, Stanley A. (1979). Water fuel cell technical brief: explaining the hydrogen fracturing process on how to use water as a new fuel-source. Meyer, Ohio. Solway, Andrew. (2008). Hydrogen fuel. New York: Gareth Stevens. Wood, John H. & Long, Gary R. & Morehouse, David R. (2004). Long-term world oil supply scenarios. United States Energy Information Administration. Retrieved April 3, 2011, from http://www.eia.doe.gov/pub/oil_gas/petroleum/feature_articles/2004/world oilsupply/oilsupply04.html Cox, Kenneth E. & Williamson Jr., K.D. (1979). Hydrogen: its technology and implications. Florida: CRC press. Hsu, Jeremy. (2010). Peak oil production predicted for 2014. Oil and energy on MSNBC. Retrieved from http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/35838273/ns/business-oil_and_energy/