Social Case Work:

Social Case Work, a primary method of social work, is concerned with the adjustment and development of individual towards more satisfying human relations. Better family life, improved schools, better housing, more hospitals and medical care facilities, protected economic conditions and better relations between religious groups help the individual in his adjustment and development. But his adjustment and development depend on the use of these resources by him. Sometimes due to certain factors, internal or external, he fails to avail existing facilities. In such situations, social caseworker helps him. Thus, social casework is one to one relationship, which works in helping the individual for his adjustment and development. Every individual reacts differently to his social, economic and physical environments and as such problems of one individual are different from those of another. The practice of casework is a humanistic attempt for helping people who have difficulty in coping with the problems of daily living. It is one of the direct methods of social work which uses the case-by-case approach for dealing with individuals or families as regards their problems of social functioning. Case work, aims at individualized services in the field of social work.

DEFINITIONS Social case work may be defined as the art of doing different things for and with different people by cooperating with them to achieve at one and the same time their own and societys betterment. 1 RICHMOND (1917) Social case work is the art of bringing about the better adjustments in the Social relationship of individual men, or women or children. 2 RICHMOND (1922) Social case work means, those processes which develop personality through adjustment consciously affected, individual by individual between men and their social environment 3 JARRETT (1919) Social case work is the art of bringing an individual who is in a condition of social disorder into the best possible relation with all parts of his environment 4 TAFT (1920) Social case work means Social treatment of a maladjusted individual involving an attempt to understand his personality, behaviour, and social relationships, and to assist him in working out a better social and personal adjustment. 5 WATSON (1922) Social case work is the art of untangling and reconstructing the twisted personality in such manner that the individual can adjust himself to his environment. 6 QUEEN (1922) Social case work is the art of adjusting personal relationship. 7 LEE (1923) Social case work is the art of changing human attitudes.

8 TAYLOR (1926) Social case work is a process concerned with the understanding of individuals as whole personalities and with the adjustment of these individuals to socially healthy lives. 9 REYNOLDS (1932) Social case work is the process of counseling with the client on a problem This is essentially his own, involving some difficulty in his social relationship. 10 REYNOLDS (1935) Social case work is that form of social work which assists the individual which he struggles to relate himself to his family, his natural groups, his community. 11 KLEIN (1938) Social case work is a technical method in social work. A way of Adjusting the client to his personal problems. 11 SWIFT (1939) Social case work is the art of assisting the individual in developing and making use of his personal capacity to deal with problems which he faces in his social environment. 12 DESCHWNINTIZ (1939) Case work means those processes involved in giving service, financial assistance, or personal counsel to individual by representatives of social agencies, according to policies established and with consideration of individual need. 13 STRODE (1948)Social case work is the process of assisting the individual to the best possible social adjustment through the use of social case study, social resources, and knowledge from relative fields of learning. 14 TOWLE Social case work is one method by which certain special services are made available in areas of unmet needs. 15 BOWERS (1949) Social case work is an art in which knowledge of the science of human relations, and skill in relationship are used to mobilize capacities in the individual and resources in the community appropriate for better adjustment between the client and all or any parts of his total environment. 16 HOLLIS (1956) Social case work is a method employed by social workers to help individuals find solution to problems of social adjustment which they are unable to handle in a satisfactory way by their own efforts. 17 HAMILTON (1956) in social case work the client is stimulated to participle in the study of his situation, to share plans, to make an active effort to solve his problems, using his own
resources and whatever community resources are available and appropriate.

18 PERLMAN (1957) Social case work is a process used by certain human welfare agencies to help individuals to cope more effectively with their problems in social functioning.

PURPOSE OF SOCIAL CASE WORK

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The basic of social work is to enable the client to enjoy with some degree of permanency, more satisfying, effective and acceptable experiences in the social situation in which they finds himself, to achieve this goal efforts are made to bring effective changes in the clients environments or social living situation through clarifying the clients possibly distorted perception of its or strengthening his capacities for coping with it. Its essential task is the facilitation of social relationship. According to Witmer the chief aim of social case work is that of helping people to mobilize their capacities for the solution of the problems that brought them to attention of social agencies. The purpose of social case work is not only to help those troubled in their immediate present but to help in such a way that each client will, from the experience, be better able to meet future difficulties with a more effectively, organized personal strength. Most of the writers of social work like moffett. Have emphasized that one of the main objectives of social case work is to bring about an adjustment between the individual client and his situation of environment. In general, the purpose of social case work is to help an individual client to solve his psycho social problems in such a way so that he finds himself capable of dealing with these problems at present and also may solve in future if such problems arise. Thus social case work has the following 1. 2. 3. To understand To Remediation and solve strengthen of problems the internal his in problems of ego social the objectives. individual. power. functioning

4.

Prevention

of

problems

in

social

functioning

5. Development of resources to enhance social functioning.

CLIENT CASE WORKER RELATIONSHIP The term relationship in social case work was used for the first time by Miss Virginia Robinson in her, Book A Changing psychology in Social Case Work in 1939. Relationship is the case workers responsible and disciplined use of himself in working with a client. The relationship is the channel through which the mobilization of the capacities of the client is made possible. The relationship is the medium through which the client is enabled to state his problem and through which attention can be focused on reality problems, which may be as full of conflict as emotional problems. A case work relationship is the professional meeting of two persons for the purpose of assisting one of them, the client, to make a better, a more acceptable adjustment to a personal problem. Within the democratic frame of reference the professional responsibilities, recognition of others rights, acceptable of difference, with the goal, not of isolation, but of socialized attitudes and behaviour stimulating growth though interaction. ASSESSMENT OF THE RELATIONSHIP Despite the general concern with relationship, we find great difficulty in specifying just what is meant by the term relationship. Rapport explains this problem thus that Relationship is rather fuzzy concept since we cannot state with clarity what aspect of relationship, what kind, what symbolic value, what degree of intensity and so on are essential ingredients of treatment. The

pertinent question is whether there are components of relationship that can be identified. These components are accurate empathy, non possessive warmth and genuineness. Accurate Empathy It refers to the ability of the case worker to perceive and communicate accurately and with sensitivity both feeling and experiences of client and their meaning and significance. The worker should be sensitive to express feelings of the client as well as that may only be hinted by voice, posture and content ones. Non - Possessive Warmth It refers to the workers communication of respect, acceptance, liking, caring, and concern for the client in a non- dominating way. When this component is at low level the worker evaluates the client and expresses likes, dislikes, approval, disapproval in a highly conditional way. At high level, the worker warmly accepts the clients experience as a part of his personality. Genuineness It refers to workers being himself, being real. He should be honest in his approach; whatever
he reveals should be real aspect of him. These components can be measured and on that basis closeness of relationship may be explored.

PURPOSE OF RELATIONSHIP The case work relationship is the dynamic interaction of attitudes and emotions between the case worker and the client, with the purpose of helping the client achieve a better adjustment between himself and his environment. Thus the purpose of establishing relationship is to help the client with his psycho social needs and problems. Other purposes are:
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1. Better solution of clients problem 2. Exploitation of means for solving problem. 3. Stating reality and emotional problems. 4. Solution of the personal problem. 5. Development of personality.

THE PRINCIPLES OF CASE WORK RELATIONSHIP Biestek has described seven principles of case work relationship they are, 1. Individualization: Individualization is the recognition and understanding of each clients unique qualities and the differential use of principles and methods in assisting each toward a better adjustment. Individualization is based upon the right of human beings to be individuals and to be treated not just as a human being but as this human being with his personal differences. 2. Purposeful Expression of feelings: Purposeful expression of feelings is the recognition of the clients need to express his feelings freely, especially his negative feelings. The case worker listens purposefully, neither discouraging nor condemning the expression of these feelings, sometimes even actively stimulating and encouraging them when they are therapeutically useful as a part of the case work service.
3. Controlled Emotional Involvement: The controlled emotional involvement is the case

workers sensitively to the clients feelings, an understanding of their meaning, and purposeful, appropriate response to the clients feelings. 4. Acceptance: Acceptance is a principle of action where in the case worker perceives and deals with the client as he really is including his strengths and weakness, his congenial and uncongenial qualities, his positive and negative feelings, his constructive and destructive attitudes and behaviour, maintaining all the while a sense of the clients innate dignity and personal worth The purpose of acceptance is therapeutic; to aid the case worker in understanding the client as he really is thus making case work more effective, and to help the client free himself undesirable defenses, so that he feels safe to reveal himself and look at himself as he really is, and thus to deal with his problem and himself in a more realistic way. 5. The non- Judgmental attitude: The non- judgmental attitude is a quality of the case work relationship. It is based on a conviction that the case work function excludes assisting guilt or innocence, or degree of client responsibility for causation of the problems or needs, but does include making evaluative judgments about the attitudes, standards, or action of the client. The attitude which involves both thought and feelings elements is transmitted to the client.
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6. Client self Determination: The principle of client self determination is the practical recognition of the right and need of clients to freedom in making their own choice and decisions in the work process. Case workers have a corresponding duty to respect that right recognize that need, stimulate and help to activate that potential for self direction by helping the client to see and use his own personality. The clients right to self determination, however, is limited by the clients capacity for positive and constructive decision making, by the framework of
civil and moral law, and by the function of the agency. 7. Confidentially: Confidentially is the preservation of secret information concerning the

client which is disclosed in the professional relationship. Confidentially is based upon a basic right of the client; it is an ethical obligation of the case worker and is necessary for effective case work service. The clients right, however, is not absolute; Moreover, the clients secret is often shared with other professional persons within the agency and in other agencies, the obligation then binds all equally. a. Generic Principles 1. The principle of acceptance 2. The principle of communication 3. The principle of individualization 4. The principle of participation 5. The principle of client self determination 6. The principle of confidentially 7. The principle of case worker self awareness

SOCIAL CASE WORK PROCESS There are three phases of social case work practice: Social investigation or Psycho-social study, diagnosis and treatment or management. 1. SOCIAL INVESTIGATION (PSYCHO-SOCIAL STUDY) Nothing happens on this earth without any reason. In other words, every happening has definite cause. Definite cause does not exist in vacuum rather a natural
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phenomenon. It is very interesting to note that today man is just considered the creature, rather a creator as well. This particular change in the status of man has tempted him to quench his thirst of knowledge not only about the natural phenomena but todays man is much interested to understand human behaviours in a very scientific and precise way. Social case worker is also interested in gaining this knowledge for its successful functioning. Before conceiving the term Social investigation, Mary Richmond herself toyed with such terms as Social evidence, learned seeking, Social inquiry and ultimately shifted her choice upon the term Social investigation. Social investigation is the foundation upon which the various helping processes, actions and treatment techniques are built. For every social work activity, whether it is at individual level or family level or community and societal level, the find out the social realities of the clients and their families, to identify the problem area and to formulate treatment, rehabilitation and aftercare strategies. It is rightly pointed out by Hamilton that social investigation is a psycho- social process. It transcends much beyond the assessment of the individual client or family. The intra psychic forces are inseparably linked with social forces. To understand the individual as psycho social entity, the analysis of his relationship with others related with him is equally important.

CONTENTS OF THE SOCIAL INVESTIGATION Perlman has given the following contents of the case work study in the beginning phase: 1. The nature of the presenting problem. 2. The significance of this problem. 3. The causes(s), onset and precipitants of the problem. 4. The efforts made to cope with problem- solving. 5. The nature of the solution or ends sought from the case work agency.
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6. The actual nature of this agency and its problem solving means in relation to the client and his problem. Social case worker attempts to investigate the following facts: 1. Picture of the problem: He tries to know major complaints, beginning of the problems, the nature of the problem, severity of the problem, implications of the problem, location of the problem, causation of the problem, scope of the problem (who are other affected persons) etc. 2. Clients Feelings and Reactions: Case worker attempts to find out the attitude of the client towards his problem, the analysis and interpretation made by him about his problem, the relationship between client and problem, capacities, competencies and weaknesses of the client. 3. Clients Efforts to Solve Problems: Social case worker acquires knowledge about the efforts made by the client to deal with his problems, the help taken so far, help taking organization and agencies, effects of help, clients evaluation towards these help receiving agencies, and the time spent in these agencies. 4. Social Conditions: He investigates the clear picture of family, its environment, and its impact on the client. He also gains knowledge of schools and its effect on client. Apart from these social agencies, he makes attempts to know the impact of neighbor, working place and religious, economic and political institutions. 5. Psycho-social Development of the Client: In this area, the case worker gets information about the pre- and post-natal care of the client, his early development, childhood, schooling, socialization patterns, home environment, marital history, occupational history, habits, and relationship with others. 6. Personality of the client: For the proper diagnosis, the case worker gives much emphasis to gather information regarding personality characteristics of the client i.e., knowledge, feelings, wishes temperament, ego-strength, sensitivity, adaptability, communication patterns, cooperation, sympathy, tolerance, responsibility, expression of emotions, devotion to work,
motivational state, and level of aspirations and weakness in his personality.

THE TECHNIQUES OF SOCIAL INVESTIGATION There are two fundamental techniques of social investigations, i.e., (i) Interview and (ii) Observation. The process of social investigation is initiated and carried through by the process of interview. Professional skill in this area requires not only theoretical knowledge about the psychology of human behaviour but also considerable case work experience in which the workers technique is repeatedly analysed. The interview is used for securing information about the clients as well as his problems including his relationship with other persons in his social and personal environment. Through the interview situation, the case worker attempts to instrcut and give both the client and
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others who play significant roles in his life and attempts to manipulate the environment for the benefit of the client. Observation is always coupled with interviewing. It makes possible to record the behaviour of the client as it occurs. It yields clues as to the pathological patterns of communication, pathogenic relation and defective role playing and polarization of power and authority among the family members who are of ethological significance. Tools of Social Investigation The following tools are used by social case worker in collecting the relevant information for diagnosis and treatment: 1. Interview guide and schedule. 2. Life chart. 3. Video recording of family interaction. 4. Tape recorded interview. Format of Interview Guide/Schedule

I. History of Problem 1. Major complaints (Problems). 2. History of the problems. 3. Treatment or helps taken so far. II. Personal History 1. Early development. 2. Process of socialization. 3. Coping patterns of day-to-day stress. 4. Schooling likes, dislikes difficulties, academic achievement, extra curricular activities, model teachers behaviour, significant incidence. 5. Marital History age at marriage, willingness for marriage, types of marriage, consanguinity, age of the spouse, personality of the spouse, expectations from marriage, relationship and
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compatibility with the spouse, with the in- laws and the offspring, sexual gratification, birth of the first child and its impact on the marital life. Difficulties in communication, role playing, interaction, reinforcement, stress managing patterns and social support system. Habits: i. Drinking, gambling, smoking, addictions, etc. ii. Reading, creative activities, music, writing, painting, etc. iii. Social habits. 6. Occupational History: When and why started working, job satisfaction in every work, relationship with the supervisors and colleagues, promotion work environment, reasons of changing occupation/job. 7. Income: Income per month, level of satisfaction, needs and income, spouses attitude towards your income earning, capacity, debt, other problems. 8. Sex experience: Sexual perversion if any, failure in love, its effects, etc. III. Family History 1. Family structure. 2. Economic status in community. 3. Educational History. 4. Occupational History. 5. Marital History. 6. Ethical and moral standards. 7. Family Habits. 8. Personality Patterns. 9. Interaction Patterns. 10. Patterns of decision making. 11. Existing role structure in family. 12. Patterns of managing problem. 13. Social support system. 14. Interaction of the family members with the client.
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IV. Analysis and Social Diagnosis: Problematic Areas. V. Treatment Plan 2. SOCIAL DIAGNOSIS Diagnosis like treatment begins with the first glance between the help giver and help seeker. Social diagnosis is the attempt to arrive at an exact definition as possible of the social situation and personality of a given client. It is a search for the causes of the problem which brings the client to the worker for help. Diagnosis is (i) an explanation formulated in the light of known facts (both tangible fact items and psychological fact items); (ii) an explanation made in the knowledge of the other possible explanations; and (iii) subject to change or revision whenever subsequent material warrants a different explanation. Diagnosis is, therefore, concerned with understanding both psychological or personality factors which bear a casual relation to the clients difficulty and the social or environmental factors which tend to sustain it. The diagnostic process consists of a critical scrutiny of a client situation complex and the trouble concerning which help is sought or needed for the purpose of understanding the nature of the difficulty with increasing detail and accuracy. Content of the Social Diagnosis The content of the case work diagnosis falls into the triangular pattern, it consists of 1. The nature of the problem brought and the goals sought by the client, in their relationship to; 2. The nature of the person who bears the problem (his social and psychological situation and functioning) and who seeks (or needs) help with his problem, in relation to; 3. The nature and purpose of the agency and the kind of help it can offer and / or make available.

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The Process of Making Diagnosis A diagnosis has been broken up into a number of stages: gathering the data, the diagnostic study, the diagnosis itself or the evaluation, and the diagnostic product.

Gathering Data: Data are gathered of the interview of the client, reports agencys records reports, from other members of the team, other agencies, schools, relatives. Home visit is also an important source of data collection. The accuracy of data depends on workers skill of interviewing, individualization, acceptance, communication and involvement. Diagnostic Study: The study attempt to identify the problem areas which are important for social case work involvement. This Diagnosis or Evaluation means finding the nature of the problem, its organization and extent and who is going to be affected. Factors responsible for the problem may be one or more than one of the following: i.Physical Physical illness or disability, how the sufferer feels, how his family and others feel. Effect of physical illness dependent, tired, irritable, depressed, self image lowering, distort relationship, and disrupt communication. ii .Psychological The assessment is made of the quality of libidinal relationship, dependency, narcissistic tendencies, sexual identification, quality of aggressiveness, channelization of aggressiveness, native of super ego, consistency of ego and super ego, reality perception, self analysis, self-criticism, judgment, defense used, degree used, degree of discomfort the problem causes him, the nature of desire to change it, the effect that change may have upon other members. iii. Social The following facets of social environment generally come within the diagnosis: 1. Income level High, low, consistent, uncertain, effect on the present problem. 2. Housing Loan taken, rented, adjustment with landlord/tenant, overcrowding, and basic facilities lacking/sufficient. 3. Neighborhood Tolerant/intolerant/supportive/conflict, views toward client etc. 4. Employment Job availability, prospects, remuneration, level, security, status,
condition of work, job satisfaction. 5. Religion Beliefs in values, offering support consolation, expressive outlets, sublimation, reinforcing problems guilt, tension.

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6. Availability/quality/attitude and attitudes (client) to social organization and services:

medical facilities, courts, credit organization, legal advice canters, Post Office, social security. 7. Prejudice, tension etc.

8. Educational problems.
Diagnostic Product: After identification of the problem areas and the factors relating to them, the attempts are made towards possible solution. But before determining solution we need to think about the potential contribution to solutions of the client, others, the agency and the worker. The clients work ability (capacity and motivation) is the base for further determining the treatment techniques and procedures. Perlman discuses this capacity under three headings: Emotional Ability to relate others, ability to feel, experiencing, contacting, etc. Social Intelligence Capacity - Perceptivity, attention, communication, self- management technology, management of situations. Physical capacity How much the client has left over work on problem solving.

Types of Diagnosis Perlman has described three types of diagnosis that is carried on in social case work process. These are: dynamic diagnosis, clinical diagnosis and etiological diagnosis.

1. Dynamic Diagnosis: Dynamic diagnosis gives an understanding of the current problem of the client and the forces currently operating within the client, within social environment and between him/his environment. It gives the answers of the question what is the trouble? What psychological, physical and social factors are contributing to it? What solution is sought? What are the means available within the client, his environment? What are organized services and resources by which the problem may be affected? The nature of such diagnosis is changeable because it is the beginning phase of social case work practice. 2. Clinical Diagnosis: Under clinical diagnosis, the case worker attempts to classify the client by the nature of his sickness/problem. He identifies certain forms and qualities of clients personality mal adaptation and malfunctioning in his behaviour. The clinical diagnosis describes both the nature of the problem and its relation to the client and the helping means and goals. Such type of diagnosis is useful only when it becomes apparent that a disorder of personality accompanies the social disorder, creating and complicating it. 3. Etiological Diagnosis: Etiological diagnosis is concerned with the explanation of the beginnings and life-history of problem of the client, basically that problem that lies in the clients personality make up or functioning. The history of his development as a problem encountering, problem-solving human being may provide the case worker with an understanding of what his client suffers from and what the extent of his coping ability is like to be. Etiological diagnosis is more useful in explaining or rigid reactions. When in spite of the fact that the clients present
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problems are in the centre of attention, the clients responses are not in accordance with, the past history and its appraisal in the light of clients current capacities goals and problems are used for the treatment. This type of diagnosis contributes to understanding the nature of the problem to be dealt with, the person who has the problem, and the ways and means can be anticipated as helpful. Data for Diagnosis The data for diagnosis can be collected by at least three primary means: 1. Interviews: Interview guides are used for collecting information. There are a number of standard guides prepared by psychologists but most recent guide is of

Gold fried and Davison having the categories of information: Clients behaviour during the interview and physical description; presenting problem(s) (nature of problems, historical setting, events, current situation determinants, relevant organism variables, dimensions of the problem, consequences of the problem): targets for modification; recommended treatment(s), motivation for treatment; prognosis; priority for treatment; client expectations; other information, comments, or observations. 2. Checklists and Inventories: The following inventories may be used: The Fear Survey Schedule (of Wolpe) questionnaire on clients perception of himself (Goldstein), family functioning (Stuart and Stourt), marital functioning (Knox), sexual functioning (Annon) and instruments for assessing environments (Moos). 3. Direct Observation: Observation in those situations in which the behavior actually occurs, e.g., Home or place of work makes the work of diagnosing very easy. Steps in Diagnosis The following steps are taken while diagnosing a problem: 1. The worker begins to focus on problematic behaviors. He begins with the survey of both functional and dysfunctional behaviors in his environment. He classifies the various complaints and problems in terms of excesses and deficits. He evaluates clients personal strength as
well as of his Environment.

2. He specifies the target behaviors. This involves an attempt of breaking down complex behaviors into their component parts, being as clear and precise as possible about them. 3. Baseline date is collected to specify those events that appear to be currently controlling the problematic behaviors. 4. The collected information is summarized in an attempt to anticipate any and major problem in treatment and as a way of beginning to establish objectives for treatment. 5. Selecting priorities for treatment as the final step of the diagnosis. Concentration on one problem at one time makes treatment process more manageable and allows both client and worker
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to channel their energies into one area. It is the best of handling and proper use of available resources. 3. SOCIAL TREATMENT Social case work consists of those processes which develop personality through adjustments consciously affected----------between men and their social environment. Generally, two types of efforts are required for social adjustment environmental modification and /or change in behavior and attitudes. Early case work treatment was placed on modification through the environment. Later on the development of ego psychology helped social case workers to use intensive and direct treatment techniques. Now the aim of social case work treatment is to restore the individual to social functioning or to help him develop this capacity in order that he may achieve at one and at the same time his own and societys betterment. According to Hamilton, treatment is the sum total of all activities and services directed towards helping an individual with a problem. The focus is the relieving of the immediate problem and, if feasible, modifies any basic difficulties which precipitated it. The objectives of social case work treatment are as follows: 1. To prevent social breakdown; 2. To conserve clients strength; 3. To restore social functioning; 4. To provide happy experiences to the client; 5. To create opportunities for growth and development;
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6. To Compensate psychological damage; 7. To increase capacity for self direction; 8. To increase his social contribution. Thus the objective of social case work treatment is to alleviate the clients distress and decrease the malfunctioning in the person- situation system. It is to enhance the clients comfort, satisfaction, and self realization. This may require enhancing the adaptive skills of his ego and the functioning of the person- situation system. Social Case Work Treatment Process Social case work treatment process begins with the initial contact with the client. The process of treatment passes through many phases, i.e.,(i) Initial phase, (ii) Motivation and role induction, (iii) primary contract, (iv) diagnosis and assessment, (v) establishing treatment goals, (vi) developing treatment plan, (vii) preparation for actual treatment, (viii) treatment in practice (ix) monitoring and evaluating the effects of treatment, and (x) planning of follow-up termination of therapeutic relationship. I. Initial Phase The main task of social case worker in the initial phase is to examine how the problem was brought to his attention. He would attempt to focus on various aspects of the problem that seem fit to case work treatment. Here the decisions of the worker are tentative. The initial phase of social case work treatment will be thought to be completed when the case worker meets the following conditions. 1. The issues have been sufficiently identified so as to substantiate that they are appropriate to the purposes and goals of the service. 2. The participants understand the nature and meaning of the problem with enough explicitness to permit engagement and participation. 3. The problem is appropriate to the programme, resources, and services of the setting. 4. The problem fits the practitioners skill and capabilities. Social case worker develops a preliminary understanding of the problem and of the client. He also provides psychological support and help to the client and engages him in a therapeutic relationship. It is quite possible that through this initial process of treatment, client may learn that he really does not need further help as the problem has been sufficiently clarified and explained. It is also possible that the agency may not have concrete service to the client and the case worker may become bound to refer the case to the particular agency. If the case is to be continued with the case worker, he takes a decision whether to move system oriented treatment or towards person centered treatment. II. Motivation and Role Induction
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One of the most important tasks of social case worker at the beginning of the treatment process is to build and develop the therapeutic relationship between himself and the client. Workers empathy, warmth and genuineness feelings are high motivating force for the client to take part in the therapeutic process. The objectives of this phase are to the minimizing of premature terminations and enhance motivation to continue the treatment. At this phase the worker find the resistances of the client, and its genuineness. He explores clients perception of why he is involved in the treatment and how he feels about being in the agency. He also encourages the client to specify his expectations of treatment and feelings about seeking help. He attempts to clarify the roles and responsibilities of both himself and the client. He also clarifies about the type of services agency can offer and extends the boundaries to those services. These activities and
role of social case worker help to engage the client in therapeutic planning. III. Primary Contract

The objective of this phase is to develop a preliminary contract with the client. This contract may be oral or in writing. The case worker thus by making psychological contract (relationship) sets the stage to move towards more formal assessment. IV. Diagnosis and Assessment Diagnosis and assessment process are ongoing throughout the entire treatment. Social case worker provides detailed information about the problem situation that will help in establishing the treatment goal, a strategy of treatment and selection of specific procedures of treatment. The case worker assesses the clients ego strength, skillfulness, capabilities and capacities in relation to his problem. He classifies the excesses and the deficiencies in his behavior, and selects the specific treatment procedures to be used to overcome the problem. He assesses whether the client needs advice, counseling, behavior modification, crisis intervention or consultancy services like teaching, consultation, interpretation, supervision or provision of adult services i.e., material help, resource location and referral. V. Establishing Treatment Goals Social case worker after diagnosis and assessment of the problems of the client establishes goals for the solution of the problem. He selects any one or more goals of the following: (i) prevention of breakdown, (ii) ego strengthening, (iii) restoration of social functioning, (iv) creation of opportunities for growth and development, (v) self-direction experience, (vi) social participation experience, (vii) change in the environment. Social case worker along with this work, points out the negative and positive result that may come out due to change in the behavior patterns of the client or due to environmental manipulation. Though the client has the major say in deciding on goals the case worker plays an important role by clarifying a variety of alternative goals for his consideration.

VI. Developing Treatment Plan Treatment planning involves three major dimensions: formulating of a strategy, selection of specific treatment procedures and developing a method for evaluating the impact of the treatment programme.
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Social case worker decides whether the primary thrust of the invention or treatment will be system centered, person centered or both. He, then, makes a judgment as to which of the key roles of case worker are most suited to the particular problem. The entire process of formulating a treatment strategy may be depicted as. VII. Preparation for Actual Treatment Preparation for actual treatment phase involves several specific steps such as collecting all possible information, formation of action system, preparation of mediator (s) if needed, change of significant elements in the clients environment to increase the probability of getting desired result, make an attempt to make the new behaviour acceptable to the client and to provide high level of close relationship with the client. Application of Treatment Methods In order to achieve the goals set by the case worker, conventionally the following methods of social treatment have been mentioned 1. Administration of practical service. 2. Indirect treatment (environmental manipulation) 3. Direct treatment.
1. Administration: The client is extended help to choose and use the social resources

afforded by the community. Porter Lee was the first social worker, who emphasized and classified such resources into executive and leadership. Administration of practical service means to help the client in such a way that he could select and use the resource available in the community. Social case worker helps the client for an adequate knowledge of available resources through the techniques of discussion information. Clarification and direction. The use of services is essential to solve any kind of problem and if the problem is of social nature, then it becomes more essential for the worker to help the client in this direction. These services take the form of treatment as they satisfy his needs and give satisfaction. The client knows the type of services he need but he does not know how to reach these services. It is the job of case worker to take the client to the resources. Money, medical care, nursery schools, scholarships, foster homes, legal aid, recreational facilities, etc., are such type of services that any person may need in order to resolve a given problem in his daily living.
2.

Indirect Treatment (Environmental Manipulation): Environmental manipulation means to bring change in the social conditions of the client so that he may be relived from excessive stresses and strains. The case worker suggests as to what steps may or may not help the client to cope better with hi problems. He plans with him to his emotional, professional and recreational activities. He gives an appropriate advice to members of his environment and modifies their attitudes favorably. Through interview is used in this
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method but the man emphasis is laid to change in his conditions. When social resources and systematized social conditions are used as main sources for the solution of the problem, it becomes social treatment. Home services, camps, group experience activities, training and employment for livelihood and other activities of adjust mental nature are such type of programmes. The purpose of such activities is always to minimize the load of tension in the client. Social case worker organizes such type of activities through which the clients experiences help in his personality growth and adjustment in the society. Through practical services are also made available but his focus is always on change in conditions. Attempts are also make to change and modify the attitude of parents, teachers, spouse, employer, friends and relatives in accordance with the needs of the client. In general, environmental modification (manipulation) is undertaken by the case worker only when environmental pressures upon the client are beyond the latters control but can be modified by the case worker.

3. Direct Treatment: Perlman sees direct treatment a provision of a systematic but flexible

way in which the client can work over his problem, his relation to it and possible solutions. Here case worker exerts his influence directly on the client. Direct treatment techniques are used where the clients needs direction because of his ignorance, anxiety, and weaken of his ego strengths. The degree of influence, the case worker able to exert may depend on the relationship between himself and the client. Direct treatment is given through counseling, therapeutic interviewing, clarification and interpretation leading to an
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insight. Supportive treatment for the direct benefit of the client provided through guidance, externalization of interests, re assurance suggestion, persuasion and advice.

a. Counseling: is a personal help directed toward the solution of a problem which a person

finds that he cannot solve himself and on which he, therefore, seeks the help of a skilled person whose knowledge, experience and general orientation can be brought into play in an attempt to solve the problem. It is a psychological help in which information and clarification are used for making the client aware about the problem. It is always used for some particular purpose like marriage counseling, occupational counseling, family counseling, school counseling, etc. b. Therapeutic Interviewing: Therapeutic interviewing is used where intra psychic conflict is projected to the environmental or neuroses or behaviour disorders are acted out. The purpose of such interviewing is that of psychotherapy which aims towards personality growth in the direction of maturing, competence and self actualization. For the analysis of the unconscious, social case worker applies the techniques of free association, dream interpretation, analysis of resistance and transference. For behaviour modification, social case worker makes use of the techniques of positive enforcement, negative enforcement, positive punishment, negative punishment, systematic desensitization and covert desensitization. Sometimes faulty communication, faulty interaction play basic role in developing maladaptive behaviour. For the improvement case interpersonal relations a correct communication social case worker practices marital and family therapy techniques and transactional analysis.
c. Clarification: it is also a kind of counseling through which clarification of clients himself,

his environment and the public with whom he is associated is made. Social case worker gives such an understanding to the client that he becomes capable of understanding himself, his environment and his social network. Clarification my consist of giving the client information about the environment or people in the environment, which he does not possess and without which he cannot see clearly what steps he ought to take.
d. Interpretation and Insight: Sometimes conflicting feelings and strong emotions lead the

individual to distort reality so seriously or react to it so inappropriately that understanding is impossible without the deeper perception. Social case worker interprets the factors of the problem, related fact, and attitude of client and unconscious feelings in relation to the reality situation. He helps the client to an awareness of his strong projection of his inner needs and his subjective responses upon the outer world. Insight development is always accompanied by some degree of clarification and psychological support.
e. Psychological Support: Psychological support is useful in decreasing tension and guilt,

increasing self confidence, encouraging healthy functioning or a way of functioning that maintains the clients equilibrium and in helping him to build up compensatory strengths and satisfaction. The following help is provided to the client. He encouraged expressing his feelings. Case worker accepts him and his feelings, and shows keen interest in him. He
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clarifies the problem and encourages him to take his own decision. Social case worker, though psychological support does not develop understanding in the client but applies reinforcement for his Ego Strength through the technique of guidance, reassurance, suggestion, persuasion and advice. VIII. Monitoring and Evaluation: Monitoring provides the crucial feedback to case worker and the client regarding whether the treatment programme is succeeding a desired, whether established goals have been achieved, whether modifications in the programme are necessary and whether the client is being helped in real sense. Social case worker evaluates the content of the programme and its effectiveness inner strength gained by the client and success of himself in helping the client. IX. Planning Follow Up and the Termination of Therapeutic Relationship: It is neither wise nor necessary for the termination to be an abrupt one. The frequency and amount of contacts should be gradually decreased. Particularly, the follow- up should be planned on a progressively demising basis, first, perhaps alter two weeks, then a month hence then three months, six month and a year following the termination of the formal programme. THE CONCEPT OF SOCIAL ROLE The term role is used to designate the sum total of the cultural patterns associated with a particular status. It thus includes the attitudes, values and behaviour ascribed by the society to any and all persons occupying this status in so far as it represents overt behaviour. A persons role is a pattern or type of social behavior which seems situation ally appropriate to him in terms of the demands and expectations of those in his group. When a number of interrelated behavioural patterns are clustered around a function, we call this combination a social role. Social role may be defined as the institutional group expectation as to behaviour, attitudes and other attributes for the occupant of a given position in a social system. Every society is composed of familial, educational, economic, political, religious, etc, institutions of ensure the adequate development of each and every member of society. The ensue proper and continuous functioning of these institutions every individual is assigned to fulfill certain obligation. Expectations vary according to the position the individual occupies in a family, a work situation, in a school or in other institutions. Expectations are also being changed according to the changing social system. Normally balance is maintained between the changing expectation of the society and the changing values and capacities of an individual. When there are period of sharp transition either in individuals life cycle as he enters in another role expectations, or modification and sudden changes happen in the social system, a critical imbalance develop between person social equilibrium. In such a situation he is bewildered and confused in understanding his role. If he find position and status in society otherwise he will no longer enjoy the same position is the social system. And because of lowering of social position, he suffers from stresses and strains. When this kind of problem occurs social work may provide services which enable the person to reassume productive membership in the institutionalized group of his society. ROLE CONFLICT
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In complex society the individual needs high level of adaptability to fulfill the numerous roles. He is supposed to perform different type of roles every day. He may feel difficulty in doing so because of the lack of training or knowledge or skill and thus conflict occurs within the person himself. On other occasions conflict occurs when there is refusal or inability to conform to the expectation inherent in status and role. Conflict may also arise when a person has not adequate opportunity to learn the roles. Sudden new situations also bring conflict in the performance of the roles. When a persons feelings and ideal of himself are compatible with each other and with the social reality, and when he is clear about permissions and obligations, his role is a source of gratification and of expansion of his personality. If he feels satisfaction in performing a major role as of father/ mother/ husband, it becomes possible for him to learn or struggle with frustration in other aspects of his life. But when he fails or feels disturbance and barriers in the social outlets, some degree of frustration is experienced by him resulting in self devaluation. THE CONCEPT OF EGO The forces of the human personality are combined in three major functions: (1) the life emerges that seek satisfactory outlets;(2) the check system, automatic or voluntary, that halts, modifies, or rechannels those drives to make their ends acceptable to their owner and his environment; and (3) the organizing and governing operations that control the negotiations and balance within the person himself, as between himself and his physical and social environment the names Freud gave to these are the Id, ego, the super ego. Ego is the sum total of the integrating efforts of the personality, the sum total of all the mechanisms of dealing with conflicts. The functions of ego are four fold; perception of internal subjective wants and needs; perception of external and relevant reality demands and opportunities, integration mediation operations between the two sets of perception towards selection an choosing of means for gratification by the reality principle, planning and/ or management of conscious, voluntary behaviour. From the very beginning of birth to the moment of death every human being is continuously engaged in problem solving work in order to maintain hi stability, and effectiveness to achieve higher status in society. that process of ego functioning by which a person perceives inner or outer reality, reads it mean, an variously adapts, defends, protects, copes, accommodates, treats, renounces, compromises, chooses, grapples and engages himself with his reality that process is the way by which a person feels with his encountered problems, whether those problems are in the nature of pleasure to be gained or unpleasantness to be avoided. Ego qualities are many; among them are abilities of perception (accurate/ distorted), judgment (rational/ irrational, considered/hasty), reality testing (working at things as they are, or, resorting to fantasy), self image (realistic, inflated / denigrated), impulse control (too little, too much), and executants ability (can they do things organize themselves to achieve, persist). In persons with weak or under developed ego, these functions may not be fulfilled satisfactorily and the person may feel incapability in problem solving. The job of the case worker is to deal whose ego functions either are undeveloped or are under the excessive anxiety, strains and conflict. The problem under great stress and strains due to failure of ego functioning uses defense mechanisms consciously or unconsciously to protect the ego. These defenses may be rational or irrational. Irrational defenses are unstable techniques for adjustment as they create more problems. Social case worker analyses other defenses and tries to know how the client perceives
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his current situation, utilizes knowledge gained in past experiences and how he tries to solve his problems. He thus, by studying functioning of the ego, obtains the knowledge of client inner strength, thought process and perceptional insight. On the basis of this knowledge he prepares plan for his treatment or help. DIAGNOSTIC AND FUNCTIONAL SCHOOLS OF SOCIAL CASEWORK The diagnostic school is basically founded on the Freudian Theory of Psycho - analysis. The credit for giving shape to these thoughts in the form of a school goes to Mary Richmond who wrote a first book on social case work i.e., Social Diagnosis in 1917. However, the approach changed drastically as it was influenced by the happening of the world and growth of personality and social therapy. The contributors of this school were Marion Ken worthy (New York School of Social work). Betsey Libbey (Family Society of Philadelphia), Gordon Hamilton, a teacher and writer, others were Bertha Reynolds, Charlotte Towel, Florence Day, Lucille Austin, and Annette Garrett who contributed by their writings and practices. The Diagnostic School is based on the following main foundations. 1. Principles of Diagnosis: Social case work help is based on the understanding of each client individually and his problem. It is essential because it gives a realistic basis for differentiation and gives a base for the improvement of the clients social situation and personal satisfaction and adjustment. In 1922 Marry Richmond pointed out that the case work involved two types of insights, one into the individually and another into the social environment, and two types of action, one through direct action of mind upon mind and another through indirect action in the social environment. The diagnosis is based on the following principles: 1. The diagnostic process consists of a critical scrutiny of a client situation complex and the trouble concerning which help is sought or needed for the purpose of understanding the nature of the difficulty with increasing details and accuracy. 2. Diagnosis is based on the knowledge of the worker about the interplay of social and psychological factors affecting the clients 3. The knowledge of interaction between inner and outer forces influencing the client makes the process of diagnosis helpful and therapeutic. 4. Every problem of the individual should be understood in the light of multiple factors theory. 5. In the initial stage also, relieving of pressure of stresses and strains on the client, helps the case worker to arrive at a proper diagnosis. 6. The initial appraisal of personality and motivations and their significance in the development of clients problem, provides the basis for planning the treatment of the clients problem. 7. For the solution of the problem of the client, it is of utmost importance to gain some knowledge of his current capacity to work and to recognize the motivating forces in his behaviour. 8. The understanding of the psycho dynamics and the pathological symptoms of the personality of the client provides the basis of determining the kind of help that can be appropriately offered. 2. Principles of Treatment: The main objective of the treatment is of alleviating the clients distress and decreasing the malfunctioning in the person situation system. The above objective is achieved by enhancing the adaptive skills of his ego and functioning of the person situation system. It is based on certain principles:
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1. The focus of the discussion in the interview is centered on the problem and ways of resolving it attention is paid to know the obstacles (both situational and behavioral) that stand in the way of solution. 2. Nature and extent of both the social and psychological factors differ in each situation, treatment goals and techniques are planned after the careful study of the particular need of the client. 3. The success of the treatment programme is based on the utilization of the relationship purposefully. 4. Change in the client is brought largely through a correctional emotional experience in the relationship a through stimulating growth experiences in the social reality. 5. Social therapy and psycho therapy are the two broad classifications of social case work treatment 3. Use of Techniques: The treatment objectives determine the use of techniques. They include, within the framework of relationship, encouraging, emotional, discharge, reassurance, support, suggestion guidance and direction, provision of new experiences, clarification interpretation, and so forth. 4. Use of Relationship: The relationship is the medium of treatment through which client is enabled to find new ways to perceiving his problems and of handling himself. It gives the client a sense of being listened, being given importance. The case workers understanding of the dynamics of the relationship makes it possible to provide some gratification, protection, an guidance to the client when his ego need support, and at the same time to help the client marshal strength to meet his life situation.

SOCIAL CASE WORK Unit IV - Process of Social Casework PROCESS OF SOCIAL CASE WORK I. Intake (First Interview) Rapport Building * Client comes to an agency for professional help through a Case worker. * Relationship between two persons of unequal positions and power is developed. * Accept client as a person in a stressful situation. * Respect the clients personality and help him resolve.
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The areas for probing are: 1. The stage of the problem at which the person, through whom, and the reasons because of which, comes to this agency. 2. The nature of request and its relation to his problem, and the cause of his problem, as the client see. 3. Does the request relate directly to his needs/ problems. 4. His adjustment to his social functions in job, family, etc. 5. The state of his physical and mental health. 6. His appearance including dress, etc. in his first meeting. 7. His personal and social resources including material and financial position. 8. Appropriateness and intensity of feelings. 9. Nature of defense mechanisms he frequently uses. 10. Level of motivation, how quickly he wants to get rid of his problems. 11. Nature of family, its status, values, relationship pattern within the family, etc. 12. Reactions to the worker and seeking help from the agency and sex of caseworker who will be suitable to help the person. II. Psycho-Social study (Exploration / Investigation): * Psycho Social study is the initial assessment of clients current, relevant past and possible future modes of adaptation to stressful situations and normal living situations. * Perlman has given the following contents of the case work study: 1. The nature of the presenting problem. 2. The significance of the problem. 3. The cause(s), onset and precipitants of the problem. 4. The efforts made to cope with problem-solving. 5. The nature of the solution or ends sought from the case work agency. 6. The actual nature of the agency and its problem solving means in relation to the client and his problem. * The tools used by the case worker for collecting the relevant information are: 1. Interview guide and schedule. 2. Life chart. 3. Video recording of family interaction. 4. Tape recorded interview. * The Format of Interview Schedule: 1. History of the problem. 2. Personal history. 3. Family history 4. Problematic areas. 5. Treatment Plan.
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III. Psycho - Social diagnosis (Assessment): * Perlman (1957) Diagnosis helps in determining the focus of treatment, further collection of facts and deciding the best course of action to solve the problem. * Social diagnosis is the attempt to arrive at an exact definition as possible of the social situation and personality of a given client. * Diagnosis is concerned with understanding both the psychological or personality factors which bear a causal relation to the clients difficulty and the social or environmental factors which tend to sustain it. * Diagnosis may be viewed as the fluid, constantly changing assessment of the client, their problems, life situations and important relationships. * Content of the Social Diagnosis: 1. The nature of the problem brought and the goals sought by the client, in their relationship to. 2. The nature of the person who bears the problem and who seeks or needs help with the problem, in relation to. 3. The nature and purpose of the agency and the kind of help it can offer and/ or make available. * Process of making diagnosis: (a) Shifting the relevant from irrelevant data (b) Organizing the facts and getting them into relatedness (c) Grasping the way in which the factors fit together (d) Preparing the meaning as a whole. * Types of diagnosis: 1. Clinical: The person is described by the nature of the illness. E.g. schizophrenia, psychopath, typhoid, etc. - Used in medical practice. - Use is minimum is case work practice. - Importance in medical and psychiatry. 2. Etiological: - Tries to delineate the causes and development of presenting difficulty. - History of person. - Limitation - doesnt look into present. 3. Dynamic: - Proper evaluation of the clients current problem as he is experiencing it now. - Role of psychological, biological, social and environmental factors in the causation of the problem. - No attempt to dig life history. - Case worker and client engage in appropriate corrective action or treatment. - These developments may lead to modifications in the goals for treatment. * Data for Diagnosis: 1. Interviews 2. Checklist and Inventories 3. Direct Observation
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* Steps in Diagnosis: 1. The worker begins to focus on problematic behaviors. Both functional and dysfunctional behaviors in the clients environment are surveyed. The clients personal strength as well as of his environment are evaluated. 2. He specifies the target behaviors. Break down complex behaviors into clear and precise component parts. 3. Baseline data are collected to specify those events that appear to be currently controlling the problematic behaviors. 4. The collected information is summarized in an attempt to anticipate any major problem in treatment and as a way of beginning to establish objectives for treatment. 5. Selecting priorities for treatment is the final step of the diagnosis. IV. Intervention / Treatment (Problem-solving process): * Hamilton, Treatment is the sum total of all activities and service directed towards helping an individual with a problem. The focus is relieving of the immediate problem and, if feasible, modifies any basic difficulties which precipitated it. * The objectives of social case work treatment are: 1. To prevent social breakdown. 2. To conserve clients strength. 3. To restore social functioning. 4. To provide happy experiences to the client. 5. To create opportunities for growth and development. 6. To compensate psychological damage. 7. To increase capacity for self-direction. 8. To increase his social contribution. * Methods of Social treatment: 1. Administration of concrete and practical services. E.g. money, medical care, scholarships, legal aid, etc. 2. Indirect treatment (modification of environment, both physical and social). E.g. camps, group experience activities, training programmes, etc. 3. Direct treatment: (a) Counseling marriage, occupational, family, school, etc. (b) Therapeutic Interviewing family and marital therapy. (c) Clarification (d) Interpretation and Insight (e) Psychological support. (f) Resource utilization (g) Environment modification. V. Monitoring and Evaluation:
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* Monitoring provides crucial feedback to case worker and the client regarding 1. Whether the treatment programme is succeeding as desired, 2. Whether established goals have been achieved, 3. Whether modifications in the programme are necessary and 4. Whether the client is being helped in real sense. * The purpose of Evaluation is to see if the efforts of the case worker are yielding any result or not, if the techniques used are serving the purpose, and if the goals are being achieved. * Evaluation is the process of attaching a value to the social work practice. It is the method of knowing what the outcomes are. * It is a continuous process. * Evaluation of the approach used and result should be taken up with the client so that the efforts are meaningfully utilized. * Evaluation will further strengthen the relationship between the caseworker and client and motivate the client to work towards his goal. * Casework practices need to be evaluated from time to time. The subject needs to be tested and researched and most importantly needs ongoing validation. They need to be proved to the public that they are effective and beneficial to the clients. * Casework practice should be subjected to critical review. Workers need to be held accountable for what they do and for their social work competence. Workers need to win approval for their programmes. * They may sometimes have to be told that their services are overlapping and ineffective. * Workers have to enhance their own image and also of the agency to develop public relations. The clients need to give a feedback on the effectiveness of the services. VI. Follow-up and Termination: * At the end, i.e. termination, the worker should discuss the original as well as revised goals and objectives, achievements during the helping period, factors helpful or obstructive in achieving the objectives, and the efforts needed to maintain the level of achievement and the feelings aroused by disengagement. * It is neither wise nor necessary for the termination to be an abrupt one. * It is best to discuss termination and its ramifications (implications) several times before the final interview. * The frequency and amount of contacts should be gradually decreased.
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* Termination of the helping process brings up in both the case worker and client(s) many feelings both positive and negative which must be verbalized and discussed. * Follow-up is done to help client maintain the improvement. * During follow-up, the client is helped to discuss the problems he faces in maintaining the improvement. * Work is done with the people significant for his improved social functioning. * If required, he is referred to the proper source for needed services and help. * The follow-up should be planned on a diminishing basis after two weeks, then a month, then three months, six months and a year following the termination of the formal programme.

COMPONENTS OF CASE WORK: Helen Harris Perlman I. PERSON: * The persons behaviour has this purpose and meaning: to gain satisfactions, to avoid or dissolve frustration and to maintain his balance-in-movement. * Whether a persons behaviour is or is not effective in promoting his well-being depends in large part upon the functioning of his personality structure. * The structure and functioning of personality are the products of inherited and constitutional equipment in continuous interaction with the physical, psychological and social environment the person experiences. A person at any stage of his life not only is a product of nature and nurture but is also and always in process of being in the present and becoming in the future. * The persons being and becoming behaviour is both shaped and judged by the expectations he and his culture have invested in the status social role he carries. * The person who comes as a client to a social agency is always under stress. * To understand human behaviour and individual difference, Grace Mathew has given the following propositions: 1. An individuals behaviour is conditioned by his/her environment and his/her experiences. Behaviour refers to reacting, feeling, thinking, etc. the conditions and influences surrounding the person constitutes the environment. 2. For human growth and development it is essential that certain basic needs should be met. (Maslows hierarchy of needs) 3. Emotional needs are real and they cannot be met or removed through intellectual reasoning. 4. Behaviour is purposeful and is in response to the individuals physical and emotional needs.
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5. Other peoples behaviour can be understood only in terms of ones own emotional and intellectual comprehension. II. PROBLEM: * The problems within the purview of social casework are those which vitally affect or are affected by a persons social functioning. * The multifaceted and dynamic nature of the clients problem makes necessary the selection by caseworker and client some part of it as the unit for work. The choice of problem depends on (1) whether the problem is the clients problem (2) leadership given by case worker depends upon the professional knowledge and judgment and (3) agencys function e.g. hospital, etc. * Problems in any part of a human beings living tend to have chain reactions. ..> cause > effect > cause... * Any problem which a person encounters has both an objective and subjective significance quality and intensity of our feelings. * Not only do the external (objective) and internal (subjective) aspects of the problem co- exist, but either may be the cause of the other. * Whatever the nature of the problem the person brings to social agency; it is always accompanied and often complicated by the problem of being a client. * Problems can be categorized as follows (Grace Mathew): 1. Problems related to illness and disabilities 2. Problems due to lack of material resources. 3. School related problems. 4. Problems related to institutionalization. 5. Behaviour problems. 6. Problems of marital discord. 7. Problem situations needing a follow-up service. 8. Needs related to rehabilitation of people. 9. Clients caught up in social problems like gambling, prostitution, alcoholism, drug addiction and unmarried motherhood. III. PLACE: * The social agency is an organization fashioned to express the will of a society or of some group in that society as to social welfare community decides the need of the agency. * Each social agency develops a program by which to meet the particular areas of need with which it sets out to deal. It depends on factors like money, knowledge and competence of the agency staff, the interest, resources available and support of the community. * The social agency has a structure by which it organizes and delegates its responsibilities and tasks, and governing policies and procedures Hierarchy roles and responsibilities clear, designated and delegated collaboration procedures and policies, understand the usefulness. By which it stabilizes and systematizes its operations. Among workers * The social agency is a living, adaptable organism susceptible to being understood and changed, much as other living organisms. Past, present and future not static and fixed. * Every staff member in an agency speaks and acts for some part of the agencys function, and the case worker represents the agency in its individualized problem solving help. Case worker not an independent professional practitioner case worker speaks and acts for the agency psychologically identified with its purpose and policies
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* The case worker while representing his agency is first and foremost a representative of his profession. must know and be committed with feeling to the philosophy that guides the practice of the social work profession Agency Private e.g. funding agencies and Public e.g. family welfare orgs. * Primary e.g. NGO and Secondary e.g. Hospitals, schools, etc. * Based on functions child welfare, family welfare, education, specialization based. * Also differs based on Source of support, Professional authority, Clientele they serve, Services they offer, Goals of the agency, etc. IV. PROCESS: * In order to understand what the case work process must include in its problem-solving help, it is necessary to take stock first of the kinds of blockings which occur in peoples normal problemsolving efforts. The six are: 1. If necessary tangible means and resources are not available to the person. 2. Out of ignorance or misapprehension about the facts of the problem or the facts of existing ways of meeting it. 3. If the person is depleted or drained of emotional or physical energy. 4. Some problems arouse high feelings in a person emotions so strong that they overpower his reason and defy his conscious controls. 5. Problem may lie within the person; he may have become subject to, or victim of, emotions that chronically, over a long time, have governed his thinking and action. 6. Havent developed systematic habits or orderly method of things and planning. * The intent of the case work process is to engage the person himself both in working on and coping with the one or several problems that confront him and to do so by such means as may stand him in good stead as he goes forward in living. The means are 1. The provision of a therapeutic relationship 2. The provision of a systematic and flexible way and 3. Provision of such opportunities and aids. * All competent problem-solving, as contrasted with trail-and-error method, contains three essential operations. Urgent pressures will often dislodge their sequence, but any conscious effort to move from quandary (difficulty) to solution must involve these modes of action: 1. Study (fact-finding) 2. Diagnosis (thinking about and organizing facts into a meaningful goal-pointed explanation) and 3. Treatment (implementation of conclusions as to what and how of action upon the problem). Finally, for the solution or mitigation of many problems there must exist certain material means or accessible opportunities which are available to the needful person and which he can be helped to use. Kinds of resources that a person may need are money, medical care, nursery schools, scholarships, foster homes, recreation facilities, etc. * Transference: Dewald - Transference is a form of displacement in which the individual unconsciously displaces onto a current object those drives defenses, attitudes, feelings and responses which were experienced or developed in relationship with earlier objects (mainly persons) in the individuals life. - Unconscious attitudes and associated feelings transferred from the past onto the present relationship, usually irrational. - The client transfers these into the present interaction because of some similarity of the actors in the current situation with those he has encountered earlier in life (i.e. childhood).
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- May be positive (love, liking, etc) or negative (irrational, hostile feelings. - Can be tackled by clarification (clarifying reality), interpretation, spacing the interview, etc. * Counter transference: - Social worker also has unconscious tendency to transfer on the client. The job of the case worker to recognize his feelings and must control them. * Types of Transference: - Positive: E.g. Parents have shown to be friendly and helpful, the client will transfer a desire to help, friendship, guidance, emotional support and interest. - Negative: E.g. Parents not shown interest and indifferent, the client will have feelings of unfriendliness, suspicion and distrust. * Uses of Transference (3 stages): 1. Understanding the transference his behaviour, unconscious need of the client. 2. Utilizing the transference integrate past and present experiences and earlier relationships. 3. Interpreting the transference careful analysis of his unconscious defenses.

COUNSELING Counseling is social case work was started by Bertha Reynolds in 1932.counseling is a personal help directed toward the solution of a problem which a person finds that cannot solve himself and on which he therefore. Seeks the help of a skilled person whose knowledge, experience and general orientation can be brought into play in an attempt to solve problem. Counseling is essentially a process in which the counselor assists the counselee to make interpretations of facts relating to a choice, plan or adjustment which he needs to make it is face to face situation in which by reason of training, skill or confidence vested in him by the other, one person helps the second person to face, perceive, clarify, solve, and resole adjustment problem. The process by which the structure of the self is relaxed in the safety of the relationship with the therapist, and previously denied experiences are perceived and then integrated into an altered self is called counseling. It is a warm, permissive, safe, understanding, but limited social relationship within which therapist and patient discuss the effective behaviour of the latter, including his ways of dealing with his emotionally toned needs and the situations that give rise to them.

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Counseling aims at enabling individuals to solve present problems to prepare themselves for future tasks, to attain higher standards of efficiency and well being and to develop personal resources for growth. The Committee on Definition of Division of the American Psychological Association describes the objectives of counseling by stating that the counseling psychologist contributes to the following. (a) The clients realistic acceptance of his own capacities, motivations and self attitude (b)The clients achievement of a reasonable harmony with his social, economic and vocational environmental, and (c) Societys acceptance of individual differences and their implications for community, employment, and marriage relations. Classification is the most important technique of counseling. It is a tool through the client becomes aware of certain attitudes, feelings, reality versus subjective concept and permits him to see himself and his environment in a more objective manner which allows better control of the himself an of situations. Counseling may include the giving of information, explaining a regime and analyzing its issue, and analyzing the steps involved in a course of action. COUNSELING IN CASE WORK Social case worker not only offers financial relief, help in getting work, medical and the like to his clients but in addition to these he also provides counseling help. While the term counseling is used very little in case work circles. It is used here precisely to emphasize the fact that in giving the client an opportunity to release his feelings, to find new solutions to his adjustment problems. The case worker is utilizing the same process as the one used by the other professional individual described. Social case worker in all settings gives much emphasis on the process of counseling for realizing services are burden i.e., anxiety and strains.
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Mostly counseling services are rendered, sanatoria, prisons, welfare agencies of different types, family welfare centers, etc, Counseling is provided to the clients under the following conditions: 1. The individual is under a degree of tension, arising from incompatible describe or from the conflict of social and environmental demands with individual needs. The tension and stress so created are greater than the stress involved in expressing his feelings about his problems. 2. The individual has some capacity to cope with life. He possesses adequate ability and stability to exercise some control over the element of hi situation. The circumstances with which he is faced are not so adverse or so unchangeable as to make it impossible for him to control or alter them. 3. There is opportunity for the individual to express his conflicting tensions in planned contacts with the counselor. 4. He is able to express these tensions and conflicts either verbally or through other media. A conscious desire for help is advantageous, but not entirely necessary. 5. He is reasonably independent either emotionally or spatially, of close family control. 6. He is reasonably free from excessive instabilities, particularly of an organic nature. 7. He possess an adequate intelligence for coping with his life situations, with an intelligence rating of dull, normal or above

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8. He is of suitable age old enough of deal somewhat independently with life, young enough to retain some elastically of adjustment. In terms of chronological age this might mean roughly from ten to sixty. SIMILARITIES BETWEEN CASE WORK AND COUNSELLING Counseling is one technique of a social case work which is used to prepare the client to participate in the treatment plan. These are: 1. Both have the same objective: The purpose of social case work is to help an individual client to solve his psycho- social problems in such a way so that he finds himself capable of dealing with these problems at present and also may solve in future if such problems arise. Counseling aims at enabling individuals to solve the present problems, to prepare themselves for future tasks and to attain a higher degree of efficiency in dealing with his problems. 2. Both deals with the same Type of Clients: The client is a man, woman, or child, anyone who finds himself, or is found to be, in need of helping some aspect of his social emotional living, whether the need be for tangible provisions or council. 3. Both deals with the Same Type of Problems: The problems within the purview of social case work are those which vitally affect or are affected by persons social functioning. The client of the case worker sees his problems as lying in some interacting relationship between himself an some other persons or between himself and his environment. Help is provided to the client for some readjustment of the self in relation to the demands and expectations of the social role he plays. Help is also directed to the readjustment of some parts of his social environment. If the client finds that his inner problems exert such pressure over his problems of social functioning, he may need counseling. 4. The effectiveness of Both Depends on Relationship: The relationship is the medium in case work as well as in counseling through which help is provided to the client. It is the channel of the entire case work process and counseling process through which the mobilization of the capacities of the client becomes possible. It plans throughout in interviewing, study, diagnosis and treatment. 5. Both believe in worth and dignity of the individual: Case work and counseling treat the client as an individual who has right to get help and reorganize as a person of worth and dignity. He has every right to make hi choice and decisions himself. 6. Both have common Principles: Social case work and counseling, both believe in the individualization of all clients irrespective of their similarities in the problems. Both accept the client as he is and provide opportunities for self expression. Case worker and counselor do not give their own judgment to the clients. Client has every right to determine his own path for his easy recovery from malfunctioning. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CASE WORK AND COUNSELING
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1. In counseling, help is provided to the client without social service whereas the main base of help in social case work is social service. 2. Agency is not essentially required in counseling but social case work is always practiced in an agency. 3. Concrete help is not provided in counseling. Counselor and client talk together on the problem but in social case work concrete services is rendered along with oral discussion. 4. Counselor is concerned most of the time with one type of problem as there as various counseling agencies but in case work client is studied and understood as a whole. 5. Social case work gives an emphasis on activity but in counseling, the client is enabled to understand his problems. 6. In counseling, an emphasis is laid on the problem, not the person concerned but in social case work the emphasis is basically on client and the type of service to be provided. 7. Counseling is self dependent in his counseling but case work services are provided through agency.

PROCESS OF SOCIAL CASE WORK

I.

Intake (First Interview): Rapport Building Client comes to an agency for professional help through a Case worker. Relationship between two persons of unequal positions and power is developed. Accept client as a person in a stressful situation Respect the clients personality and help him resolve. The areas for probing are: 1. The stage of the problem at which the person, through whom, and the reasons because of which, comes to this agency. 2. The nature of request and its relation to his problem, and the cause of his problem, as the client see. 3. Does the request relate directly to his needs/ problems. 4. His adjustment to his social functions in job, family, etc. 5. The state of his physical and mental health. 6. His appearance including dress, etc. in his first meeting. 7. His personal and social resources including material and financial position. 8. Appropriateness and intensity of feelings. 9. Nature of defense mechanisms he frequently uses. 10. Level of motivation, how quickly he wants to get rid of his problems. 11. Nature of family, its status, values, relationship pattern within the family, etc. 12. R e a c t i o n s t o t h e w o r k e r a n d s e e k i n g h e l p f r o m t h e a g e n c y a n d s e x o f caseworker who will be suitable to help the person.

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II. Psycho-Social study (Exploration / Investigation): Psycho Social study is the initial assessment of clients current, relevant past and possible future modes of adaptation to stressful situations and normal living situations. Perlman has given the following contents of the case work study: 1. The nature of the presenting problem 2. The significance of the problem. 3. The cause(s), onset and precipitants of the problem. 4. The efforts made to cope with problem-solving. 5. The nature of the solution or ends sought from the case work agency. 6. The actual nature of the agency and its problem solving means in relation to the client and his problem. The tools used by the case worker for collecting the relevant information are: 1. Interview guide and schedule. 2. Life chart. 3. Video recording of family interaction. 4. Tape recorded interview. The Format of Interview Schedule: 1. History of the problem. 2. Personal history. 3. Family history. 4. Problematic areas. 5. Treatment Plan.
II. Psycho - Social diagnosis (Assessment):

Perlman (1957) Diagnosis helps in determining the focus of treatment, further collection of facts and deciding the best course of action to solve the problem. Social diagnosis is the attempt to arrive at an exact definition as possible of the social situation and personality of a given client. Diagnosis is concerned with understanding both the psychological or personality factors which bear a causal relation to the clients difficulty and the social or environmental factors which tend to sustain it. Diagnosis may be viewed as the fluid, constantly changing assessment of the client, their problems, life situations and important relationships. Content of the Social Diagnosis: 1. The nature of the problem brought and the goals sought by the client, in their relationship to. 2. The nature of the person who bears the problem and who seeks or needs help with the problem, in relation to.
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3. The nature and purpose of the agency and the kind of help it can offer and/ or make available. Process of making diagnosis: (a) Shifting the relevant from irrelevant data. (b) Organizing the facts and getting them into relatedness. (c) Grasping the way in which the factors fit together. (d) Preparing the meaning as a whole. Types of diagnosis: 1. Clinical: - The person is described by the nature of the illness. E.g. schizophrenia, psychopath, typhoid, etc. - Used in medical practice. - Use is minimum is case work practice. - Importance in medical and psychiatry. 2. Etiological: - Tries to delineate the causes and development of presenting difficulty. - History of person. - Limitation - doesnt look into present. 3. Dynamic: - Proper evaluation of the clients current problem as he is experiencing it now. - Role of psychological, biological, social and environmental factors in the causation of the problem. - No attempt to dig life history. - Case worker and client engage in appropriate corrective action or treatment. - These developments may lead to modifications in the goals for treatment. Data for Diagnosis: 1. Interviews 2. Checklist and Inventories. 3. Direct Observation. Steps in Diagnosis: 1. The worker begins to focus on problematic behaviors. Both functional a n d dysfunctional behaviors in the clients environment are surveyed. The clients personal strength as well as of his environment are evaluated. 2. He specifies the target behaviors. Break down complex behaviors into clear and precise component parts. 3. Baseline data are collected to specify those events that appear to be currently controlling the problematic behaviors.
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4. The collected information is summarized in an attempt to anticipate any major problem in treatment and as a way of beginning to establish objectives for treatment. 5. Selecting priorities for treatment is the final step of the diagnosis.
III.

Intervention / Treatment (Problem-solving process): Hamilton, Treatment is the sum total of all activities and service d i r e c t e d t o w a r d s helping an individual with a problem. The focus is relieving of the immediate problem and, if feasible, modifies any basic difficulties which precipitated it.

The objectives of social case work treatment are: 1. To prevent social breakdown. 2. To conserve clients strength. 3. To restore social functioning. 4. To provide happy experiences to the client. 5. To create opportunities for growth and development. 6. To compensate psychological damage. 7. To increase capacity for self-direction. 8. To increase his social contribution.

Methods of Social treatment: 1. Administration of concrete and practical services. E.g. money, medical care, scholarships, legal aid, etc. 2. Indirect treatment (modification of environment, both physical and social). E.g. camps, group experience activities, training programmes, etc. 3. Direct treatment: (a) Counseling marriage, occupational, family, school, etc. (b) Therapeutic Interviewing family and marital therapy. (c) Clarification. (d) Interpretation and Insight. (e) Psychological support.
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(f) Resource utilization. (g) Environment modification.

IV.

Monitoring and Evaluation: Monitoring provides crucial feedback to case worker and the client regarding

1. Whether the treatment programme is succeeding as desired, 2. Whether established goals have been achieved, 3. Whether modifications in the programme are necessary and. 4. Whether the client is being helped in real sense. The purpose of Evaluation is to see if the efforts of the case worker are yielding any result or not, if the techniques used are serving the purpose, and if the goals are being achieved. Evaluation is the process of attaching a value to the social work practice. It is the method of knowing what the outcomes are. It is a continuous process. Evaluation of the approach used and result should be taken up with the client so that the efforts are meaningfully utilized. Evaluation will further strengthen the relationship between the caseworker and client and motivate the client to work towards his goal. Casework practices need to be evaluated from time to time. The subject needs to be tested and researched and most importantly needs ongoing validation. They need to be proved to the public that they are effective and beneficial to the clients. Casework practice should be subjected to critical review. Workers need to be held accountable for what they do and for their social work competence. Workers need to win approval for their programmes. T h e y m a y s o m e t i m e s h a v e t o b e t o l d t h a t t h e i r s e r v i c e s a r e o v e r l a p p i n g a n d ineffective.Workers have to enhance their own image and also of the agency to develop public relations. The clients need to give a feedback on the effectiveness of the services.

V.

Follow-up and Termination: At the end, i.e. termination, the worker should discuss the original as well as revised goals and objectives, achievements during the helping period, factors helpful or obstructive in achieving the objectives, and the efforts needed to maintain the level of achievement and the feelings aroused by disengagement. It is neither wise nor necessary for the termination to be an abrupt one. It is best to discuss termination and its ramifications (implications) several times before the final interview. The frequency and amount of contacts should be gradually decreased. Termination of the helping process brings up in both the case worker and client(s) m a n y f e e l i n g s b o t h p o s i t i v e a n d n e g a t i v e w h i c h m u s t b e v e r b a l i z e d a n d discussed.Follow-up is done to help client maintain the improvement. During follow-up, the client is helped to discuss the problems he faces in maintaining the improvement. Work is done with the people significant for his improved social functioning. If required, he is referred to the proper source for needed services and help.
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The follow-up should be planned on a diminishing basis after two weeks, then a month, then three months, six months and a year following the termination of the formal programme.

Causes of Human Problems as conceived by Social Case Workers Problems of social functioning cause distress to the individuals who come voluntarily or involuntarily to a social work agency for help. What is important to note here is that these individuals are not to be considered as one of a mass of people or a unit of a category, but as unique persons. Casework method in social work is an indication of the high value placed on the individual by the profession. Those people who seek social work help for their problems of living do so because their normal coping methods are not effective in dealing with the particular problems. There are reasons why individuals find their normal coping patterns ineffective in the face of some problems. These reasons may be broadly divided into five categories: 1. Lack of material resources: Social work agencies do not have financial resources to give assistance to people who seek material help. But, when, lack of money makes it difficult for an individual to deal with a particular situation effectively, it is likely that he can obtain financial help through the services of a caseworker, depending upon the nature of the situation and the policy of the agency. For example, it is possible for an amputee who is poor and who is a patient in a general hospital to get monetary help through the social work department of the hospital for buying artificial limbs. 2. Misconceptions about situations and relationships and lack of appropriate information: Wrong notions about things prevent people from handling difficult situations effectively. Many people have superstitious beliefs about diseases which prevent them from taking prompt medical treatment which can cure the disease. For example, if a man believes that his child's epileptic fits are caused by the possession of a devil, he is likely to try remedies which will worsen the condition. Sometimes it is ignorance of existing services and resources which delays action. Help is required to correct distorted perceptions and for obtaining essential information.
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3. Illness or health related handicaps: Physical and mental illness and health related handicaps of various types make people helpless or irrational in the face of difficulties. For instance, when in a family the father is ill, the mother will have to bear extra burden and face problems alone for which she may require outside help. The patient and his family may need help to accept the illness of the former and to make realistic plans for the present and future. 4. Emotional distress resulting from stressful situations: In certain situations strong feelings are aroused which make a person incapable of acting sensibly. For instance, when a father comes to know of his adolescent son's delinquent activities he may feel so upset and ashamed that he may want to throw the boy out of the house and to sever all his connections with him. In such situations the emotionally upset person needs someone to whom he can verbalize his feelings freely. Verbalization will reduce the need to act out irrationally and set the mind clear for objective thinking. 5. Personality features or deficiencies: Defective features of one's personality not only create problematic situations for one and others but also make one incapable of solving problems of life. If a little girl is brought up by her mother in the strong belief that her father who deserted the family was a bad man and that all men are likewise bad, it is probable that the girl will have a difficult relationship with her husband when she later marries. The generalized wrong idea may get deeply implanted in the daughters personality during childhood and she may not be even aware of it as she grows into adulthood. There are innumerable problems of this type effecting human relationships, caused by unhealthy attitudes and reactions which are deeply embedded in the personality. Here, the remedy lies in helping the persons concerned to develop insight about their own reactions and learn to act consciously and appropriately rather than react automatically to situations. Objectives of Social Case Work: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. To make good rapport with the common people. To find-out, understand & solve the internal problems of an individual. To strengthen ones ego power. To prevent problem. To develop internal resources

Nature & Characteristics of Case Work: 1. Relationships arise out of shared & emotionally charged situation. 2. Relationship contains elements of acceptance, expectation, support & stimulation. 3. Client & case worker are interdependent. 4. Case work relationship may have several therapeutic values. 5. Improvement of condition. 6. More adjustment within the society. 7. Development of personality. 8. Capacity building. 9. Relationship needs outside help. 10. Case worker too has relationship reactions and part of and part of ones professional skills in their management.
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Components/elements of case work:

Purpose & concern for the client system: A purpose to find-out internal problems & try to solve it and a concern to make good rapport, feel ones feelings and aims at individualized service. Expectation at three levels: -Expectation of the case worker from the client, how the case worker feels about the clients ability & what extend client support anybody. -Expectation of the client from the Case worker -Positive result in the period of interaction. Accuracy of Empathy and clear communication: - Think positively in others point of view- What extent you are sympathetic. - Ability to perceive & communicate accurately & feel- Case worker should be sensitive to express feelings towards client by voice, posture and good communication. Non Possessive warmth: Give respect, acceptance, liking, caring and concern for the client in a non-dominating way. Genuineness and acceptance: Case worker mist be practical in nature. He must be a person of genuineness being real, honest in their approach and never go beyond her/his limit. Authority: Case worker must have a capacity to handle any situation, being resourceful and helpful Having knowledge, attitude, experience and a position to identify and solve internal problem of client

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