Sociology-Anthropology

LECTURE NOTES 2

Comte, Auguste (1798-1857) 1.) the theological - man views nature as having a will of its own. This stage also contains three stages. (i) animism: objects have their own will, (ii) polytheism: divine wills impose themselves on objects and (iii) monotheism: the will of God imposes itself on objects. (2) metaphysical - thought substitutes abstractions for a personal will. Here, causes and forces replace desires. The world is one great entity in which Nature prevails. (3) positive - the search for absolute knowledge, the first cause, is abandoned. In such a scheme, each stage corresponds to a specific form of mental development. There is also a corresponding material development. Excerpt from Positive Philosophy (1830-42) http://www.faculty.fairfield.edu/faculty/hodgson/Courses/so11/frameworks/lecture2.htm "The Positive Philosophy offers the only solid basis for that Social Reorganization which must succeed the critical condition in which the most civilized nations are now living.... It alone has been advancing during a course of centuries throughout which the others have been declining. The fact is incontestable. Some may deplore it, but none can destroy it, nor therefore neglect it but under penalty of being betrayed by illusory speculations. This general revolution of the human mind is nearly accomplished. We have only to complete the Positive Philosophy by bringing Social phenomena within its comprehension, and afterward consolidating the whole into one body of homogeneous doctrine. The marked preference which almost all minds, from the highest to the commonest, accord to positive knowledge over vague and mystical conceptions, is a pledge of what the reception of this philosophy will be when it has acquired the only quality that it now wantsa character of due generality. When it has become complete, its supremacy will take place spontaneously. and will re-establish order throughout society." click for more... [Law of human progress.] From the study of the development of human intelligence, in all directions, and through all times, the discovery arises of a great fundamental law, to which it is necessarily subject, and which has a solid foundation of proof, both in the facts of our organization and in our historical experience. The law is this:that each of our leading conceptions each branch of our knowledgepasses successively through three different theoretical conditions:: the Theological, or fictitious; the Metaphysical, or abstract; and the Scientific, or positive. In other words, the human mind, by its nature, employs in its progress three methods of philosophizing, the character of which is essentially different, and even radically opposed: viz., the theological method, the metaphysical, and the positive. Hence arise three philosophies, or general systems of conceptions on the aggregate of phenomena, [26] each of which excludes the others. The first is the necessary point

of departure of the human understanding; and the third is its fixed and definite state. The second is merely a state of transition. {First Stage} In the theological state, the human mind, seeking the essential nature of beings. the first and final causes (the origin and purpose) of all effectsin short, Absolute knowledgesupposes all phenomena to be produced by the immediate action of supernatural beings. {Second Stage} In the metaphysical state, which is only a modification of the first, the mind supposes, instead of supernatural beings, abstract forces, veritable entities (that is, personified abstractions) inherent in all beings, and capable of producing all phenomena. What is called the explanation of phenomena is, in this stage, a mere reference of each to its proper entity. {Third Stage.} In the final, the positive state, the mind has given over the vain search after Absolute notions, the origin and destination of the universe, and the causes of phenomena, and applies itself to the study of their lawsthat is, their invariable relations of succession and resemblance. Reasoning and observation, duly combined, are the means of this knowledge. What is now understood when we speak of an explanation of facts is simply the establishment of a connection between single phenomena and some general facts, the number of which continually diminishes with the progress of science. Spencer, Herbert (1820-1903), http://www.faculty.fairfield.edu/faculty/hodgson/Courses/so11/frameworks/fpintro.html Excerpt from The Principles of Sociology, Vol. 1 (1876) " Society is an organism... It undergoes continuous growth; as it grows, its parts, becoming unlike, exhibit increase of structure; the unlike parts simultaneously assume activities of unlike kinds; these activities are not simply different, but their differences are so related as to make one another possible; the reciprocal aid thus given causes mutual dependence of the parts; and the mutually dependent parts, living by and for one another, form an aggregate constituted on the same general principle as an individual organism. The analogy of a society to an organism becomes still clearer on learning that every organism of appreciable size is a society; and on further learning that in both, the lives of the units continue for some time if the life of the aggregate is suddenly arrested, while if the aggregate is not destroyed by violence its life greatly exceeds in duration the lives of its units. Though the two are contrasted as respectively discrete and concrete, and though there results a difference in the ends subserved by the organization,

there does not result a difference in the laws of the organization: the required mutual influences of the parts, not transmissible in a direct way, being transmitted in an indirect way. Durkheim, mile (1858-1917) http://durkheim.itgo.com/suicide.html definition of suicide: "the term suicide is applied to all cases of death resulting directly or indirectly from a positive or negative act of the victim himself, which he knows will produce this result" (1982, p. 110 [excerpt from Suicide]). Durkheim used this definition to separate true suicides from accidental deaths. Egoisitic suicide resulted from too little social integration. Those individuals who were not sufficiently bound to social groups (and therefore well-defined values, traditions, norms, and goals) were left with little social support or guidance, and therefore tended to commit suicide on an increased basis. An example Durkheim discovered was that of unmarried people, particularly males, who, with less to bind and connect them to stable social norms and goals, committed suicide at higher rates than unmarried people. The second type, Altruistic suicide, was a result of too much integration. It occurred at the opposite end of the integration scale as egoistic suicide. Self sacrifice was the defining trait, where individuals were so integrated into social groups that they lost sight of their individuality and became willing to sacrifice themselves to the group's interests, even if that sacrifice was their own life. The most common cases of altruistic suicide occurred among members of the military. On the second scale, that of moral regulation, lies the other two forms of suicide, the first of which is Anomic suicide, located on the low end. Anomic suicide was of particular interest to Durkheim, for he divided it into four categories: acute and chronic economic anomie, and acute and chronic domestic anomie. Each involved an imbalance of means and needs, where means were unable to fulfill needs. Each category of anomic suicide can be described briefly as follows:

Acute economic anomie: sporadic decreases in the ability of traditional institutions (such as religion, guilds, pre-industrial social systems, etc.) to regulate and fulfill social needs. Chronic economic anomie: long term dimunition of social regulation. Durkheim identified this type with the ongoing industrial revolution, which eroded traditional social regulators and often failed to replace them. Industrial goals of wealth and property were insufficient in providing happiness, as was demonstrated by higher suicide rates among the wealthy than among the poor. Acute domestic anomie: sudden changes on the microsocial level resulted in an inability to adapt and therefore higher suicide rates. Widowhood is a prime example of this type of anomie.

Chronic domestic anomie: referred to the way marriage as an institution regulated the sexual and behavioral means-needs balance among men and women. Marriage provided different regulations for each, however. Bachelors tended to commit suicide at higher rates than married men because of a lack of regulation and established goals and expectations. On the other hand, marriage has traditionally served to overregulate the lives of women by further restricting their already limited opportunities and goals. Unmarried women, therefore, do not experience chronic domestic anomie nearly as often as do unmarried men.

The final type of suicide is Fatalistic suicide, "at the high extreme of the regulation continuum" (1982, p. 113). This type Durkheim only briefly describes, seeing it as a rare phenomena in the real world. Examples include those with overregulated, unrewarding lives such as slaves, childless married women, and young husbands. Durkheim never specifies why this type is generally unimportant in his study. Durkheim felt that his empirical study of suicide had discovered the structural forces that caused anomie and egoism, and these forces were natural results of the decline of mechanical solidarity and the slow rise of organic solidarity due to the division of labor and industrialism. Also of importance was Durkheim's discovery that these forces affected all social classes. This is where the true sociological value of Suicide emerges. Because social forces that affect human behavior are the result of previous human actions, it is the role of sociology to expose and understand these actions as the foundations of societal structure. These structural phenomena are at the root of human society, and through scientific, statistical methods -- integrated with informed theory and educated conjecture -- the function of these structures can be comprehended. In other words, Suicide is a vital work because it is the first effective combination of sociological theory and empiricism to explain a social phenomenon. Two types of Societal solidarity a) Mechanical commonness; similar tasks b) Organic different tasks; division of labor http://durkheim.itgo.com/solidarity.html "Social life comes from a double source, the likeness of consciences and the division of social labor." (Durkheim, 1933, p.226) Mechanical Solidarity - Social cohesion based upon the likeness and similarities among individuals in a society, and largely dependent on common rituals and routines. Common among prehistoric and pre-agricultural societies, and lessens in predominance as modernity increases.

Organic Solidarity - Social cohesion based upon the dependence individuals in more advanced society have on each other. Common among industrial societies as the division of labor increases. Though individuals perform different tasks and often have different values and interests, the order and very survival of society depends on their reliance on each other to perform their specific task. Karl Marx (1818-1883)
http://www.geocities.com/youth4sa/marxism1.html

Excerpt from The Communist Manifesto (1848): "The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles. Freeman and slave, patrician and plebian, lord and serf, guild-master and journeyman, in a word, oppressor and oppressed, stood in constant opposition to one another, carried on an uninterrupted, now hidden, now open fight, a fight that each time ended, either in a revolutionary reconstitution of society at large, or in the common ruin of the contending classes.... It is high time that Communists should openly, in the face of the whole world, publish their views, their aims, their tendencies, and meet this nursery tale of the spectre of communism with a manifesto of the party itself.... In short, the Communists everywhere support every revolutionary movement against the existing social and political order of things. In all these movements, they bring to the front, as the leading question in each, the property question, no matter what its degree of development at the time. Finally, they labor everywhere for the union and agreement of the democratic parties of all countries. The Communists disdain to conceal their views and aims. They openly declare that their ends can be attained only by the forcible overthrow of all existing social conditions. Let the ruling classes tremble at a communist revolution. The proletarians have nothing to lose but their chains. They have a world to win. Working men of all countries, unite!" Dialectical materialism Lenin put it most simply and clearly when he said: The essence of the dialectic "is the cognition of the one and its division into antagonistic parts." That is the dialectical law of the unity of opposites. Or as Trotsky put it, the evolution of all things "proceeds through the struggle of antagonistic forces; that [is] a slow accumulation of changes at a certain moment explodes the old shell and brings about a catastrophe, revolution ..."

Max Weber http://www2.pfeiffer.edu/~lridener/DSS/Weber/BUREAU.HTML I: Characteristics of Bureaucracy I. There is the principle of fixed and official jurisdictional areas, which are generally ordered by rules, that is, by laws or administrative regulations. 1. The regular activities required for the purposes of the bureaucratically governed structure are distributed in a fixed way as official duties. 2. The authority to give the commands required for the discharge of these duties is distributed in a stable way and is strictly delimited by rules concerning the coercive means, physical, sacerdotal, or otherwise, which may be placed at the disposal of officials. 3. Methodical provision is made for the regular and continuous fulfilment of these duties and for the execution of the corresponding rights; only persons who have the generally regulated qualifications to serve are employed. In public and lawful government these three elements constitute 'bureaucratic authority.' In private economic domination, they constitute bureaucratic 'management.' Bureaucracy, thus understood, is fully developed in political and ecclesiastical communities only in the modern state, and, in the private economy, only in the most advanced institutions of capitalism. Permanent and public office authority, with fixed jurisdiction, is not the historical rule but rather the exception. This is so even in large political structures such as those of the ancient Orient, the Germanic and Mongolian empires of conquest, or of many feudal structures of state. In all these cases, the ruler executes the most important measures through personal trustees, tablecompanions, or court-servants. Their commissions and authority are not precisely delimited and are temporarily called into being for each case.

Types of Authority Weber distinguished three main modes of claiming legitimacy. Authority may be based on rational grounds and anchored in impersonal rules that have been legally enacted or contractually established. This type is rational-legal authority, which has increasingly come to characterize hierarchical relations in modern society. Traditional authority, on the other hand, which predominates in pre-modern societies, is based on belief in the sanctity of tradition, of "the eternal yesterday." It is not codified in impersonal rules but inheres in particular persons who may either inherit it or be invested with it by a higher authority. Charismatic authority, finally, rests on the appeal of leaders who claim allegiance because of their extraordinary virtuosity, whether ethical, heroic, or religious. From Coser, 1977:226-227.

FERDINAND TONNIES The German sociologist Ferdinand Tonnies (1855-1936) was a major contributor to theory and field studies in sociology. [1] He is best remembered for his distinction between two basic types of social groups. [2] Tonnies argued that there are two basic forms of human will: the essential will, which is the underlying, organic, or instinctive driving force; and arbitrary will, which is deliberative, purposive, and future (goal) oriented. Groups that form around essential will, in which membership is self-fulfilling, Tonnies called Gemeinschaft (often translated as community). Groups in which membership was sustained by some instrumental goal or definite end he termed Gesellschaft (often translated as society). Gemeinschaft was exemplified by the family or neighborhood; Gesellschaft, by the city or the state. [3]

Georg Simmel http://uregina.ca/~gingrich/simmel.htm "For Simmel, society is made up of the interactions between and among individuals, and the sociologist should study the patterns and forms of these associations, rather than quest after social laws." (Farganis, p. 133). This emphasis on social interaction at the individual and small group level, and viewing the study of these interactions as the primary task of sociology makes Simmel's approach different from that of the classical writers, especially Marx and Durkheim. It is Simmel's attempt to integrate analysis of individual action with the structural approach that make his writings of contemporary interest. Simmel began his inquiries from the bottom up, observing the smallest of social interactions and attempting to see how larger-scale institutions emerged from them. In doing so, he often noticed phenomena that other theorists missed. For example, Simmel observed that the number of parties to an interaction can effect its nature. The interaction between two people, a dyad, will be very different from that which is possible in a three-party relationship, or triad. (Farganis, p. 133) As the group grows in numbers and extends itself spatially, "the group's direct, inner unity loosens, and the rigidity of the original demarcation against others is softened through mutual relations and connections." (Farganis, p. 140). This implies much greater possibility of individual freedom and flexibility, with the common culture and form of association greatly weakened.

Philosophy of Money. Simmel's major work concerns money and the social meaning of money. In this book Simmel is concerned with large social issues, and this book can be thought of as on a par with The Division of Labour of Durkheim, although not as extensive and thorough as Marx's Capital or Weber's Economy and Society. In this book, Simmel is concerned with money

as a symbol, and what some of the effects of this are for people and society. In modern society, money becomes an impersonal or objectified measure of value. This implies impersonal, rational ties among people that are institutionalized in the money form. For example, relations of domination and subordination become quantitative relationships of more and less money -impersonal and measurable in a rational manner. The use of money distances individuals from objects and also provides the means of overcoming this distance. The use of money allows much greater flexibility for individuals in society -- to travel greater distances and to overcome personto-person limitations. Simmel thus suggests that the spread of the money form gives individuals a freedom of sorts by permitting them to exercise the kind of individualized control over "impression management" that was not possible in traditional societies. ... ascribed identities have been discarded. Even strangers become familiar and knowable identities insofar as they are willing to use a common but impersonal means of exchange. (Ashley and Orenstein, p. 326) Sir Edward Burnett Tylor (1832-1917) http://courses.smsu.edu/waw105f/Tylor2000.htm Considered to be the father (or founder) of anthropology (which was sometimes called Mr. Tylors science in his day) Defined culture as that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society.

Believed we could reconstruct the past through the study of survivals--fossilized forms of behavior carried over from earlier stages of development He believed that prehistoric peoples developed the idea of soul as a rational explanation for the natural experiences of sleep, dreaming, sickness, and death He identified animism--the belief in souls--as the first stage in the evolution of religion, which then progressed from polytheism to monotheism. Tylor believed that people were essentially rational and learned from their experiences; this led to the progress of societies or evolution. To Tylor, the purpose of anthropology was to reconstruct the evolution of culture, from primitive beginnings to the modern state He sought to reconstruct cultural evolution through the use of the comparative method, which involved identifying contemporary societies as survivals of past stages of development

William Graham Sumner, (1840-1910) http://cepa.newschool.edu/het/profiles/sumner.htm "the value of anything is not what you paid for, not what it cost to produce, but what you can get for it at an auction." -He opposed any governmental interference in the free-market economy, whether in the form of tariffs to help business or anti-trust laws to restrain them.

Alfred Radcliffe-Brown (1881-1955, Britain) http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/cultural/anthropology/Radcliffe-Brown.html Alfred Radcliffe-Brown is credited with Structural Functionalism, which analyzes particular social systems in a wider context of many different societies. Radcliffe-Brown was concerned with what keeps societies from falling apart. He identified similar customs in different societies and compared them in order to discover the customs inherent functions. Through this comparative method, he attempted to explain underlying principles that preserve the structure of each society. Friedrich Engels (1820-1895) The book of Engels (the origin) was published at Hottingen-Zurich in 1884 which contained Marxs numerous remarks on Morgan. It focuses on early human history, following the disintegration of primitive community and the emergence of a class society based on private property. He also looked into the origin and essence of the state and concludes it is bound to wither away leaving a classless society. Thorstein Veblen http://www.oklahoma.net/~twiggz/r_leisureclass.html The Theory of the Leisure Class (1899) First the creation of the leisure class, or a class that is exempt from industiral labor, is explained, and is followed through the stages of societal development. We follow the change from a meritous rise to the leisure class in primative society-- due to a person's prowess at animistic, aggressive activity, such as hunting-- to the view that the status itself is the merit, not the reward for merit. Conspicuous leisure and conspicuous consumption become the badge of the 9

gentleman, who must prove his worth by showing to the community that he has no need to participate in labor. Labor becomes vulgar, the purview of lower classes. The leisure class provides evidence of their superiority by conspicuous waste.

Bronislaw Malinowski (1884-1942) http://www.vanderbilt.edu/AnS/Anthro/Anth206/malinowski.htm compelled anthropology out of the armchair advocated participant observation, learning the language--the modern methods of ethnography

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PITIRIM ALEXANDROVICH SOROKIN: (1889-1968) http://www.criminology.fsu.edu/crimtheory/sorokin.htm Sorokin saw laws and societies as operating with two tensions, mirrored in the individuals. The ideational is drawn from sacred or higher law and the sensate deals with more earthy motivations. The norms of the ideational system are above such considerations as pleasure or utility, crime and sin being synonymous. Punishments range from supernatural (excommunication) to the physical and are rigid and inflexible. Authority comes from above and filters downward through the state (Sorokin, 1992: 121-127). Sensate law is an instrument of subjugation, which is totally utilitarian and aimed at security of human life, property and possessions. This is a secular system, and non-utilitarian functions are avoided. A society can move back and forth between these poles, as can individuals in societies under stress. Punishments and rules are based on selfish interest and avoidance of pain (Sorokin, 1992: 121-127).

Ideational abstract or religious way of understanding reality Sensate role of senses in understanding reality Idealistic balance of both in dialectical relation

Parson's Social System (Structural Functionalists)

http://faculty.babson.edu/krollag/org_site/encyclop/parsons.html Action Systems Parsons developed an analysis of psychology, economics, politics, sociology, and all social science, although much of this was never completed. For Parsons, there are many systems or action systems where the parts are connected (Adams and Sydie, p. 350). A system is something that has a boundary, so that there is an inside and an outside to the environment comprising the system. Examples of systems are the social, cultural, and personality systems (Wallace and Wolf, p. 28). Systems have interdependent parts, order or equilibrium, and a tendency to maintain the boundaries and relations of the parts to the whole. These could be the society as a whole, structures or institutions within society (economy, legal system, religious institutions), or smaller subsystems (family or individual) that form part of society. These are action systems in the sense that they involve social action, and each system has certain needs or conditions that are necessary for the survival and continued operation of the system. Systems also have goals that may be created as a result of needs and desires of members of these systems.

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Social System. The social system was Parsons' main concern. This is society as a whole, or the various institutions such as the family within society. Parsons' definition of the social system is: A social system consists in a plurality of individual actors interacting with each other in a situation which has at least a physical or environmental aspect, actors who are motivated in terms of a tendency to the "optimization of gratification" and whose relation to their situations, including each other, is defined and mediated in terms of a system of culturally structured and shared symbols (Parsons, 1951, pp. 5-6). a. Adaptation (A). Each system exists in an environment, and must be able to adapt to this environment. In the process of adaptation, the environment is also affected and may be adapted to the society. This is the mobilization of resources so that the system can survive and that things can be done to meet goals of the system. b. Goal Attainment (G). Each system has certain purposes associated with it. The goals of the system must be defined, means of attempting to achieve these goals must be laid out, and then these goals must be achieved. Within the social system, the polity (political sphere and government) is an important aspect of this, setting and altering the goals for the society as a whole, and mobilizing actors and resources to that end (Ritzer, p. 246). c. Integration (I). By integration Parsons means the need to coordinate, adjust, and regulate relationships among various actors or units within the system in order to keept the system functioning (Wallace and Wolf, pp. 39-40). d. Latency (L) or pattern maintenance (P). This is the function of pattern maintenance and Parsons also refers to this as the cultural-motivational system (Parsons, 1967, p. 261). Development of Sociology and Anthropology in the Philippines Anthropology started as a practical of colonizers in the service of Christianity and the Spanish Government. Alfred Marche led archeological explorations in the 19th century. Ethnological Survey of the Philippines replaced the Bureau of Non- Christian tribes. Otley H. Beyer elevated anthropology as an academic discipline at the University of the Philippines. Fr. Valentin Marin introduced sociology in the Philippines in 1896 as a course on criminology at the University of Santo Tomas.

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Serafin Macaraig first Filipino to receive a doctorate degree in sociology in 1939. Introduction to Sociology became the first text in the University of the Philippines written by Serafin Macaraig. Juan Ruiz offered courses in social work in the University of the Philippines. Prof. Marcelo Tangco succeeded Dr. Macaraig Flora Diaz Catapusan invited to teach sociology in the Centro Escoloar University in 1946 Dr. Benicio Catapusan invited to serve as a professional lecturer in sociology at the University of the Philippines in 1948 Philippine Sociological Society was organized by a group of Filipino educators and visiting professors in the different regions whose objectives are: To increase knowledge about social behavior To gather data on social problems for their possible solutions To train teachers and researches in the field of sociology To develop cooperation and unity among social scientists in the Philippines.

1960 the Research Foundation of Philippine Anthropology and Archeology was established Philippine Social Science Council consolidated the Philippine social science resources in 1968 whose objectives are: To promote the quality and relevance of social science researches To improve teaching skills in social sciences To finance researches along the social sciences To encourage social science publications Factors and Stages in the development of sociology in the Philippines in the words of Catapusan and Catapusan: Considerable efforts have been made to define and to determine the fields of sociology There are considerable specializations in subject matter and in approach Sociological principles are being employed in the analysis of an increasing number of social situations The study of various problems led to discovering, refining, and perfecting new methods of sociological investigations. 1960s and 1970s researches were undertaken along different aspects of social and cultural life Source: Palispis, Epitacio S., Introduction to Sociology and Anthropology. Manila: Rex Printing Company, Inc., 1996

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Sociology is a colonial implant Flourished during the American regime but started during the later part of Spanish rule Gained significance after WWII aimed for social planning and reconstruction Focused on religion, family, ethnic relations norms and values of Filipinos Polarization, collision between functionalism and Marxism in methods and approaches Sociology was branded as ideational (not grounded to realities) Positivism/generalization was challenged by interpretive and phenomenological schools of thought (subjective realities) which resulted to pluralism of methods and approaches in sociology Participation of sociologist during the Marcos regime in community planning (known as technocrats agents of change and reforms) Government recruited sociologists to legitimize the structure by providing scientific aura to the course of state action Technocrats versus non partisan sociologists (branded as radicals and insurgents) Convergence After the collapse of Marcos regime the life chances/ economic opportunities were unavailable which to diaspora, social scientists have no other course of action but to put together their resources (methods and techniques) to explain and repair this disenchanting phenomenon Diverse theoretical and methodological stance allowed Sociology to travel across boundaries to both natural and social sciences the defect however is the slow sophistication of theories and methods in the Philippines not because the environment lacks raw materials but because of poor documentation (ex. Changes in the family structure, homosexuality) The challenge of the 1990s is to arm sociologists with theoretical and methodological skills ready to shift gears to alleviate human condition Aggressive application of social science researches

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