1

COMMUNICATION SKILLS
LECTURES

BY

TANVEER LODHI

______________________________________________________________________________
1

PART I
1. COMMUNICATION PROCESS
1.. DEFINITION, HISTORY AND PURPOSE OF COMMUNICATION Man is a social animal and his very existence and quality of life depends upon living in a society. Communication is the means through which he interacts with the society. Communication normally means to communicate a message or letter or information to another person or persons. However, It is defined as exchange of information or giving or taking of it or a process through which facts, ideas, experiences and emotions are mutually exchanged or the process of sharing of information or any behavior that results in exchange of meaning ( American Management Association), or exchange of facts, ideas or emotions by two or more persons ( Newman and Summer ). In fact all those means through which we communicate our views, facts, attitudes & feelings to other persons come under the purview of communication, whether it is through face to face verbal talks or through telephone, TV, Radio, etc. or through written letters, fax message, telephones, light or smoke signals or gestures. In short listening, speaking, reading and writing are four means or components of communication. In organizations communication acts as lifeblood through, which

organizational activities are unified. Through it we can bring changes in employees behavior or attitudes towards achievement of organizational goals. Every person of an organization is responsible for good communication and through words, letters, symbols, or messages, organizational members share meaning and understanding with another. The history of communication as a discipline starts from 1930s when US Social scientists like Havold Lusswall, Paul Lazarifild, Kurt Lewin & Karl Havland started its study. C.I.Bernard was one of the pioneer who gave serious consideration to communication in a large scale enterprises. The importance of communication emerged in 2nd World War and in 1950s it emerged as academic discipline. David Berle wrote in 1961 the famous book The Process of Communication. From 1980s the information revolution started through ______________________________________________________________________________
2

3 Computers & internet. The world has now become global village and communication has become basis of human contacts & economic development. The purposes of communication are:i. ii. iii. The same may be understood what is intended to be understood. To obtain reply / response / feedback, preferably favorable. To maintain good relations with communicator.

In business / organizations the communication purposes could be:i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. ix. x. 1.2 Personal development Business / organizational development Solution of problems Continuity of Business and its critical analysis To make the jobs more effective Link between management & work-force Link between departments Communication / exchange of ideas, messages & experiences Means of human contracts and ascertaining feed back Achievement of business / organizational goals

COMMUNICATION FOR SELF DEVELOPMENT Communication helps in self development by following ways:i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. ix. xi. In acquiring knowledge. In acquiring information. In avoiding mistakes. In making correct decisions or planning. In contacts / coordination with others. In exchanging / acquiring experiences. In acquaintance with latest conditions. In knowing other's expectations from you. In enhancing confidence. In development of self- capabilities.

______________________________________________________________________________
3

4 1.3 COMMUNICATION PROCESS Communication process is an interactive process involving two agents i.e. Sender and the Receiver. Both the agents exert a reciprocal influence on each other through interestimulation and response. Communication process is a complex process in which our all the senses, experiences and feelings are involved and this is not merely letters, gestures or words, but a continuous inter-action between two persons. The interpretation is done not only of words, but of inflexion, face impressions, eye impressions, taping the floor with heal of shoes, etc. as well. Our own emotions, feelings, experiences and personal goals also affect them, but normally the communication process comprises of following elements:Sender Idea En-coding Message Transmission through any medium & route Follow up Receiver Receive Message Decoding or Interpreting Action (No action is also action) Feed back.

i. ii. iii. iv. Ix

v. vi. vii. viii.

Graphically it can be presented as follows:Encoding or Translation of Ideas into Message

Sender having the Idea

Message

Transmission

Receiver

Message Decoding on basis of knowledge, experience & view point

Feed Back

Follow Up

Action

Some authors have described the process in five steps as follows:Ideation It is formation of the idea or selection of a message to be communicated. Messages generally have logical and emotional contents. Logical content consists of factual information, while emotional content consists of feelings and emotions.

______________________________________________________________________________
4

5 Encoding It is process of changing the information into some form of logical and coded message. It involves selecting a language, selecting a medium of communication, and selecting an appropriate communication forum (i.e. face to face communication, or group discussion, or written or speaker-audience communication). Transmission It refers to flow of message through a chosen channel. For communication to be effective, right time, right place and right method is essential. Decoding It is process of converting a message into thoughts by translating the received stimuli into an interpreted meaning in order to understand the message communicated. It involves interpretation and analysis of message. Response It is action or reaction to message i.e. feedback. Sender Sender has idea Sender Converts the idea into Words or Gestures Encoding Message travels over Channel Transmission Receiver decodes message Decoding Receiver Receiver Responds

Ideation

Feedback

In short the idea emerges in the mind of sender due to some physical or psychological urge or need, which he interprets according to his experiences, knowledge and mental state and thereafter converts / encodes into message. The message is sent to receiver through any means. The receiver interprets / decodes the message according to his experiences, knowledge and mental state and thereafter gives response / feedback to sender. The sender finally has follow up action to see the results of his message. 1.4 FEEDBACK Feedback means the response / reply of ones message. Communication cycle completes only when feedback is received. In other words if there is no feedback, the message communication is faulty, particularly in organizations and in business the feedback is most essential. In business communication we want to inspire the consumers/customers and their feedback help to analyze / conclude and make the right decision. Similarly in a factory, a foreman receives weekly schedule of production from the supervisor, like 2000 units are to be produced of job A in 20 hours and 500 of job B in 5 hours. The supervisor gives feedback ______________________________________________________________________________
5

6 after the week. If job A took 21 hours and job B produced 400 units, then their analysis has to be done to take remedial measures to rectify them. This is possible only through feedback.

1.5

COMMUNICATION FLOW / CHANNELS IN AN ORGANIZATION C.I.Bernard described communication as the means by which people are linked together in an organization in order to achieve a central purpose. Group activity is impossible without information transfer because, without it, co-ordination and change cannot be affected. Communication is used as a media for issuing instructions in an organization so that the employees could perform their duties in right direction. The duties of different persons differ in an organization, and communication plays its part in meaningful coordination between them. Officers control their sub-ordinate through communication and get feedback of their z Upward Communication Downward Communication achievements. The communication flow is of following 3 types:-

x Lateral Communication i.

Upward communication - From X to Z. This is feedback of duties / jobs entrusted to subordinates. This information is analyzed at every stage and quantity reduces. The top gets only the summary.

ii.

Downward communication - From Z to Y. These are orders and instructions flowing from top to bottom. At every stage these orders / instructions are re-designed in detail and their quantity manifolds.

iii.

Lateral communication - From X to Y. It is exchange of information between various persons or department of same stage.

If there is any obstacle in communication flow, communication gap emerges, which is essentially required to be abridged. Interaction between ______________________________________________________________________________
6

7 different individuals working in an organization takes place through formal and informal channels, known as Channels of Communications, which are following:-

Communication from the decision makers to workers. Seniors Sub-ordinates

Communication from Employees to Management

Communication among workers at the same level

Communication flows in all directions

Sub-ordinates Seniors

Seniors Seniors Employees Employees

No Protocol

Downward Channel

Upward Channel

Horizontal Channel

Diagonal Channel

1.6

BARRIERS AND DISTORTIONS IN COMMUNICATION There is no such thing as perfect communication because of human angle and

system faults. Human beings have certain limitations and man-made systems need continuous improvements to overcome hindrances and shortcomings. Therefore there are possible barriers in communication processes and distortions in communicated messages, which affect the quality of communication. Barriers could be-------Badly expressed messages (by sender),faulty translations / interpretations (by receiver), loss by transmission (30% in each oral transmission), poor retention (50% by employee and 60% by supervisor), inattention (of receiver), un-clarified assumptions (of sender), bypassing ( it is misunderstanding from missing meanings because of the use of abstract words or phrases on which both parties do not agree, insufficient adjustment period (given to receiver for action), distrust of communicator, premature evaluation (by receiver), fear (could be on part of either or both), failure to communicate (by manager in organization). However, the Distortion is changes in message when the receiver sends / transmits it further. message. The filters are of following type:The reason is that the listener or receiver filters the

______________________________________________________________________________
7

Level

Deliberate

Un-intentional

Upward

Wish to look good Avoiding responsibility Avoiding wrong info to boss By-passing

Confidence on seniors Encouraging sub-ordinates Lack of job security Distances

Downward

Inadequate feedback Wish to avoid bad news

Managements worries More than one means of communication Substitute of communication in downward or upward direction

Lateral / Horizontal

Rumors, Gossips High skill in job

Diagonal

Avoiding levels

Communication Group

All directions 1.7

Ownership of information

Indefinite state to absorb message

SEVEN Cs OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

COMPLETENESS: Message is complete from all angles and replies all possible questions. Thus it requires remembering five Ws i.e. who, what, when, where, and why; answers all questions; and gives extra information when desirable. CONCISENESS It is saying what we have to say in the fewest possible words without sacrificing other C qualities. Thus only relevant material is given and un-necessary details or repetitions avoided. CONSIDERATION: You instead of I attitude. Receiver could see his personal benefits. Such messages are prepared by putting oneself in receivers situation and looking from his angles. Positive and interesting facts are highlighted. CONCRETENESS: The communication should be specific, meaningful and explicit, no vague or general message. Understandable facts / will for action is expressed.

______________________________________________________________________________
8

9 CLARITY: Simple and forceful language, no confusing words or sentences, so that the message is understood as it is intended. Thus it will require choosing precise, concrete, and familiar words; constructing effective sentences and paragraphs. COURTESY: Such words and phrases be used which do not show offensiveness or irritate a person, unless so intended. Normally humble style is preferred. It, thus, involves being aware not only of the perspectives of others, but also their feelings. It stems from a sincere you-attitude and requires one to be sincerely tactful, thoughtful and appreciative; uses expression that shows respect and chooses non discriminatory expression, and omits questionable humor. CORRECTNESS: Free from grammatical mistakes and figures & facts are correct. It , thus, is use of right level of language i.e. grammatically correct with no spelling mistakes; accuracy of figures, facts and words; and maintains acceptable writing mechanics.,

______________________________________________________________________________
9

10

PART II
2

THE LISTENING PROCESS

2.1 NATURE AND PROCESS OF ACTIVE LISTENING Listening is an important communication process & is crucial to effective communication. We listen with our ears. There is difference between listening and hearing. In hearing only the ears are involved, while in listening our ears, eyes and mind is also involved i.e. in hearing one just listens without bothering to understand or concentrate, while in listening one concentrates and tries to understand. The hearing happens automatically, while listening requires conscious efforts. Hearing is a passive and one way process, while listening is an active and two way process. Research results show that 25 30% is understood by listening of verbal messages, out of which they forget more than 50% the very next day. Hence for improving listening skills one should know the difference between hearings and listening and one should become a good listener because what one hears once may not be heard again. The active listening thus demands concentration, involvement and responsibility.. The listening process has four stages ----- (a) Sensing i.e. the listener hears sounds and does focus on them; (b) Encoding i.e. decoding or interpreting the message; (c) Evaluation i.e. evaluating the message; (d) Response i.e. the respond. 2.1 LISTENING COMPREHENSION It is the act of understanding an oral message. It involves speech decoding (i.e. sound perception and recognition, word recognition & accent recognition), comprehending ( i.e. ability to identify the central theme, main idea and supporting details) and oral discourse analysis ( i.e. critical skills to distinguish between relevant & irrelevant information; attitude analysis of speaker and inferential skills to understand explicit & implicit meaning of message ). 2.3 TYPES OF LISTENING

______________________________________________________________________________
10

11 We listen to different kinds of messages for different purposes like to get a specific information, or get main idea, or get main points; or get new information or acquire knowledge, etc. The types of listening are following: a. Superficial Listening--- When listener has little awareness of content and what is being said. The output is zero. b. Appreciative Listening--- For getting enjoyment and pleasure. c. Focused Listening --- Listening for specific purpose. d. Evaluative Listening---Evaluation of the oral message or commentary and developing a line of thought. e. Attentive Listening--- Listening with complete attention, like in group discussions, interviews and meetings. It requires conscious effort. f. Emphatic Listening--- Listening not only to what the speaker is saying, but also to how he is saying i.e. understanding nonverbal part as well. 2.4 PRINCIPLES OF ACTIVE / GOOD LISTENING The ten thumb rules for good listening are stop talking, stop thinking, remove distractions, do not let your mind wander, put speaker at ease, do not prejudge, be patient, do not be angry, emphathise with the speaker i.e. put yourself in speakers position, and take notes. However the detailed principles of active /good listening are:i. Doing homework - Collection of information about topic and becoming mentally alert for listening. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. ix. x. Adopt proper Attitude - It is possible that you may not agree with what you listen, but never become impatient or rude. Avoid prejudice and listen with open mind. Keep eye-contact with speaker and never give him impression that you are disinterested in listening. Concentrate on central idea. Let the speaker speak and given ample time without interrupting him and dont stand up or start walking while listening. Try to understand with no intention to find faults. Avoid criticism and do not jump at the conclusion without listening the full talk. Only ask relevant questions when asked to do so. Prepare notes of important points of what you listened.

______________________________________________________________________________
11

12 xi. Prepare summary of what you listened and analyze it.

2.5

BARRIERS TO LISTENING / REASONS FOR POOR LISTENING i. ii. iii. Prejudice against the speaker - If not overcome, one will not listen properly, try to interrupt or search only mistakes/flaws in his speech. Physical barriers or external distractions like noise, presence of irrelevant persons or things, distances, physical discomforts. Thinking speed--- Mostly people speak with speed of 80 160 words per minute, but think 800 words per minute. Thus if mind is not doing analysis of what one listens, it will be distracted and may miss important points. iv. v. vi. Premature evaluation or jumping at the conclusion is prone to mistakes. Semantic stereo types i.e. one does not feel comfortable or like certain words and gets negative impression from these. If speech or style is monotonous, the listeners interest vanishes and he is either distracted or feels sleepy. If message is below expectations, it may also cause distractions or loss of interest. vii. viii. ix. x. xi. Difficult subject also causes distractions. Misunderstanding of gestures leave to wrong interpretation of message. Linguistic barriers due to ambiguous language or improper message decoding. Cultural barriers due to cultural differences, different values and norms. Psychological barriers like abnormal mental conditions or mental state of listener (emotional disturbances, anxiety, etc.).

2.6

NOTE TAKING Instead of trusting 100 % memory, it is better to take notes or write down briefly

the important points of speech or message or presentation. Note taking has four steps:a. b. c. d. Listening---- Listen carefully and interpret the oral message. Filtering--- Identify the main points. Paraphrasing--- Rephrase them suitably. Noting--- Jotting down on paper. Full sentences are not used.

______________________________________________________________________________
12

13

3.
3.1

ORAL COMMUNICATION / SPEAKING

SIGNIFICANCE OF ORAL COMMUNICATION / SPEAKING God has given one tongue to man for speaking and two ears for listening and these are main means of oral communication. The man needs oral communications most of the time while dealing with fellow persons. In organizations the jobs are mainly done in writing and according to procedures, but oral communication also plays vital role over there, particularly as we move downwards, oral communication increases. The meetings, lectures and presentations are all oral communications. Thus oral communication helps:i. ii. iii. iv. In interviews for selection purposes. In promotion as the impression is created by it. In business expansion as all advertisements/marketing is done In societys development as speech is the most effective mean to create awareness and impress people.

3.2

SPEECH PROCESS Like listening, speaking is crucial to effective communication. Speaking is the communicate

purposeful process by which people, using audible and visible symbols,

meanings in the mind of their listeners. The speech process comprises of five factors, which are message, style of speaking (It is the manner in which the content of the speech is presented. It could be formal or informal depending upon the purpose of speaking and the relations of speaker with the listener.), audience i.e. the listener, encoding (selecting a language, an appropriate oral form and positive non-verbal signals), and feedback ( from listener ). 3.3 VERBAL & NON-VERBAL MESSAGES In oral messages, the words are uttered by tongue, which the other person listen and interprets, while message in which spoken words are not used are called non-verbal messages and include facial expressions ( use of eyes, forehead and mouth), gestures (bodily action that may express implicit meaning. It refers to the use of fingers, hand and arms for expressions), style, body language /body ______________________________________________________________________________
13

14 movements / posture, voice / tone variation, quietness, etc. In oral messages effective words are very important, which the other can understand. The listeners attitude and needs are also required to be kept in mind. One must speak in low tone in the beginning, clear the purposes of speaking and change the message according to changing situation, use understandable language, speak consistently with proper intervals and keep the message short. However, experts believe that verbal communication communicates only 7% message while 93% message is conveyed by non-verbal communication (38% by change in tone /voice variation & 55% from gestures / body language / facial expressions). In fact non-verbal messages help to read between the lines and one can understand the real message, which words may not be conveying. 3.4 STRATEGIC STEPS OF SPEAKING i. ii. Only a good listener can be a good speaker. While speaking the speaker must have some purposeful substance to speak, use language which listener can understand, message must be clear and repeated if needed, central idea must be simple and summarized, use listeners name or you, give replies if possible, keep eye contact with listener, express in natural way and keep listeners interest in view. iii. Listen patiently, keep eye-contact, utter yes or I agree or nod the head in affirmative, show interest, avoid interference or interruption of his speech, avoid looking in this side or other and concentrate on speakers views. iv. People who can impress with oral communication are considered successful. In order to make their presentation more impressive they must have fair assessment of listeners, determine the purpose, select the topic, gather information, organize information and prepare outline of presentation, then do proper planning and if possible practice it. 3.5 CHARACTERISTICS OF EFFECTIVE ORAL MESSAGES/SPEACHES ii. iii. iv. Do not exaggerate and keep peoples trust on you. Express keen interest with topic and listeners. Face criticism with open heart.
14

______________________________________________________________________________

15 v. vi. vii. viii. ix. x. xi. xii. xiii. xiv. xv. xvi. xvii. xviii. xix. 3.6 Respect the feelings of others. Keep the tone low. Clear your objectives. Give message according to situation. Use words or language, which is understandable. Speech must have continuity and flow. Message must be short. Keep listeners response / expressions in view. Emphasize the main points. Keep the physical distance to the shortest with listeners. Clarify main points with gestures and expressions. Keep ones ideas from loosing track and concentrate on message. Keep your status, rank, position in mind. Have maximum knowledge of listeners. Note the main points on paper so that one may not miss any one of them. Never forget the main purpose in whole speech.

FACTORS AFFECTING RECEIVERS UNDERSTANDING OF MESSAGE a. The audience or receiver is a human being and thus all human factors like age, culture, education, work environment, attitudes and interests and relationship do play their role. b. Physical conditions like noise in the background, inappropriate audience size, fault in communications medium like low sound in phone, distractions (due to interruptions, un-comfortable physical state, thirst, hunger, full bladder, etc.) and disablement disturbs understanding of message. c. Psychological conditions like pressure and stress, pre-occupation; presence of others, mode of conveyance as private or sensitive messages should be confined only to specific receiver; fluctuation in receivers concentration and energy level; the role in which the recipient receives the message and its relationship to sender in perceived role.

3.7

CONVERSATIONS

______________________________________________________________________________
15

16 Every person is involved most of the time in formal or informal conversations, which may involve two or more persons. A conversation is a continuous dialogue in which every participant can participate or speak at any moment. Formal conversations have formal content, objective approach, always factual, have accepted rules, are logically organized and structured; while informal conversations have personal or emotional content, either objective or subjective approach, may or may not be always factual, have no accepted rules, and not always structured. However for good conversation, the participant has to be a good listener, a subtle speaker (carefully speaks and does not say whatever comes in his mind), speaks with clarity and simplicity, uses appropriate pauses, is polite and friendly, is flexible and tactful, does not argue for argument sake and exhibits keen interest in conversation.

4
4.1

THE READING PROCESS

NATURE OF READING PROCESS Reading means to read and understand the written material. If the effort to understand is missing, then it cannot be termed as reading. Reading is a complex communication process of receiving and interpreting the written words. It involves what is written and its clear understanding. Its process has four factors---Decoding i.e. changing the coded message into information; Comprehending i.e. identifying the central theme and main ideas; Text Analysis i.e. evaluation and drawing conclusions; and Response i.e. action or reaction to written message.

4.2

TYPES OF READING Reading is however primarily a mental activity. It is a skill, a developed or

acquired ability, which can be developed further, refined and improved. Speed improves comprehension, reduces fatigue and makes for completeness of thought. Reading can be divided into three types depending upon the reading speed: (a) Study with concentration in which every word is read and effort is made to understand it .Normally it is of difficult arguments, views and theories. An ordinary reader has speed of 90 125 words per minutes in it and a good reader 200 300, while 80 90% text is understood by them. (b) Casual reading or light readings of magazines, novels, newspapers, etc. which does not tax the mind much, in which ordinary reader has speed of 150 180 w.p.m. and good reader 250 500, with 70% understanding. ______________________________________________________________________________
16

17 (c) Skimming in which the full text is not read and only the central idea or theme or main ideas are extracted. An ordinary reader cannot do it and a good reader can read 800 w.p.m. with 50% understanding. Skimming means reading something very quickly in order to find out more or less what it is about. By running our eyes quickly over the text we can get the jist or main idea without worrying about the details. Skimming is done when we: i. Do not have time or may not be interested to read everything in great detail. Our requirement is just to discover the main idea without bothering about its details. ii. iii. Have to decide whether the book or the article requires/deserves a detailed and careful reading or not. The skimming could be sometimes in the form of scanning, which means looking for a specific piece of information in the text, like a word in dictionary, finding out train time table, etc. 4.3 READING PROBLEMS Following problems are, however, faced in various types of readings:i. ii. iii. Vocalized Problem --- Some people read loudly with tongue and that reduces speed. Reading silently accelerates the speed. Lipping--- Reading with lips instead of eyes reduces speed. Regression Problem--- Repeated readings even after understanding the sentences with a view if nothing has been missed. This happens when reader is mentally or physical tired and cannot concentrate. iv. Progression Problem--- When mind is elsewhere or one is not concentrating, then one reads page number, sees how many pages are left, etc. v. Wasted Eye Movement / Poor Vision Span--- Average reader fixes eyes on words and then moves with jerks, which slows speed. Continuous, rhythmic movement of eyes from one end to other end of line accelerates speed. Moreover there should be wider / larger area of page for eye fixation to have rhythmic movement of eyes. vi. Failure to understand the structure of Paragraph--- Each paragraph contains certain idea, explanation or analysis and the start of paragraph is with that view and end is with conclusion. The logic of paragraph is

______________________________________________________________________________
17

18 essentially required to be understood, otherwise repeated readings would be required. vii. Distractions--- Same readers use pencil, finger, card or ruler for reading, which retards speed. Full page must be open in front. Proper atmosphere and proper seating posture for peaceful reading is also essential.

4.4

READING SKILLS i. Skimming--- First of all the purpose of reading is determined then a large book or long report is skimmed with the aim of getting basic information. Table of contents or abstract will help in this regard. ii. Proper eye movements so that eye span is not much, it is fixed on full page and eyes move smoothly without a jerk with only eyes reading and not the tongue or jaws. iii. Reading should be with comprehension and concentration so that it is understood; critical study or scrutiny helps to find out the facts. It may however need comparison with other writings as well. iv. Identification of basic words & sentence, vocabulary increase, understanding of structure of paragraph and studying while sitting in a proper manner helps in speed increase. In short reduction of eye movements, minimizing regression (i.e. habit of looking back to see what is missed in first reading), minimizing progression (i.e. reading page number and checking pages left), minimizing distraction (i.e. eyes moved totally off the page), reducing wasted eye movements and poor vision span (i.e. movement of eyes in jerks and stopping after every word), avoiding vocalization (i.e. loud reading) and avoiding lipping (i.e. reading only with eyes ) can help to improve speed.

4.5

EFFECTIVE REVIEW OF WRITTEN MATERIAL A student or engineer has to do lot of reading of books, reports and articles all his life. Reading of the whole book, report or articles consumes lot of time. The real purpose of reading is normally the extraction of relevant material and ideas. This is possible by effective review instead of reading word by word from A to Z. Book Review

______________________________________________________________________________
18

19 Study the title, find out about author, check the publisher, read all the printed information on the outside of the book, read Forward to know the purpose, study the Table of Contents, read Abstract or Summary and then the relevant portion in text. Chapter Review Study the title, question the title, and count the pages, read the first paragraph, which is normally introductory to chapter and content, read the last paragraph, read Summary or Conclusion if available. Look over any study questions or problems at the end. Quickly page through the chapter and briefly check graphics and sub-headings. Reflect upon what you have learned already and what you expect to get from the study. Finally read the relevant parts as necessary. Report Review Check the title, note the writer or Company / Department who prepared it, review the date of publishing and preparation, note for whom prepared and for what purpose, study Table of Contents, read Summary or Abstract carefully, pursue all front or back matter, thumb through sub-headings organization, and typography, study all charts, read as necessary. Article Review Read the title and any sub-headings, check the authors name and his biographical note, examine all graphics, read first few paragraphs for the theme, now read first sentence or topic of all succeeding paras, read more care carefully near the end when you sense the writer is giving his conclusions. 5 5.1

THE WRITING PROCESS

NATURE OF WRITING PROCESS The writing process is an important communication process in which the

messages are written and sent through publications, letters, computer networks, faxes, etc. Writing process helps to create and retain data / information / messages for ever and develop the libraries. The writing process comprises of encoding the message, selection of a proper style, use of proper language and write up in a manner that effectively conveys the message. 5.2 STYLES OF WRITING
19

______________________________________________________________________________

20 Style means the way of writing. The writing is always in a style, which could be any of the following:a) Narrative - In style of narrating stories. Such write ups are longer, include unnecessary details, one has to read from first to last word, and keeps the interest of reader alive. b) Descriptive The concentration is on physical details and characteristics of the things. c) Argumentative or analytical - The ideas are logically presented and proved with the help of arguments. 5.3 DIFFERENCE OF REPORT AND LITERARY WRITINGS i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. 5.4 The central subject of literature is any aspect of life while that of report can be non-human or materialistic things. Literature is narrative or descriptive but report is analytical Literature satisfies mental or spiritual requirements, while report satisfies materialistic requirements. The reader is left to draw conclusions in literature, while the report writer has to give conclusions. Literature can be about imaginary things, while report is only of facts. The writer can propagate his views in literature but not in report unless it is supported by facts. USE OF LANGUAGE Writing is always for a specific purpose and format of various writings differ, like essay has different format, book has different format, report has different format, etc. However the correct use of language is essential for any writing and following factors are required to be kept in view;SENTENCE FORMATION It is the largest unit of grammar that contains a subject, a verb and an object and expresses a statement, a question or a command. A sentence contains a subject and a predicate. The word or group of words that we speak about in a sentence is called the subject, while the word or group of words that tell us something about the subject is predicate. In sentence The poor wood cutter has lost his axe, the poor wood cutter is subject and lost his axe is predicate. If a sentence has one subject and one predicate, it ______________________________________________________________________________
20

21 is simple sentence; if more, then compound or complex or multiple sentences. The sentences are of following types:a. b. c. d. Declarative Negative Interrogative Imperative --------Which Which makes makes a a positive or affirmative statement, like we live in a big city. negative statement, like we do not live in a big city. which asks a question, like do we which contains an order or a live in a big city? request or an advice, like bring a glass of water, please help me to solve the problem and always speak truth The sentences are written by keeping in view the tenses, active & passive voice (the grocer sells tea is active voice & tea is sold by the grocer is passive voice) or direct or indirect speech ( I told her, He will do it, is direct and I told her that he would do it is indirect), fully applying punctuations like end punctuation [sentence ends with a full stop (.) , question mark (?) ,or exclamation mark (!)], commas [(,) it is used when three or more like words appear in a sentence, or between two adjectives who still make sense even if reversed, or to interrupt the flow of main sentence, or for introducing the main subject like Friends, you are,or to fuse two complete sentences into a compound or complex sentence, or for misc. uses like dates, addresses, opening & closing of letters, numbers,& contrasted material], colon [(:) used to introduce a list of items following a complete sentence], semi-colon [(;) used to combine two related complete sentences into one compound sentence], ellipses [() used to mark words left out of direct quote] , slash [(/) used to replace the word or], hyphen [(-) used to join two words like full-scale], apostrophe ( combination of two words similar to some abbreviation like I would as Id], quotation ( information repeated or reproduced from another source),capital words (first word of each sentence; names of people, cities, countries, races, religions, nationalities, titles, abbreviations like Jr; titles of books, magazines, and articles; titles of films & shows; historic events, famous places, holidays, brand names but not the product name like IBM computer; first word in quotation, etc). However, sentences should be reasonably short and not too complex and use understandable language to be ______________________________________________________________________________
21

22 easy to digest. The sentence length should be preferably of 3-20 words, with average preferably of 17-20 words. Sentence should have unity I.e. only one idea, and coherence i.e. words correctly arranged so that the words convey the intended meanings. The basic principle is that sentences must say what you mean and use simple and short sentences. CHOICE OF WORDS Precision in the use of words be resorted as followsa. Knowing what word means. Common omissions are:Ability / capacity Conclude / decide Indicated / Required Maximum / Optimum Theory / Idea, view, opinion b. c. e. f. Anticipate / Expect +Few / Less Liable / Likely Practical / Practicable Universally / Generally

Leave out vague words like connected in place of welded, fastened in place of soldered, etc. Leave out unnecessary words. Use familiar comparison like let the sun be the size of an orange. Avoid technical jargons i.e. such slang terms which are understood only by concerned specialists / experienced persons, like meg (megacycle), optimize (put in the best possible working order), etc.

d. Use simple & familiar words and phrases.

PARAGRAPH WRITING A paragraph is a distinct section of a piece of writing, containing many sentences. It deals with a single idea. Its writing involves a careful writing plan that ensures proper length, unity (single idea), coherence (logical relationship between the elements and the construction), and logical development of ideas. GRAMMAR Grammar is a large set of rules commonly accepted standards for assembling words so that, together, they make sense and convey meaning. Style is reflected in the choice of words and the way we supply the rules of programmer in wiring. Correct use of grammar in technical writing is essential as incorrect use can change the meanings or ______________________________________________________________________________
22

23 make them hard to decipher. Incorrect grammar also does not provide good picture of sender and can undermine his credibility. More common problem areas are:Punctuation Errors Punctuation is use of symbols, marks and signs to separate or connect certain parts of a sentence to clarify meaning. Most common punctuation errors are:Comma Splice It occurs when a comma is used to join a sentence instead of a conjunction. For example:The circuit operates at DC, Ohms law applies. This should be using semicolon or conjunction or semicolon with adverb. The circuit operates at DC; Ohms law applies The circuit operates at DC, and Ohms law applies The circuit operates at DC; therefore, Ohms law applies. Fused Sentence It is a comma splice without a comma i.e. 2 sentences are fused Example: The workstation was not designed ergonomically, it leaves much to be desired. It is rectified by:The workstation was not designed ergonomically; it leaves much to be desired (inserting semicolon) The workstation was not designed ergonomically, and it leaves much to be desired. (Adding comma & conjunction) The workstation was not designed ergonomically, consequently, it leaves much to be desired (adding semicolon, adverbial conjunction & common) Sentence Fragments For a sentence to be complete, it must contain a verb. Misplaced Modifier Errors Modifiers should be close to the words they are supposed to modify, like in Ignorance of science is a phenomenon in society that must be destroyed. Modifier indicates that the phenomenon & not society be destroyed. Thus In society, ignorance of science is a phenomenon that must be destroyed. Passive Voice Problems Passive Voice & Active Voice refer to the movement of action through the sentence. In an active sentence, the subject is the doer & comes first, the verb or action word follows, then the object receives the verbs action. In a passive sentence, the subjects action, while the object, if it even shows up at all, takes on the function of the doer. ______________________________________________________________________________
23

without any mark of punctuation.

24 Thus the kid broke is active voice & its passive voice is The streetlights were broken by the kid. Active voice is preferred in technical writing because it is more direct, it is clearer, and it provides most information with fewer words, Passive voice is preferred when some higher authority expects it. Verb Agreement Errors Verbs must agree with their subject in person and number. Example-: The implant, along with its associated circuits, was (& not were) inserted into the patients chest cavity. Pronoun Agreement Errors Pronouns must agree with their antecedents (The words they replace) in person, number, and gender, Example: Each person in the lab must replace his (& not their) radiation badges. Pronouns Reference Errors Pronoun must refer clearly and without question to a specific antecedents. Example: in This an The coolant leak (& leak not impaired at the mere the most This) CPVs critical had a heat part dissipation, of the resulting success, on erroneous reading

coolant

cascading

effect

the system. Case Errors These occur when noun or pronoun is placed in the wrong case. Example: The transmission microscopes (& not simple microscope) malfunctioning caused the experiment to be delayed. Or The malfunctioning of the transmission microscope caused the experiment to be delayed. Spelling Errors If the sentence starts from a number, then spell them out. Example: Thirty two degree F is the freezing point of water. Noun Clauses Example: The boss decided who (& not whom) will go to the conferences. 5.5 TECHNICAL WRITING STYLE

______________________________________________________________________________
24

25 Technical writing style is distinguished by adaptation to the reader, by attention to the communication situation, by observance of the scientific attitude, and by certain conventions in writing symbols, numbers and abbreviations. a. Reader Adaptation or Audience Analysis--- It means the writing is tailored to meet the needs, the interests, and the capabilities of the expected readers. For example readers can be classified as laymen, executives, experts, technicians, or operators according to their relationship to the subject matter being discussed and their reasons for reading about it. The main difficulty here is the realization of writer how much he has learned that the intended reader has not read. b. Communication Situation--- It means what are the uses of the report, like whether:i. ii. iii. iv. As a guide for action. As a piece of information. As a long term or short terms aid, As an aid under specified conditions. to observe

c. Scientific Attitude--- It is tendency on part of scientific experiments

only the physical elements and the report concerns only these events. Thus it is impersonal, emotionless and objective approach in which I plays no part in writing. This is being questioned now and it is felt that mind and temperament of experimenter is also required to be given due consideration. It gives more thoughtful look at what actually happens without changing the reality. Use of personal pronouns is thus preferred. Scientific attitude Non-Scientific In conclusion, it would be mistake to relocate the Factory. In conclusion, the evidence shows that it would be mistake to relocate the Factory. d. Technical Exposition--- It means the style and the way of providing information in your writing, of explaining things and deducing conclusions. It is determined by the following:i. ii. iii. iv. v. Topics arrangements Definition Comparison Casual analysis - Presentation of theory and arguments to justify it Exemplification

______________________________________________________________________________
25

26 vi. Classification and division into heads, sub-heads, parts, chapter.

(e) Definition--- It means assigning a precise meaning to a term. These are needed when familiar words are used in an unfamiliar sense or for unfamiliar things or when unfamiliar words are used for familiar things and unfamiliar words are used for unfamiliar things. The question of familiarity or unfamiliarity applies to the reader, not to writer. Definitions may appear in the text of the report, in footnotes, in a glossary at the end of the report, or in a special section in the introduction. Their proper location depends upon their importance to the text and on the knowledge of the reader. However, to define a term, it must be placed into a classification and then differentiated from other terms in the same classification. 5.6 SUMMARY WRITING Summary or prcis writing is a process of condensing message without changing the original meaning and focus of a passage. Summarizing or summery writing is a productive skill integrating both reading and writing skills. It involves adopting an effective reading strategy (i.e. a careful reading plan to identify the central idea, the main points and important supporting details), and using appropriate techniques (i.e. selection, rejection and substitution) of summarizing outlining, and paraphrasing ( Outline is a general statement without details or sketch containing only the main points, while paraphrasing refer to rewriting a passage or text in different words without changing or distorting its real meanings). The summery should not exceed one third of main text. 5.7 LETTER WRITING Letter writing is done in the form of personal or business/official letter, A personal letter is an informal letter, where the writer wants to say something and wants response. The business or official letter is a formal letter written for a specific audience to meet a specific need. It t is structured and follows specified set of rules. Letter writing involves three steps:- (a)Pre-writing--- (i) Audience Analysis i.e. who is my reader ?(ii) Purpose Identification i.e. why I am writing?(iii) Scope Determination i.e. how much I should write? (iv) Analysis of the action required i.e. what do I want the receiver to do ? Revision, editing and evaluation of draft. A business letter contains 10 elements and is structured as follows:(b) Writing--- Organize the matter, prepare outline, and write the draft. (c) Post-writing---

______________________________________________________________________________
26

27

Senders Address Dateline Reference (Optional)

Inside Address Subject Salutation Body Complimentary Close Signature Enclosures (Optional) (Optional)

The body of the letter contains an opening stating the main idea, a middle with details, and an action (desiring) closing. The five Cs for effective letter are Clarity, Courtesy, Conciseness, Correct Tone, and Correct Attitude. 5.8 RESUME WRITING A resume is a selective record of an individuals background, basically a professional employment-seeking document that presents the summary of the individuals education, professional training, experiences, skills, abilities, achievements, and reference. A good resume shall have an effective design with focus on readability and adaptation to audience expectations. A resume contains the heading, position sought, career objectives, education, work experiences, skills, achievements, activities, interests and references. The resumes are written in three different styles depending upon applicants qualifications, career goals, and personal preferences---- (a) Chronological Resume, which focuses on education and ______________________________________________________________________________
27

28 experiences; (b) Functional Resume, which focuses on highlighting accomplishments and emphasizes skills; (c) Combined Resume, which is a mixed style and draws on best of chronological and functional resumes. The resume should give a professional look, be factual, complete and objective, written in appropriate writing style, gives specific details, is organized properly and written in grammatically correct language.

______________________________________________________________________________
28

29

PART - III 6.
6.1

REPORT WRITING
NATURE & PURPOSE OF REPORT WRITING Report is presentation of facts on any topic or incident in a logical manner after collecting relevant information. The report could be oral or written; informational or analytical; routine or special; formal or non formal. A written report is a formal document written for a specific audience to meet a specific need. The report provides factual and systematic account of a specific business or professional activity. The report helps in the analysis of condition, situation or a problem for an effective solution. That is why when we talk of formal report or written report, then it means collection of data on any topic or subject or incident with specific purpose, organizing it, analyzing it and then presenting conclusions and recommendations in writing according to a specified format. It is also essential that report writing should be un-biased and facts/conclusions are presented without hiding anything/distortions, irrespective of the fact whether the finding s are in accordance with writers personal views/beliefs or not. Since the report is written according to a specified format, so its selective study should also be possible. The objective of the reports could be to obtain agreement to a course of action (Persuasive reports), explain a specific view (Explanatory report), provide basis of discussion (Discussive report), and to provide information (Information report).The purposes of report writing are:i. ii. iii. iv. Storage of information/facts about a particular topic. To provide historical data which helps to determine what has been done and what is yet to be done. For providing reference material to others to investigate further. To help others who are not experts or has no time to spare for it, to have knowledge of the subject and expert opinion of those who are competent and can spare time for it. v. vi. To provide means of expressing or developing ones creative or research abilities. To carry out research and present its results.

______________________________________________________________________________
29

30

However, in a nutshell the report writing helps to make the job simpler, improve performance of professional duties, expands business, resolves problems, do research work, provides explanation of problems, preserves history/old record and provides communication/co-ordination between the persons/departments. 6.2 BASIC REQUIREMENTS OF REPORT WROTING The basic requirements are following:i. ii. iii. iv. 6.3 The writer is competent, has the technical background to handle the subject matter skillfully. The writer has access to necessary means and facilities like equipment, information, time finances, etc. The objective of the report and expectations from it are known The capabilities of the reader or audience are known.

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF REPORT WRITING While report writing following five principles be kept in mind:a. Always have in mind the specific reader when writing the report and always assume that he is intelligent, but un-informed. b. Before starting to write, decide what the exact purpose of report is and make sure that every paragraph, sentence & word makes a clear contribution to that purpose and makes it at the right time. c. Use language that is simple, concrete and familiar. d. At the beginning and end of every section of report, check that it is according to the principle that first tell the reader what you are going to tell him, then you tell him and finally you tell him what you have told him. e. Make report attractive to look at, arrives by the date it is due, the purpose and scope of report is clearly given in the beginning provides essential information, designed in such a way that selective study is possible, answers readers questions that may arise in his mind, is unbiased, is free from typographical and grammatical errors and conveys an overall impression of authority, thoroughness and soundness.

______________________________________________________________________________
30

31 f. The report should have a meaningful title, contains authors name and date of submission. g. The report is concise (what can be written in 12 words, do not use 200 words), have meaningful beginning (i.e. explain reasons for report and introduce subject), write content which is readable and keeps interest, and end by summarizing how the report has achieved its objective. 6.4 FORMAT OF REPORTS The reports are written according to different formats. The standard formats are Printed Forms (meant for repetitive and routine data), Letter Format (short informal reports to be communicated to someone outside the organization), Memo Format (short informal reports to be communicated to someone within an organization), Manuscript Format (formal repots presented on plain papers). The standard and research reports are written in manuscript format. In memo format, the report contains all the elements of a standard report, plus a few extra special sections, if needed. 6.5 STEPS OF REPORT WRITING i. First step is determination of topic, its scope, terms of reference, audience expectations and needs and the format of presentation. Then planning of how to proceed is done. ii. Second step is collection of data, its analysis and conclusions to be drawn. The sources of data collection are library, questionnaire, interview, field observation and experiments. iii. iv. 6.6 Third step is arranging / organizing data in logical / tabular form to allow drawl of conclusions. Fourth step is writing of report and its presentation as per prescribed or standard format. TYPES OF REPORTS Formal & Informal Reports - Informal reports are routine reports for limited circulation and generally contain only the facts. Analysis conclusions, recommendations are not given and the report is also not presented in standard format; while formal report is long report, written and presented according to standard format and may have large circulation. Feasibility Report, Planning Report Survey Report, Research Report,

______________________________________________________________________________
31

32 Accident Report, etc. are formal reports and Progress Report, Visit Report, Inventory Report, Lab Report and reports on printed forms or letters, etc. are informal report. Technical or Non-Technical Reports - Technical reports are about technical & scientific matters, written by technical experts and use scientific & technical terms, graphs and diagrams, while non-technical reports are informal and simple reports which can be written by non-technical persons like reports about workers quarrel, standard of canteen, etc. Simple Report or Research Report Simple report is prepared with the help of

historical data available only, while research reports are based on research. The importance nowadays is of research reports and these may be about scientific or technical topics. Information Report or Examination Report Information report contains mere

information like conference report for persons, who did not attend the conference, but in examination report the information collected is verified, analyzed and then conclusions are drawn. 7 7.1

TECHNICAL REPORTS
NATURE OF TECHNICAL REPORT A technical report is a report on technical subject wherein audience & purpose are

well-defined in advance and it shares objective information with interested, educated audience. It has following characteristics:i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. Is about any scientific or technical subject associated with science. Uses scientific and technical vocabulary, graphic aids, etc. and relies heavily on visuals. Uses numerical data to precisely describe quantity and directions. Is non-emotional, impartial and objective study which conveys information accurately and concisely? Is written in a way which allows random study, if needed. Concentrates on a special format in which definition, description of mechanism, description of process, classification and interpretations appear compulsorily. vii. viii. It is accurate and well documented. It is grammatically and stylistically correct.

______________________________________________________________________________
32

33

7.2

IMPORTANCE OF TECHNICAL REPORTS The mankind has developed tremendously from scientific and technological

developments or in other words from experiences, opinions and experimentation of various human beings. Gone are the days when knowledge was transmitted verbally to limited selected persons. Now every information is available in written or recorded form and anyone can use that information effectively for betterment and development of the whole mankind. The scientific and technological fields have endless scope of development and that could be effectively utilized only with the help of technical reporting. If we eliminate technical reporting, it will:i. ii. iii. iv. v. 7.3 Retard the pace of scientific and technological development; Spread benefits of development only to limited areas; Result in lot of repetitive efforts for the same job for the same results. Reduce the scope of development of complex nature. Not allow widespread participation of people in a specific job.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD TECHNICAL REPORT i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. It is seriously prepared; It is purposeful and the purpose is usually spelled out in the opening paragraphs. The vocabulary of terminology used is technical / specialized and generally not defined. Sentences are highly specific and fact filled. Number and dimensions are numerous and exact rather than rounded to the nearest whole number. Signs, symbols and formulas appear in the text. Graphs and tables may appear in place of prose or to reinforce it. Figures and illustrations may also appear for the said purpose. Documentation and references appear in footnotes and indexes.

7.4

ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS OF TECHNICAL REPORT i. ii. Technical writer must be accurate in their work. Technical writer must be honest in their work.

______________________________________________________________________________
33

34 iii. iv. v. vi. vii. Technical writer must not substitute speculations for facts. Technical writer must not hide truth with ambiguity. Technical writer must not inject personal bias into the report. Technical writer must not violate copyright laws. Technical writer must not lie with statistics i.e. manipulating data or graphical representation of data, use inappropriate or improper statistical tests, or employ loaded statistical samples. viii. Technical writer must not indulge in plagiarism i.e. an act of theft in which one steals another person ideas or his expression of an idea, and then represents as his own work. Other persons views must be acknowledged. 7.5. TYPES OF TECHNICAL REPORTS FEASIBILITY REPORT It is a formal report of highly technical nature normally having wider circulation, which studies the desirability or applicability of any project or system or single solution from three angles i.e. whether achievable, whether profitable and what would be appropriate timings for its implementation? In these reports: a) Problem is defined which is needed to be solved. b) Identifies one or more candidate solutions. c) Develops a set of criteria by which to objectively evaluate the candidate solutions. d) Collects and interprets data for each criteria as it relates to each candidate solution. e) Draws conclusions and make recommendations regarding the candidate solutions based on ones interpretation. RECOMMENDATION REPORT It is similar to feasibility report, but instead of single solution, it looks at several approaches and recommends the most feasible approach. PROGRESS REPORT It presents information about status of work done on a particular project during a particular period of time. It is never a report on a completed project. These are written for those who need to keep in touch with what is going on and as a record for future reference. It comprises summary of earlier progress, current report and a brief statement of conclusion. The main emphasis is on how well one is doing in ______________________________________________________________________________
34

35 terms of each task and overall assessment of current progress. If it is a short report, presented to one or to a small number of persons, it is given in a letter or memorandum form. If it is longer report and may have large circulation, then it is presented in conventional or formal report form. PROJECT REPORT It is a research report on any hypothesis or theory that needs to be applied or tested under highly controlled conditions. PLANNING REPORT It is a formal report which describes in detail what and how is to be done in future for a particular job? Generally this report concentrates more on decisions for future plans rather than on basis on which these decisions were taken. These reports may or may not have high circulation. INSPECTION REPORT It is formal report in which the writer has to give his specific conclusions and the are generally regarding the quality of the work or item. These reports have low circulation. ACCIDENT REPORT It is formal report which provides information about the accident, its probable causes and specific recommendations to avert them in future. These reports generally have high circulation. SURVEY REPORT These reports examine conditions that affect an organization. The quantity of data collected is generally large and it is presented in graphic forms. The conclusions may also be given. These reports may have high circulation. VISIT REPORT These are informal reports, mostly of descriptive nature describing what was observed. These may contain some suggestions, but lack the scientific authority for such suggestions. LABORATORY REPORT These are of endless variety of forms and length. These contain identification of the person being tested, his sex, age, type of test and their results. No recommendation is given. These reports have standard forms and very low circulation.

______________________________________________________________________________
35

36 MANUFACTURING REPORT It is a simple report which provides production figures of a particular item for a specific period. It may briefly also describe the reasons if there is any major conspicuous shortfall in production. These reports have generally low circulation. PROPOSALS These are specialized technical documents that offer persuasive solutions to problems. Thus a proposal can be to highlight the need to look into a neglected or existing technical problem or expected problem causing less and in-efficiency or a suggested solution to overcome it.

1ST STEP OF REPORT WRITING - PRELIMINARY ANALYSIS

8.1 PURPOSE Why the report is required to be written? The writer either wants to write it because he feels the urge to do so or he is given the task by others. In both the cases the report is required to serve some purpose. This purpose is first to be determined and be known to the writer. 8.2 SELECTION OF TOPIC OR SUBJECT Subjects can be of three types: (1) Which represents a project the writer is actively working on; (2) Which is concerned with the making of a practical decision; (3) Which will add to practical knowledge. In selecting a subject, the considerations are (1) That the subject is interesting to you. (2) It is related to writers major field. (3) It is a subject about which the writer knows enough to be able to read intelligently. (4) It is a subject on which sufficient printed material is available or sufficient information can be gathered. (5) Too controversial topic or about which the writer has strong prejudices should not be selected. The term Scope refers to the limits of a subject. The limits can be (1) The details in which the subject is to be discussed. (2) The range of the subject matter. (3) The point of view from which the subject is to be discussed. 8.3 TERMS OF REFERENCE It is the scope and limit of the subject matter within which the investigations are to be made and results presented. These are required to be clearly defined and kept in view while writing the report. This contains the writer from going astray

______________________________________________________________________________
36

37 and also tells the reader what to expect from the report. The conclusions or recommendations are given strictly in accordance with terms of reference. 8.4 PRESCRIBED FORM Every organization prescribes the format of the report and the way to gather information / conduct investigations. The writer has to have its knowledge and then adhere to it. In case there are no prescribed formats, then standard format is followed. 8.5 PLAN OF PROCEDURE It relates to planning general organization and coverage of the subject, so as to simplify and chalk out the course of reading and taking notes. For this purpose first of all the list of things the writer wants to find out about the subject is prepared. Then the things which the reader is expected to know are added to it. This will help in taking notes and assembly of data. The assembly of data is possible through the use of library, questionnaire. Interview, field observation and experimentation. What and how to collect data is determined at this planning, stage.

2ND STEP OF REPORT WRITING - ASSEMBLY OF DATA

9.1 LIBRARY Information available in written form in Library like Professional Journals, Reference Books, Unpublished thesis, Newspaper articles, Govt. Publication, Computerized Information, etc. are documentary sources of information for collection. Libraries have Card catalogue systems which has three types of cards: Author card, Title Card and Subject Card. Reference books are Abstracts (brief summaries of articles or books in a particular field). Almanacs (compilations of basic statistical information about production, figures, sports, etc.), Atlas (books of maps or other illustrations), Bibliographies (list of sources of information), Catalogue (complete list of things like books on a particular subject), Compendiums (small encyclopedia on specific subjects), dictionaries (alphabetically listed words or names with definitions or description), encyclopedias (summaries of knowledge), Glossaries (list of

______________________________________________________________________________
37

38 technical terms with brief definition) and Hand books (compact reference books for specific fields with more information than in encyclopedia). 9.2 INTERVIEWS Gathering information by direct meeting the concerned people is called interview. TYPES OF INTERVIEWS i. Non-directive - In which questions are asked as they come mind. Patterned - In which predetermined sequence of questions is followed. ii. iii. iv. v. Structured - In which series of job-related questions with predetermined preferred answers are asked. Serialized or Sequential - In which a panel of persons ask nondirective and informal questions. Panel Interview - Interview by a group of interviewers who are specialist on the subject. Stress Interview - In which the person is made uncomfortable by a series of questions and his reaction to stress situation is analyzed. RULES OF GOOD INTERVIEW i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. ix. x. xi. Interviewer must have information about the abilities, rank, and importance of person to be interviewed. Interviewee must have information and confidence about the interviewer and the purpose of interview. Interview be conducted in a friendly atmosphere. Interviewee be allowed to speak freely and more. No effort by interviewer be made to impose ones ideas. Questions must be pre-determined and written, though they may not be asked in the serial order they are written. Important questions be asked at the end. No taping of interview without permission. No one be compelled to give answer if one does not want. Interview to start at scheduled time and be finished within the minimum possible time. Good home work required by interviewer before interview.

______________________________________________________________________________
38

39 9.3 QUESTIONNAIRE The process of sending a set of related questions for getting replies / information is called questionnaire. It is used where the information from other sources is not easily available. A good Questionnaire must have: (i) The question must be reliable i.e. they measure what we want to measure; (ii) Questions are valid i.e. it is interpreted in the same manner as we intend to interpret it; (iii) It must contain minimum questions; (iv) The respondent must feel least difficulties in filling it; and (v) there must be strong probability of its being returned duly filled. TYPES OF QUESTIONS i. Dichotomous responses. ii. Multiple Choice range of responses. iii. iv. v. Ranking - In which one is asked to rank several possibilities in order of personal preference. Rating - In which one is asked to rate the importance of an item to mind. Fill in the Blank - The short answer approach used to get factual answers of opinion: How many children do you prefer? vi. 9.4 Essay - In which the respondent gets maximum freedom in composing an answer. FIELD OBSERVATIONS & EXPERIMENTATION If the reader visit the place of occurrence and directly observes the process and thereafter gathers data, it would be called Field Observation. For example to prepare shop layout plan, one may visit the shop and directly observe the placement of men, material and machinery and their movements. The data so collected would be the result of field observation. However, if the writer himself participates in the process, it would be experimentation. The experimentation is done by two ways:- In which one can choose among several possible answers. This is most common approach and permits wide - In which one has choice between two answers, like yes or no, manual or electric, etc. It has relatively limited span of

______________________________________________________________________________
39

40 i. ii. The writer himself performs the duties like others and then gathers data through personal experience. The writer observes and then suggests changes and thereafter observes their outcome. This also helps him to determine whether his conclusions are correct and whether his recommendations are practicable? The writer should not have any pre-conceived conclusions about the results and should base his findings on the actual results of observation / experiment. 10.

3RD STEP OF REPORT WRITING

10.1 ORGANIZING & DEVELOPING DATA After the data is collected, next step is to determine what data is to be included and what is to be left? The data so selected would be useful only if it is arranged and divided in a systematic manner or in other words, its classification and tabulation is done. For example if we have data of accidents, then we cant draw any conclusions merely from these figures unless we classify them and tabulate according to types of accidents, years, nature, etc. The classification is done on the basis of common characteristics. i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. Make clear what is being classified. Choose (and state) a significant, useful basis, or guiding principle for the classification. Keep all the headings equal. Apply one rule of classification at a time. Make each classification at a time. A void overlapping classification as much as possible.

The tabulation principles are: i. ii. iii. iv. Table should be simple and understandable. Titles of table should represent the nature of full table. Titles of columns and rows should be clear. Table should be according to size of paper.

______________________________________________________________________________
40

41 v. Major titles of table should be fewer in number, however smaller titles be in greater number so that the table can be easily understandable. vi. If data is so much that it cannot be presented in one table, then it can be presented in more than one table. The tables can be simple or complex, but simple present only one characteristic of data, like: Major Accidents 10% Minor Accidents 90%

A complex table presents more than one characteristics, like:Types of Accidents Fire Explosions Elect. Shocks Mech. Road Total : 1987-88 1 3 1 7 4 16 1988-89 5 2 2 6 2 17 1989-90 0 7 1 8 3 19 Total 6 12 4 21 9 52

Classification would be as follows:Category Offices Supervisors Workers Others OUTLINE The writing of report is then done according to outline, which helps to organize the writing. Normally table of contents provide a good outlines, though the sequence is not followed and text gets priority over summary, etc. Three types of outlines are considered useful, which are: sentence, ______________________________________________________________________________
41

No. of accidents 03 10 37 02

42 topic, and question. In a sentence outline each entry is a complete sentence. In topic outline each entry is a phrase or a single word, no entry is in the form of a sentence. In third kind the question outline is of almost no use to the reader, but it can be very useful to the writer, especially in the early stages of the writing. In question outline the questions which writer foresees are to be required to be answered are listed. The grouping and sub grouping of these questions helps in deciding a plan for the writing process and a plan for the structure of the paper to be written. After the questions have been answered, the question outline is transformed into a sentence or topic outline. GENERAL APPROACH TO ORGANIZE REPORT There can be many approaches of organizing a report and various organizations have different preferences, however, the most popular and universally accepted format is as follows:Preface Acknowledgement Table of contents List of Illustration Abstract Summary Introduction Text Conclusion Recommendation Appendix / Reference Matter 10.2 ILLUSTRATIONS Illustrations or graphic aids are form of data presentation which are easy to prepare and understand. These in their simple or complex form often convey information or provide dramatic emphasis with an effectiveness that is difficult or impossible to achieve in writing. The type of illustration selection depends mainly upon the audience and the purpose of the report. GENERAL CONSIDERATION FOR VISUAL PRESENTATION i. There is no need to put into writing the kind of information which can be easily grasped in the form of illustrations. ______________________________________________________________________________
42

43 ii. iii. The facts are not restated which have been put into tabular or graphic form. Dont assume that having made a table or graph; nothing needs to be said about it. A little explanation of how to read it is often helpful. The significant relationship revealed by the table or graph needs to be pointed out. USE OF ILLUSTRATIONS Illustrations are used in situations:i. ii. iii. When words wont do. When information is faster and easier to understand in graphic form. When visuals highlight an important aspect.

PURPOSE i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. To provide a view more vivid and clear than prose. Emphasize the data which is required to do so. To pull together diverse data on the basis of similarities or contrasts. To save time of reader. To condense information. To present information in a way which is easier to follow and grasp.

TYPES Tables, Graphs, Diagrams, Photographs, Maps, Computer Graphics, Charts. (The tables & graphs summaries data and statistics; while charts and drawings illustrate concepts, processes or concrete objects). TABLES These are used to present large amount of data and to give absolute values where precision is important. Tables show well trends or direction in data. System of rows and columns of table makes it possible to group data effectively to make accessible to reader. The guidelines for tables are: i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. Place column to be compared next to each other. Label each column and row. Include units of measure in each heading. Align decimals in a column. Put table number and title at the top. Use footnotes for more extensive explanations of data or heading.
43

______________________________________________________________________________

44

GRAPHS These provide picture of relationship between two variables and show a comparison, a change over time, or trend. The graphs are of following types: a) Line Graph, which shows trend and relationship (number of lines are limited to 3 or 4 and distinguished by different colours or design)

b) Logarithm graph, which emphasize relative or percentage change. c) Bar graphs which shows discrete values and set them up for comparison.

d) Pie Graph, which are used for comparing percentage of money.

Rs. 15

Rs. 50

Rs. 19

Rs. 16

CHARTS These are interchangeable with graphs. These illustrate relationships, but are not plotted on a coordinate system. The charts are numbered in order of appearance (place figure No. & title two spaces below chart); the headings, quantities and unit of measurement are written horizontally. ______________________________________________________________________________
44

45

MAPS These are used to illustrate areas of growth, population density, natural sources or transport routes. PHOTOGRAPHS These provide accurate overall view and show all details as more or less equal, but fail to emphasize important areas. DRAWING / DIAGRAMS These provide sketches or drawings of parts of the item or the steps in a process. These help to define an object by giving an overview, as in a technical description and can classify the relationship of parts. The diagrams can be cut away diagram (which shows the inner side of the item, the relationships between the inner parts to each other and to the whole); exploded diagrams (in it the parts seem to be blown apart, yet the parts appear in their normal arrangements. Such diagrams are useful in supporting device description or instructions) and process directions and movement of each part and support process description. These diagrams also can represent the flow or movement between whole devices or parts of devices represented only by boxes or circles. These diagrams help an audience visualize what a device looks like in action or the chorology between devices in a process). COMPUTER GRAPHICS These are primarily for the managers to make quick decision making.

11.
11.1

4TH STEP OF REPORT WRITING

WRITING OF MANUSCRIPT First of all rough manuscript is written with the help of collected materials and the outlines. It is prepared to start by expanding the basis of outline and complete it as a whole, write as quick as possible without stopping to check spelling, punctuations, etc. and the numbers are missing, but the writer knows what he wants to say and he may then keep on writing and look up the facts later. After the writing is completed, its revision is done. While writing manuscript, the points to be kept in mind are: i. Achieve a convincing style.

______________________________________________________________________________
45

46 ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. Eliminate empty words. Avoid passive voice verbs Achieve concise style. Achieve logical wording. Make clear references. Follow writing standards. check

After completing writing, its reading is done to rectify the grammatical mistakes. The rough draft is now ready. Then it is re-read with the following lists:i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. 11.2 Expressed yourself in language that conveys exactly what you want to say? Used language that is adapted to the principal reader. Used the fewest words consistent with clearness. Achieved the tone calculated to bring about the desired response? Tried to produce a style that is not only accurate and clear, and convincing, but also readable and absorbing. Present all the pertinent facts and comment upon their significance where necessary? Made clear to the reader what action you recommend and why? Correlated illustration closely with text.

REVISION Reading is for the writer and revision is for the reader. In revision, the

check list is that have you: i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. Fulfilled your purpose in terms of the readers needs and desires? Does the paper as a whole develops your thesis statement? Is there irrelevant material, which can be weeded? Is logic sound? Have you anticipated counter questions and responded them? Does the report sound good?

If the revisions make it essential to re-write the entire report or some parts of it, that is done. The rough draft is again revised till the writer is satisfied. Now it is ready for final typing.

______________________________________________________________________________
46

47

12.

STANDARD FORMAT OF REPORT

12.1 STRUCTURE OR FORMAT OF REPORT FRONT PIECE Cover, title page, preface, acknowledgements, Table of contents, List of tables and illustrations, Abstract & Summary. TEXT Introduction, Main body, Conclusion, and Recommendations. REFERENCE MATTER Appendixes, Bibliography, List of Abbreviation, and Glossary. COVER It generally contains (1) The title, usually prominently displayed in underlined capital letters; (2) the report number; and (3) the date. Occasionally the name of client to whom a report is submitted and the name or names of authors may also be written, but that is not essential. Triple spacing between the lines of two and three line titles is advisable. Normally the companies have their prepared binders, otherwise a plain Manila folder or one of the readily available pressboard binder can be used. TITLE PAGE It contains title appearing in upper third of the sheet under scored and centered, all in capital words, with triple spacing between the lines; recipient PREFACE It is an introduction at the beginning of the report, which explains why the report has been written or what it is about. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This is normally written after the paper is finished. It is expressing the thanks for invaluable help provided by others in connection with the report writing. Acknowledgement can be one independent paragraph on a page or it can be the closing paragraph of preface. of the report; reporters names and their professional identifications; and date of submission.

______________________________________________________________________________
47

48 TABLE OF CONTENTS It is an analytical outline, modified in form for the sake of appearance. It provides reference/guide to contents and their page number in the report. Its layout is follows:a) Centre and underscore Table of Contents at the top of the page. Use capitals or lower case letters. b) Triple space below the words Table of Contents, double space between major items in contents, single space between numerous subtopics, if any. c) Begin items with Roman Numerals. d) Indent second order headings five spaces and third order headings ten spaces. e) After last Roman numeral entry, place the word Index and write indexes by labeling them A, B and so on. LIST OF TABLES AND ILLUSTRATIONS If the report contains a half dozen or more illustrations, drawings or other graphic aids, an index to them follow table of contents. It gives the number, title, and page reference of each figure in the report. ABSTRACTS It presents the report in a nut shell. It provides brief summary of each one of the major divisions of report. It is usually a single paragraph, double spaced on a page by itself. It is written in good English, no abbreviation is used which is not acceptable in main body and no terminology is used which is unfamiliar for the audience. General guideline for writing abstract is to state the problem, the scope of work, the significant findings or results, any major conclusions any major recommendations. SUMMARY It is a review or concise restatement of the conclusions / principal points made in discussions. It contains no new ideas and is always very short as compared to the length of the report. INTRODUCTION It is first part of the text. Its major function is to state exact subject of the report, its exact purpose, its scope and its plan of development. The statement of subject may require discussion of background material, ______________________________________________________________________________
48

49 particularly of history or theory, or both. The statement of scope comprises range of the subject matter, the detail in which the subject is to be discussed, and the point of view from which the subject is to be discussed. The importance of the subject, if needed, is also explained in introduction. MAIN BODY It is heart of report. It contains a step by step view of the process by which the writer moves from introduction to conclusion. It contains the text which presents the facts and thereafter their analysis. It is generally divided into major topics and sub topics to present the data in a logical understandable manner. Whenever any reference of any idea or writing appears in text, its source is given at the bottom of the page, which is called Footnote. Generally a line is drawn to separate footnotes from the text and foot note contains serial number, (consecutive serial number is used throughout the text) authors name, Books title, date of publication, publishers name and page No. The footnotes are used for (1) Citing necessary information, (2) additional information or comments not suitable for inclusion in text, (3) directing the attention of reader to other opinions, or (4) referring the attention of reader to other pages or section of text. CONCLUSION A conclusion is of course an end. In technical writing there are three kinds of conclusions or way of bringing a report to an end. The first is aesthetic, which brings discussion, smoothly to a stop. In second kind the results of an investigation or study are stated. The third kind is the decision reached at the end of a discussion concerning a choice of action, or concerning a practical problem for which a solution must be presented in the form of a forthright recommendation as to what action should be undertaken. The second and third kinds may appear only at the end of the report or both in the body of the report and at the end. The conclusion contains no new ideas. It in fact reviews, interprets and clarifies the body. RECOMMENDATIONS Recommendations are advices given by writer on the basis of his conclusions. There are two situations in which recommendations are given. In first the writer is given specific instructions to prepare recommendations, and in second, the writer volunteers recommendations. The caution ______________________________________________________________________________
49

50 required for making any for recommendations is that the recommendation is sound and it has been clearly shown that it is sound; and it does not give impression that writer is trying to muscle in on something. The recommendations are presented as a numbered list of complete sentences, each giving separate recommendation. APPENDIXES These contain information which is better to be provided to reader, but which cannot be included in the text. The following information can be considered for shifting from text to appendixes: i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. Case histories. Supporting illustrations; Detailed data; statements, Copies of letters, statements, govt. orders, etc. Samples, exhibits, photographs, etc. Extended analysis. List of personnel. Suggested

BIBLIOGRAPHY A type of footnotes, but contains more information. It comes at the end of a work. As a minimum, it lists, in alphabetical order, all of the works referred to in the footnotes. The bibliography may often include not only works cited in footnotes, but also other works consulted but not directly used in the preparation of paper. Bibliographies are sometimes annotated i.e. they include after each entry a brief statement about the contents and the value of the work. Entries in bibliography appear in alphabetical order by the last name of the author; the items are not numbered. GLOSSARY It contains clarifications of technical terms used in the text. If definitions used are a few then it is appropriate to have it in text with a numeral or some suitable designating mark or symbol on it and clarification given in footnote. However, if placing definitions in text gives too many interruptions, then these are alphabetically placed in glossary. TYPE SCRIPT STANDARDS In typed reports, following standards are maintained: ______________________________________________________________________________
50

51 Paper - white paper of high quality in A4 size.

Margins Left side 1 inch Top 1 inch Right side 1 inch Bottom 1 inch

Left hand margin may be extended to 2 inches for binding purposes. Where quotations are introduced into the text of a report, an additional five spaces of margin must be allowed, on each side f the paper. Spacing and indenting The text of report should be double spaced throughout, except as noted below:i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. ix. Triple - or quadruple - space below centre heading Single - space center listings ( if items are numerous, number them). Single - space long quotations- those that run four or more lines in length. Triple space above and below quotations and listings. Single - space individual footnotes more than a line long; double space between notes. Single space individual entries in the bibliography; double space between entries; Usually, single space material in Appendix. Double space above and below side headings. Customary indentation at beginning of paragraph is five spaces. Paging Arabic numbers are used in upper right corner, except for preparatory pages and the first page of the body, and pages that begin new divisions. The number should be in alignment with right hand margin, at least two spaces above the first line of text and inch down from the top edge. The prefatory pages are numbered with lower-case Roman numerals centered at the bottom of the page ______________________________________________________________________________
51

52 at least inch. from the bottom edge. It is customary to omit the numbers from the title page, although it is counted. The placing of number on first page of text is also omitted. No punctuation of page number required. 12.2 GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS i. All important titles are written in capital words, while only first and noun / verb starts with capital words for titles of lesser importance. Part numbers are either written in roman numerical or in words while chapter numbers can be written in any fashion. ii. iii. iv. v. The chapters have titles and start from new page, while titles are not required for parts. Sub-headings have three levels according to their importance. Underlined or centrally written sub-headings attract more. Only those abbreviations may be used which very common / familiar. All contents of Glossary, Appendix, and Bibliography are arranged in alphabetical order.

______________________________________________________________________________
52

53

PART - IV
13. 13.1

ORAL PRESENTATION
NATURE & TYPE OF ORAL PRESENTATIONS Oral presentation means communication through oral words and gestures. In other words these are inter-personal performances in which concise technical information is provided to an attending audience in meetings or lectures. The audience could be one person or to a group. It is either short talk (up to 10 minutes) or long talk (for longer periods). Short talk is normally progress report, introductory words, etc., while long talk is of research or on a given topic. However for good talk, 7 Cs must be kept in mind and visual aids available must be effectively utilized. Oral presentations could be any of the following types:i. Extemporaneous--- Keep main points on piece of paper, so that no point is missed. It allows maximum eye contact and more verbal and non-verbal involvement with the audience. ii. iii. Reading--- of written speech. It has less eye contact or impact. Memorization--- Entire speech remembered by heart. In it start is easy, but one may mix up later. There is also risk of forgetting the precise words in front of an audience, thus decreasing the credibility of the speaker. iv. Impromptu--- Extempore speech, always very effective and conveys original ideas. In it one is called to speak off the cuff, without preparation, and without a forewarning.

13.2

TECHNICAL PRESENTATIONS / BRIEFINGS Technical presentations or briefings are focused oral presentations that use

visual aids. Normally these are informative, demonstrative (how to work?) and persuasive (convincing). However, the steps required for effective oral presentations and briefings are as follows:-

______________________________________________________________________________
53

54 a) Plan the presentation--- i.e. Define the purpose, analyze the audience and tailor the presentation accordingly, analyze the occasion and tailor the presentation accordingly, and choose a suitable title. b) Preparing the presentation--- i.e. Develop the central idea, develop the main ideas, gather supporting materials, and plan visual aids. c) Organize the presentation--- i.e. Introduction, main body, and conclusions. d) Rehearse the presentation. e) Improving delivery for professional performance before the audience--i.e. Choosing suitable delivery method ( memorizing, reading or outlining) and handling stage fright ( concentration on planning, setting realistic goals, avoiding negative thoughts, speaking slowly, starting with a pause, and adopting stress relieving techniques like deep breathing, mental relaxation, etc.). f) Checklist for making an oral presentation: Start with confidence Be organized with introduction, main body and conclusions Stay relaxed Pay attention to your body language and keep eye contact Use appropriate visual aids Pay attention to all details Close in memorable way 14.3 USE OF VISUAL AIDS Visual aids capture attention, illustrate important concepts, increase listeners ability to absorb information, help the speaker to remember message details, and help in making more professional impression. Computer software helps in preparing the slides used for presentation, and Microsoft Power point is the best example of it. However, visual aids must be used to highlight spoken words and not as a substitute for them. The visuals are either text visuals or graphic visuals. Text visuals help listeners follow the flow of ideas and should not normally exceed six lines with more than six words in each line, while graphic visuals present and emphasize important facts. Before including visual for presentation, one must re-check: (i) Is the visual necessary (a few visual can ______________________________________________________________________________
54

55 clarify and dramatize, but many can bury it)? (ii) Is the visual accurate? , and (iii) Is the visual properly documented? However, following factors be kept in mind for visual aids:a) These are most effective when they are simple. b) Visuals are counter productive if the audience cannot see them or understand them within a few moments. c) Graphic visuals must be simplified as much as possible. d) Effective visuals do not distract the audience or upstage the speaker. e) Limit each visual to one idea. f) Illustrate main points, not entire presentation. Normally the format for presentations through visual aids is: Title Chart Overview Charts (i.e. topics to be discussed) Discussion charts Summary charts Concluding charts

______________________________________________________________________________
55

56

______________________________________________________________________________
56