SELVAM COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY, NAMAKKAL DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING II YEAR /IV SEM UNIT I CONTROL SYSTEM

MODELING 1. What is system and control system? A number of components are connected in a sequence to perform a specific function, the group is called system. In a system when the output quantity is controlled by varying the input quantity then the system is called control system. 2. List out the advantages of closed loop transfer function. (AU, May-10) The closed loop systems are accurate. The closed loop systems are accurate even in the presence of nonlinearity. The sensitivity of the systems may be made small to make the system more stable. The closed loop systems are less affected by noise. 3. Compare open loop system with closed loop system? S.No. 1 2 3 4 Open loop system Inaccurate Simple and economical The changes in output due to external disturbance are not corrected May oscillate and become unstable (AU, May-10)

Closed loop system Accurate Complex and costlier The changes in output due to external disturbance are corrected automatically They are generally stable. Great efforts are needed to design a stable (AU, Dec-09)

4. Give two examples for open loop and closed systems. Temperature control system. Traffic control system. Numerical control system. Position control system.

5. Define transfer function.

(AU, May-10)

The Transfer function of a system is defined as the ratio of the laplace transform of output to Laplace transform of input with zero initial conditions.

6. What are the basic elements used for modeling mechanical rotational system(AU,Dec-09) Moment of inertia J, Kg-m2/rad Dashpot with rotational frictional coefficient B, N-m/(rad/sec) Torsional spring with stiffness K ,N-m /rad. 7. Name two types of electrical analogous for mechanical system. Force - voltage analogy. Force -current analogy. 8. Write the force equation for the system shown (AU, Dec-09) (AU, Dec-07)

F(t) = M d2x/dt2 +Bdx/dt + kx 9. What are the basic elements used for modeling mechanical translational system?

Mass M, Kg, Stiffness of spring K, N/m Viscous friction coefficient dashpot B, N-sec/m

10. What is feedback? What type of feedback is employed in control system? The feedback is a control action in which the output is sampled and a proportional signal is given to input for automatic correction of any changes in desired output. Negative feedback is employed in control system. 11. State whether transfer function technique is applicable to non-linear system and whether the transfer function is independent of the input of a system.(AU, Dec09) The transfer function technique is not applicable to non-linear system. The transfer function of a system is independent of input and depends only on system parameters but the output of a system depends on input. 12. Prove the rule for eliminating negative and positive feedback loop. (AU, May-07) Positive feedback Proof: C = (R-CH) G C = RG-CHG C + CHG = RG C (1+HG) = RG C/R = G/ (1+GH)

Negative feedback Proof: C = (R+CH) G C = RG+CHG C - CHG = RG C (1-GH) = RG C/R = G/ (1-GH) 13. What is block diagram? What are the basic components of block diagram? (AU, Dec-07) A block diagram of a system is a pictorial representation of the functions performed by each component of the system and shows the flow of signals. The basic elements of block diagram block, branch point and summing point. 14. Write any two advantage representation?(AU, Dec) and disadvantages of block diagram

Advantage Very simple to construct the block diagram for complicated systems. The function of individual element can be visualized from block diagram. Disadvantage Block diagram does not include any information about the physical construction of the system. Source of energy is generally not shown in the block diagram. So number of different block diagrams can be drawn depending upon the point of view of analysis. So block diagram for given system is not unique. 15. State Masons Gain formula. The formula can be stated as
Overall gain, T = PK K .

(AU, Dec-09)

Where k= no. of forward paths in the signal flow graph PK = forward path gain of the Kth forward path = 1-[sum of individual loop gains] + [sum of gain products of all possible Combinations of two non touching loops]-[sum of gain products of all possible combinations of three non touching loops]+ k = ( for that part of the graph which is not touching Kth forward path)

16. What is an input node, forward path gain, Transmittance in case of a signal flow graph? Input node is a node that has only outgoing branches. Forward path gain is a path from an input node to an output node that does not cross any node more than once. The gain acquired by the signal when it travels from one node to another is called transmittance. 17. What is signal flow graph? A signal flow graph is a diagram that represents a set of simultaneous algebraic equations .By taking L.T the time domain differential equations governing a control system can be transferred to a set of algebraic equations in s-domain. 18. What is source and sink? Source is the input node in the signal flow graph and it has only outgoing branches. Sink is an output node in the signal flow graph and it has only incoming branches. 19. Define non-touching loop. If there is no node common in between the two or more loops, such loops are said to be non- touching loops. 20. What are the basic properties of signal flow graph? (AU, Dec-10) The basic properties of signal flow graph are Signal flow graph is applicable to linear systems. It consists of nodes and branches. A node adds the signal of all incoming branches and transmits this sum to all outgoing branches. Signals travel along branches only in the marked direction and is multiplied by the gain of the branch.

SELVAM COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY, NAMAKKAL DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING II YEAR /IV SEM UNIT II TIME RESPONSE ANALYSIS 1. What is time response? The response given by the system which is function of the time, to the applied excitation is called time response of a control system. 2. Name the test signals used in control systems? (AU, Dec-09)

The commonly used test input signals in control system are impulse, step, ramp, acceleration and sinusoidal signals. 3. What do you mean order of a control system? (AU,Jun-10)

The order of the system is given by the order of the differential equation governing the system. It is also given by the maximum power of s in the denominator polynomial of transfer function. The maximum power of s also gives the number of poles of the system and so the order of the system is also given by number of poles of the transfer function. 4. List the time domain specifications. The time domain specifications are Delay time Rise time Peak time Peak overshoot (AU, Dec-09)

5. Define rise time, delay time settling time. (AU, May-08) Rise Time: The time taken for response to raise from 0% to 100% for the very first time is rise time. Delay Time: The time taken for response to reach 50% of final value for the very first time is delay time. Settling Time: Settling time is defined as the time taken by the response to reach and stay within specified error

6. Define: Peak time and Peak over shoot. (AU, Jun-09) Peak Time: The time taken for the response to reach the peak value for the first time is peak time. Peak over shoot: Peak overshoot is defined as the ratio of maximum peak value measured from the Maximum value to final value 7. Second order system has a damping ratio of 0.5 and a damped frequency of 4.2 rad/sec. Find the 5% settling time in the step response. (AU, Dec-07) Settling time, ts = 3/n = 3/(0.5*4.2) = 1.42 second. 8. How can we classify second order system based on damping ratio? (AU, Dec-09) Undamped system, = 0 Underdamped system, 0 < < 1 Critically damped system, = 1 Over damped system, > 1. 9. What is damped frequency of oscillation and damping ratio? (AU, Jun-09) Damped Frequency of Oscillation In under damped system the response is damped oscillatory. The frequency of damped Oscillation is given by d = n (1- 2) Damping Ratio The damping ratio is defined as the ratio of the actual damping to critical damping 10. What is mean by dynamic error coefficient? Mention its significance.(AU, Dec07) They are the coefficients of generalized error series. The generalized error series is given by e(t) = C0r(t) + C1 r (t) + (C2/2!) r\'\'(t) + (C3/3!) r\'\'\'(t) + ............. + (Cn/n!) rn\'(t). The coefficients C0, C1, C2 , ......,Cn are called generalized error coefficients or dynamic error coefficients. Significance: Steady state is function of time. Steady state can be determined from any type of input. (AU, Dec -09)

11. What are the different types of controller? P-controller PI controller PD controller PID controller

12. Give the relation ship between generalized and static error coefficients. The following expressions shows the relation between generalized and static error coefficient C0=1/(1+Kp); C1=1/Kv C2=1/Ka Where, the Coefficients C0, C1, C2 are called generalized error coefficient or dynamic error coefficients. The Kp, Kv and Ka are called static error constants. 13. Mention two advantages of generalized error constants over static error constants: Generalized error series gives error signal as a function of time. Using generalized error constants the steady state error can be detena for any type of input but static error constants are used to determine m state error when the input is anyone of the standard input. 14. Why derivative controller is not used in control systems? The derivative controller produces a control action based on rate of change of error signal and it does not produce corrective measures for any constant error. Hence derivative controller is not used in control systems. 15. Define Transient response and steady state response. Transient Response The output variation during the time, it takes to achieve its final value is called as transient response. The time required to achieve the final value is called transient period. Steady State Response It is that part of the time response which remains after complete transient response vanishes from the system output. 16. Give the effects of PI, PD controller. The PI controller increases the order of the system by one, which results in reducing the steady state error .But the system becomes less stable than the original system. The effect of PD controller is to increase the damping ratio of the system and so the peak overshoot is reduced. 17. What are the various static error constants? What is steady state error?(AU, May08) Positional Error Constant (Kp) Velocity error constant ( Kv) Acceleration Error Constant (Ka) Steady State Error The steady state error is the value of error signal e (t), when t tends to infinity. The steady state error is a measure of system accuracy. These errors arise from the nature of inputs, type of system and from non-linearity of system components.

18. What will be the nature of response of a second order system with different types of damping? For Undamped system the response is oscillatory. For Under damped system the response is damped oscillatory. For Critically damped system the response is exponentially rising. For over damped system the response is exponentially rising but the rise time will be very large.

19. Define Ramp signal: A ramp signal is a signal whose value increases linearly with time from an initial value of zero at t = 0. It is mathematically represented as r (t) = A t, t > 0= 0, t < 0 20. What is the importance of test signals? The test signals can be easily generated in test laboratories and the characteristics of test signals resembles the characteristics of actual input signals. The test signals are used to predetermine the performance of the system. If the response of a system is satisfactory for a test signal, then the system will be suitable for practical applications.

SELVAM COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY, NAMAKKAL DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING II YEAR /IV SEM UNIT II TIME RESPONSE ANALYSIS 1. What is time response? The response given by the system which is function of the time, to the applied excitation is called time response of a control system. 2. Name the test signals used in control systems? (AU, Dec-09)

The commonly used test input signals in control system are impulse, step, ramp, acceleration and sinusoidal signals. 3. What do you mean order of a control system? (AU,Jun-10)

The order of the system is given by the order of the differential equation governing the system. It is also given by the maximum power of s in the denominator polynomial of transfer function. The maximum power of s also gives the number of poles of the system and so the order of the system is also given by number of poles of the transfer function. 4. List the time domain specifications. The time domain specifications are Delay time Rise time Peak time Peak overshoot (AU, Dec-09)

5. Define rise time, delay time settling time. (AU, May-08) Rise Time: The time taken for response to raise from 0% to 100% for the very first time is rise time. Delay Time: The time taken for response to reach 50% of final value for the very first time is delay time. Settling Time: Settling time is defined as the time taken by the response to reach and stay within specified error 6. Define: Peak time and Peak over shoot. (AU, Jun-09) Peak Time: The time taken for the response to reach the peak value for the first time is peak time.

Peak over shoot: Peak overshoot is defined as the ratio of maximum peak value measured from the Maximum value to final value 7. Second order system has a damping ratio of 0.5 and a damped frequency of 4.2 rad/sec. Find the 5% settling time in the step response. (AU, Dec-07) Settling time, ts = 3/n = 3/(0.5*4.2) = 1.42 second. 8. How can we classify second order system based on damping ratio? (AU, Dec-09) Undamped system, = 0 Underdamped system, 0 < < 1 Critically damped system, = 1 Over damped system, > 1. 9. What is damped frequency of oscillation and damping ratio? (AU, Jun-09) Damped Frequency of Oscillation In under damped system the response is damped oscillatory. The frequency of damped Oscillation is given by d = n (1- 2) Damping Ratio The damping ratio is defined as the ratio of the actual damping to critical damping 10. What is mean by dynamic error coefficient? Mention its significance.(AU, Dec07) They are the coefficients of generalized error series. The generalized error series is given by e(t) = C0r(t) + C1 r (t) + (C2/2!) r\'\'(t) + (C3/3!) r\'\'\'(t) + ............. + (Cn/n!) rn\'(t). The coefficients C0, C1, C2 , ......,Cn are called generalized error coefficients or dynamic error coefficients. Significance: Steady state is function of time. Steady state can be determined from any type of input. (AU, Dec -09)

11. What are the different types of controller? P-controller PI controller PD controller PID controller

12. Give the relation ship between generalized and static error coefficients.

The following expressions shows the relation between generalized and static error coefficient C1=1/Kv C2=1/Ka C0=1/(1+Kp); Where, the Coefficients C0, C1, C2 are called generalized error coefficient or dynamic error coefficients. The Kp, Kv and Ka are called static error constants. 14. Mention two advantages of generalized error constants over static error constants: Generalized error series gives error signal as a function of time. Using generalized error constants the steady state error can be detena for any type of input but static error constants are used to determine m state error when the input is anyone of the standard input. 14. Why derivative controller is not used in control systems? The derivative controller produces a control action based on rate of change of error signal and it does not produce corrective measures for any constant error. Hence derivative controller is not used in control systems. 15. Define Transient response and steady state response. Transient Response The output variation during the time, it takes to achieve its final value is called as transient response. The time required to achieve the final value is called transient period. Steady State Response It is that part of the time response which remains after complete transient response vanishes from the system output. 16. Give the effects of PI, PD controller. The PI controller increases the order of the system by one, which results in reducing the steady state error .But the system becomes less stable than the original system. The effect of PD controller is to increase the damping ratio of the system and so the peak overshoot is reduced. 17.What are the various static error constants? What is steady state error?(AU, May08) Positional Error Constant (Kp) Velocity error constant ( Kv) Acceleration Error Constant (Ka) Steady State Error The steady state error is the value of error signal e (t), when t tends to infinity. The steady state error is a measure of system accuracy. These errors arise from the nature of inputs, type of system and from non-linearity of system components. 18.What will be the nature of response of a second order system with different types of damping?

For Undamped system the response is oscillatory. For Under damped system the response is damped oscillatory. For Critically damped system the response is exponentially rising. For over damped system the response is exponentially rising but the rise time will be very large.

19.Define Ramp signal: A ramp signal is a signal whose value increases linearly with time from an initial value of zero at t = 0. It is mathematically represented as r (t) = A t, t > 0= 0, t < 0 20.What is the importance of test signals? The test signals can be easily generated in test laboratories and the characteristics of test signals resembles the characteristics of actual input signals. The test signals are used to predetermine the performance of the system. If the response of a system is satisfactory for a test signal, then the system will be suitable for practical applications.

SELVAM COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY, NAMAKKAL DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING II YEAR /IV SEM UNIT III FREQUENCY RESPONSE ANALYSIS 1. Define resonance peak and bandwidth of the system? (AU, Dec-10) Resonance Peak The maximum value of the magnitude of closed loop transfer function is called resonant peak. Bandwidth The bandwidth is the range of frequencies for which the system gain Is more than 3 dB. The bandwidth is a measure of the ability of a feedback system to reproduce the input signal, noise rejection characteristics and rise time. 2. What is frequency response? (AU, Dec-09)

A frequency response is the steady state response of a system when the input to the system is a sinusoidal signal. 3. Give example for frequency response plot. Bode plot Polar plot Nichols plot M and N circles Nichols chart (AU, Dec-09)

4. Define phase cross over frequency and gain cross over frequency. (AU, Dec-09) Phase Cross Over Frequency The gain cross-over frequency is the frequency at which the magnitude of the open loop transfer function is unity. Gain Cross Over Frequency The phase cross-over frequency is the frequency at which the phase of the open loop transfer function is 180. 5. List the Frequency domain specifications? The frequency domain specifications are Resonant peak. Resonant frequency. Bandwidth Cut-off rate Gain margin Phase margin (AU, Jun-07)

6. Define phase margin and gain margin. (AU, Dec-07) Gain Margin. The gain margin, Kg is defined as the reciprocal of the magnitude of open loop transfer function, at phase cross-over frequency, pc. Gain margin,Kg = Phase Margin The phase margin, is that amount of additional phase lag at the gain cross over frequency, gc required to bring the system to the verge of instability. It is given by, 180 + gc, where gc is the phase of G(j) at the gain cross over frequency. Phase margin, = 180 + gc ; Where, gc = < G(j) =gc 7. Define Cut-off rate? Resonant frequency (r)? The slope of the log-magnitude curve near the cut-off frequency is called cut-Off rate. The frequency at which the resonant peak occurs is called resonant frequency. The resonant peak is the maximum value of the magnitude of closed loop transfer function. 8. Define Corner frequency (AU, Jun-09)

The magnitude plot can be approximated by asymptotic straight lines. The frequencies corresponding to the meeting point of asymptotes are called corner frequency. The slope of the magnitude plot changes at every corner frequencies. 9. Define polar plot. The polar plot of a sinusoidal transfer function G(j) is a plot of the magnitude of G(j) versus the phase angle/argument of G(j) on polar or rectangular coordinates as is varied from zero to infinity. 10. What are the advantages of bode plot. (AU, Jun-09) The magnitudes are expressed in db and so a simple procedure is to add magnitude of each term one by one. The approximate bode plot can be quickly sketched, and the c: can be made at corner frequencies to get the exact plot. The frequency domain specifications can be easily determined. The bode plot can be used to analyse both open loop and close loop system. 11. Write the expression to determine the resonant peak and resonant frequency Resonant peak, Mr = Resonant frequency,

12. Mention the advantage of Nichols chart?

(AU, Jun-10)

It is used to find closed loop frequency response from open loop frequency response. The frequency domain specifications can be determined from Nichols chart. The gain of the system can be adjusted to satisfy the given specification.

13. What are M and N circle? (AU, Dec 09) M circle The magnitude M of closed loop transfer function with unity feedback will be in the form of circle in complex plane for each constant value of M. The family of these circles is called M circles. N circle Let N = tan where a is the phase of closed loop transfer function with unity feedback. For each constant value of N, a circle can be drawn in the complex plane. The family of these circles is called N circles. 14. What is compensator? (AU, Dec 09)

A device inserted into the system for the purpose of satisfying the specifications is called as a compensator. 15. What are the uses of lead compensator? The uses of lead compensator are speeds up the transient response Increases the margin of stability of a system Increases the system error constant to a limited extent.

16. What is Nichols chart? The Nichols chart consists of M and N contours superimposed on ordinary graph. Along each M contour the magnitude of closed loop system, M will be a constant. Along each N contour, the phase of closed loop system will be constant. The ordinary graph consists of magnitude in db, marked on the y-axis and the phase in degrees marked on x-axis. The Nichols chart is used to find the closed loop frequency response from the open loop frequency response. 17. When lag/lead/lag-lead compensation is employed? Lag compensation is employed for a stable system for improvement in steady state performance. Lead compensation is employed for stable/unstable system for improvement in transient state performance.

The lag lead compensator is required when both the transient and steady state response of a system has to be improved

18. What are the advantages of frequency response analysis? The absolute and relative stability of the closed loop system can be estimated from the knowledge of the open loop frequency response. The practical testing of system can be easily carried with available sinusoidal signal generators and precise measurement equipments.

19. What is bode plot? The bode plot is a frequency response plot of the transfer function of a system. It consists of two plots-magnitude plot and phase plot. The magnitude plot is a graph between magnitude of a system transfer function in db and the frequency () .The phase plot is a graph between the phase or arguments of a system transfer function in degrees and the frequency (). Usually, both the plots are plotted on a common x-axis in which the frequencies are expressed in logarithmic scale. 20. What are the three types of compensators? The three types of compensators are Lag compensator. Lead compensator. Lag-Lead compensator.

SELVAM COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY, NAMAKKAL DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING II YEAR /IV SEM UNIT-IV STABILITY ANALYSIS 1. What are the main significance of root locus? (AU, Dec-09)

The root locus technique is used for stability analysis. Using root locus technique the range of values of K, for as stable system can be determined (AU, Dec-09)

2. What is limitedly and absolutely stable system?

For a bounded input signal,if the output has constant amplitude oscillations the the system may be stable or unstable under some limited constraints.Such a system is called Limitedly stable system. If a system output is stable for all variations of its parameters,then the system is called absolutely stable system. (AU, Dec-10)

3. What is the necessary and sufficient condition for stability?

The necessary condition for stability is that all the coefficients of the characteristic polynomial be positive. The necessary and sufficient condition for stability is that all of the elements in the first column of the routh array should be positive.

4. What is relative stability (AU, Dec-10) The Relative stability indicates the closeness of the system to stable. It is an indication of the strength or degree of stability 5. What is a principle of argument? The principles of arguments states that let F(S) are analytic function and if an arbitrary closed contour in a clockwise direction is chosen in the S-plane so that F(S) is analytic at every point of the contour. Then the corresponding F(S) plane contour mapped in the F(S) plane will encircle the origin N times in the anti clockwise direction, where N is the difference between number of poles and zeros of F(S) that are encircled by the choosen closed contour in the S-plane 6. State Routh stability criterion. (AU, Dec-09)

Routh criterion states that the necessary and sufficient condition for stability is that all of the elements in the first column of the routh array is positive. If this condition is not met, the system is unstable and the number of sign changes in the

elements of the first column of routh array corresponds to the number of roots of characteristic equation in the right half of the S-plane. 7. stability? (AU, Jun-10) A linear relaxed system is said to have BIBO stability if every bounded input results in a bounded output. 8. What is root locus? (AU, Dec-09) What is BIBO

The path taken by a root of characteristic equation when open loop gain K is varied from 0 to infinity is called root locus. 9. State Nyquist stability criterion? (AU, May-08)

If G(s) H(s) contour in the G(s) H(s) palne corresponding to Nyquist contour in s-plane encircles the point -1+j0 in the anticlockwise direction as many times as the number of right half s-planes poles of G(s) H(s).Then the closed loop system is stable. 10. What is breakaway and breakin point in root locus. (AU, May-08)

At breakaway point the root locus breaks from the real axis to enter into the complex plane. At breakin point the root locus enters the real axis from complex plane (AU, Jun-09)

11. Define root loci (RL)

The path taken by the roots of the open loop transfer function when the loop gain is varied from 0 to infinity are called root loci. 12. What do you mean by dominant pole? (AU, Dec-09)

The dominant point is a pair of complex conjugate pole which decides transient response of the system. In higher order systems the dominant poles are very close to origin and all other poles of the system are widely separated and so they have less effect on transient response of the system. 13. Define the terms Asymptotes and centroid in root locus. Asymptotes Asymptotes are straight lines which are parallel to root locus going to infinity an meet the root locus at infinity. Angle +or - 180(2q+1)/n-m, q-----0,1,2,----(n-m) Centroid The meeting point of the asymptotes with the real axis is called centroid. The centroid is given by Centroid = (sum of poles sum of zeros) / (n-m)

n-number of poles. m-number of zeros. 14. What is characteristic equation? The denominator polynomial C(s)/R(s) is the characteristic equation of the system. 15. What is auxiliary polynomial? (AU, Dec-10) In the construction of routh array a row of all zero indicates the existence of an even polynomial as a factor of the given characteristic equation. In an even polynomial the exponents of s are even integers or 0 only. This even polynomial factor is called auxiliary polynomial. 16. How will you find the root locus on real axis? To find the root loci on real axis, choose the test point on real axis. If the total number of poles and zeros on the real axis to the right of this test point is odd number then the test point lie on the root locus. If it is even then the test point does not lie on the root locus. 17. How the roots of characteristic are related to stability? If the root of characteristic equation has positive real part then the impulse response of the system is not bounded. Hence the system will be unstable. If the root has negative real parts then the impulse response is bounded. Hence the system will be stable. 18. What is nyquist contour The contour that encloses entire right half of S plane is called nyquist contour. 19. How the roots of characteristic equation are related to stability? If the roots of characteristic equation has positive real part then the impulse response of the system is not bounded,Hence the system will be unstable .If the roots has negative real parts then the impulse response is bounded. Hence the system will be stable. 20. What is the relation between stability and coefficient of characteristic polynomial? If the coefficients of characteristic polynomial are negative or 0, then some of roots lies on half of s-plane. Hence the system is unstable. If the coefficients of characteristic polynomial are positive and if no coefficient is 0 the there is a possibility of the system to be stable provided all the roots lie on left half of splane.

SELVAM COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY, NAMAKKAL DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING II YEAR /IV SEM UNIT-V STATE VARIABLE ANALYSIS 1. What is state vector? (AU, Dec-10) The state vector is a (nx1) column matrix (or vector) whose elements are state variables of the system. (Where n is the order of the system).It is denoted by X(t). 2. What is input and output space? (AU, Dec-10) The set of all possible values which the input vector U(t) can have (or assume) at time t forms the input space of the system. The set of all possible values which the output vector Y(t) can have (or assume) at time t forms the output space of the system. 3. What are the three basics elements used to form state diagram? The basic elements used to construct the state diagram are Scalar Adder Integrator. 4. What are the advantages of state space analysis? The state space analysis is applicable to any type of systems. They can be used for modeling and analysis of linear & non linear systems, time invariant & time variant systems and multiple input & multiple output systems. The state space analysis can be performed with initial conditions. The variables used to represent the system can be any variables in the system. Using this analysis the internal states of the system at any time instant can be predicted. 5. What is a state and state variable? (AU, Jun-10) The state is the condition of a system at any time instant. A set of variable which describes the state of the system at any time instant are called state variables. (AU, Nov-10)

6. Give the need for controllability test and observability test?

(AU, Jun-10)

The controllability test is necessary to find the usefulness of a state variable. If the state variables are controllable then by controlling (i.e. varying) the state variables the desired outputs of the system are achieved. The observability test is necessary to find whether the state variables are measurable or not. If the state variables are measurable then the state of the system can be determined by practical measurements of the state variables. (AU, Jun-10)

7. State sampling theorem?

Sampling theorem states that a band limited continuous time signal with highest frequency fm, hertz can be uniquely recovered from its samples provided that the sampling rate Fs is greater than or equal to 2fm samples per second. 8. State the duality between controllability and observability? (AU, Jun-10)

The concept of controllability and observability are dual concepts and it is proposed by kalman as principle of duality. The principle of duality states that a system is completely state controllable if and only if its dual system is completely state controllable if and only if its dual system is completely observable or vice versa. 9. What are all the methods of modeling for phase variables? Controllable canonical form. Observable canonical form. Diagonical canonical form. Jordan canonical form. 10. What are phase variables? The phase variables are defined as those particular state variables which are obtained from one of the system variable and its derivatives. Usually the variable used is the system output and the remaining state variables are then derivatives of the output. 11. State the various properties of state transition matrix. The properties of the state transition matrix of discrete time system are given below, (0)=1 -1 (k) =(-k) (k,k0)= (k-k0)= A(k- k0) ; where k> k0

12. What are the types of solution of state equations? Homogeneous state equations. Non-homogeneous state equations. 13. Define is controllability and is observability. A system is said to be completely state controllable if it is possible to transfer the system state from any initial state X(t0) at any other desired state X(t), in specified finite time by a control vector U(t). A system is said to be completely observable if every state X(t) can be completely identified by measurements of the output Y(t) over a finite time interval. 14. What are the disadvantages of state space modeling using physical variable? The advantages of choosing the physical variable are the following, The state variable can be utilized for the purpose of feedback The implementation of design with state variable feedback becomes straight forward. The solution of state equation gives time variation of variables which have direct relevance to the physical system. 15. What are the drawbacks in transfer function model analysis? Transfer function is defined under zero initial conditions. Transfer function is applicable to linear time invariant systems. Transfer function analysis is restricted to single input and output systems. Does not provide information regarding the internal state of the system. 16. What are the different methods available for computing eAt? The various methods available for computing eAt are, Computation of eAt using matrix exponential. Computation of eAt using laplace-transform Computation of eAt by canonical transformation Computation of eAt using cayley-hamilton theorem. 17. What is state diagram? The pictorial representation of the state model of the system is called state diagram. The state diagram of the system can be either in block diagram or in signal flow graph form.

18. Write the state model of nth order system? The state model of a system consists of state equation and output equation. the state model of a nth order system with m-inputs and p-outputs are X (t) =AX (t) +BU (t) ..State Equation. Y (t) =CX (t) +DU (t) ..Output Equation. Where X (t) =state vector of order (nx1), U (t) =Input vector of order (mx1) A= system matrix of order (nxn), B=Input matrix of order (nxm) Y (t) =output vector of order (px1), C=output matrix of order (pxn), D= Transmission matrix of order (pxm). 19. What is sampled data control system? When the signal or information at any or some points in a system is in the form of discrete pulses, then the system is called discrete data system or sampled data system. 20. What are the methods available for the stability analysis of sampled data control system? The following three methods are available for the stability analysis of sampled data control system Juris stability test. Bilinear transformation. Root locus technique.