CHAPTER I

PRELIMINARY CONCEPTS. THE DIRECT AND INVERSE TOPOGRAPHIC PROBLEM. THE ROLE OF TERRESTRIAL MEASUREMENTS IN THE FIELD APPLICATION OF INVESTMENT PROJECTS The Object of Study and the Importance of Engineering Topography Engineering topography (applied, special) deals with the study of the methods involved in the field application of investment objectives belonging to different activity branches. By investment objective we call any work that modifies the moment appearance of the terrain, either by implementing a new building or by modifying the existing one. Engineering topography studies and solves problems concerning: the technical-economical analyses that fundament the design, planning the design for the execution of the objective, its execution and exploitation, and the surveillance of the time behavior of the performed building. In engineering topography, starting from the methods and instruments used in topography there have been developed new methods and instruments specific to the execution process (building-assembly) of some investment objectives in all activity branches that operate at the level of the terrestrial surface: Geology, hydrology, mining industry, improvements, civilian, industrial and agricultural constructions, traffic routes and art works, archaeology, external network constructions (water, sewer, methane gas, oil, etc.). 1

Engineering topography includes the following main categories of works: Technical-topographical analyses; Topographical-engineering design; Topographical-engineering assurance of the execution process of the designed objective; Monitoring the time behavior of the performed buildings and of the fields in their location area. Technical-topographical analyses Are carried on in the same time as the TEA (TechnicalEconomical Analyses), starting from the order of a beneficiary, in search of the best solution to design the investment; Develops the control network in the studied areas, carries out topographic surveillances of these areas, elaborating or updating the topographic plan of the measured surface; Provides support bases and graphical documentations (topographic location plans, profiles) for other kinds of studies: geological, hydrological, geophysical, meteorological, traffic routes and networks that could be linked to the location area. Topographical-engineering design Is included in the EP (execution project) stage, in which the execution project of the building is elaborated and consists in: Large scale topographic plans elaboration, needed to design the building;

Topographic preparation of the execution project, specifying in detail the methods and instruments used for tracing;

Analyses

elaboration of the

concerning location

the area,

vertical surface

systematizing Topographic tracing -

computation, embankment volumes or floods. Assures the field application of the execution project of the investment objective in the position (at coordinates X, Y, Z) considered by the designer, specified in the project; Assures the implementation of the support base for tracing in different forms, adapted to the nature of execution works for each single case: In this stage, the location of the work, the main axes are traced, the tracing benchmarks are materialized, and tracing the structural elements of the designed objective is assured. Topographical-engineering assurance of the execution process of the designed objective In the case of construction works made of prefabricated elements (foundations, stakes, longitudinal and transversal beams, diaphragms) or/and in the case of assembling some technological equipment (rolling bridges, turbo aggregates, processing equipments, etc.), adapting some topographic methods and instruments is necessary in order to provide operational and high precision tracing of axes and surfaces of the mentioned structural and functional elements (electricaloptical technology, laser, multiple checking methods).

Photo 1.1. Topographic measurements Remark: regarding the two previous steps that specify the involvement degree of engineering topography in the field application of investment projects, a specification needs to be made: after carrying out the tracing works, the execution surveillance is carried out in steps, through which are established the precision of the field application of the project, and the real coordinates (X, Y, Z) of the traced elements. The purpose of this action is, on the one hand, to correct the tracing project in comparison with the real situation (inside the execution tolerance limits), and on the other hand, to draw up, in the end, the general plan of the finished works. Monitoring the time behavior of the performed buildings and of the fields in their location area

Any disturbance of the natural appearance of terrestrial surfaces requires measures concerning the equilibrium of the involved volumes: breakdowns, settlings, and slides. The building terrain impact needs to be topographically analyzed in the stage of founding the objective, including the following works: settling measurement (vertical displacements), determining the horizontal displacements, the declivity of high structures, establishing the time behavior of structural elements (absolute and reciprocal) and of technological equipment. All these high precision measurements must be executed based on a well-established program, adapted in time to the real conditions concerning the behavior of the studied elements, using well-perfected methods and checked and adjusted precision equipment. The purpose of monitoring the time behavior of terrains (especially those from the underground exploited areas or quarries), constructions (especially industrial, hydroelectric or special ones) and technological equipment (especially massive ones that need refined positioning in the location) is double: To prevent the disasters due to the mentioned displacements in time, the degradation of the involved elements, to adopt coherent and efficient methods to diminish or stop the recorded phenomena; To validate the design methods used (especially static and dynamic calculus of structures) and to allow their enhancement based on some real data concerning the time behavior of the designed elements. Diagram 1.1 presents a correlation between the sciences, disciplines and domains which engineering topography is linked with, either by taking

over some methods or instruments, models, information, or by providing materials, graphical and numerical information, methods and instruments for the field application of the investment projects belonging to different activity branches. The Direct and Inverse Topographic Problem Topographic works can be divided in two major groups, depending on the nature of the known and determined elements: Topographic measurements through which, starting from: A support base that exists in the field: A, B benchmarks materialized in the field (XA, YA, eventually ZA); known coordinates (XB,YB); Natural and artificial details existing in the field, geometrically shaped by characteristic points (e.g. point 1 a building corner).

B 1 1
A1 ) A1

A1

Figure

.1.1 Tracing a horizontal direction

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the relative position of the characteristic point with respect to the support base is recorded, measuring the topographic connection elements on the formed alignment: distances and angles. Therefore, measuring a topographic element consists in comparing it with a standard (represented by a measuring instrument) in order to record the size of the element, in the specified system of measuring. Remark: to be measured: horizontal distances, horizontal and vertical angles, altitude differences (heights). Topographic measurements represent the basis for drawing up topographic maps and plans, the object of the DIRECT TOPOGRAPHIC PROBLEM. Topographic tracing: Stays at the basis of the step-by-step field application of investment projects, by the use of designed points, axes, surfaces and volumes, in the three-dimensional space; From the execution and tracing projects result: N A A1 XA1, YA1, D M.A1 Z
A1,

The support base used for tracing; The coordinate system X, Y and heights Z; The methods and instruments that will be used for tracing the elements; The tracing elements for each traced designed point.
1

Figure

.1.2 Topographic tracing

Tracing a topographic element consists in materializing it in the field, using a measuring instrument. Remark: to be measured: horizontal distances, horizontal and vertical angles, altitude differences (heights). The field application of execution projects of constructions investments by means of topographic tracing represents the subject of the INVERSE TOPOGRAPHIC PROBLEM.
Table 1.1
DIRECT TOPOGRAPHIC PROBLEM GENERAL TOPOGRAPHY MESURING 2 known points * National prevalently National Characteristic points i, Lij, ij, Zij, Dij Measured characteristic points Given: (XA, YA); (XB, ZB), ZA To be measured: Computations: INVERSE TOPOGRAPHIC PROBLEM ENGINEERING TOPOGRAPHY TRACING 2 known points Local prevalently National Base points of the designed building ij, D ij Points of the designed building THE NATURE OF THE PROBLEM SUBJECT OF STUDY TOPOGRAPHIC OPERATION Known support base Support system (X, Y) Height system Points existing in the field Designed points Topographic elements measured in the field Topographic elements traced in the field Points represented in the plan, the map Points resulted in the field Basic computations

, L A1 , 1 1

Given: (XM, YM); (XN, ZN), ZM (XA1, YA1), ZA1 Computations:

D A1 = L A1 cos 1 DZ A1 = L A1 cos 1

MA1 = arctg

Y A1 X MN

DX A1 = D A1 cos A1 DY A1 = D A1 sin A1
Where

MN = arctg
A1 = MA 1

A1 = AB + 1 400 g
Y AB X AB
depending

YMN X MN MN

AB = arctg

D M . A1 = X 2 MA1 + Y 2 MA1
DZ MA1 = Z A1 Z M

on the orientation dial

X 1 = X A + X A1

Y1 = Y A + Y A1 Z 1 = Z A + Z A1
The topographic plan, map Points, axes, surfaces, distances, volumes of the designed building, materialized in the field The result of the topographic operation

* Or one known point and one known direction ** Connected to the national system Topographic documentation needed for the design Normative laws regulate the content and volume of the documents needed to implement investments (constructions). On principle (the investment law), based on the order issued by a beneficiary, a MATERIAL SPECIFICATION concerning the design of the new objective is developed. The designer that had won the auction regarding the development of the execution project of the mentioned objective, together with the beneficiary, will go through a stage of technical-economical analyses that will fundament the content of the project from the perspective of the location and of shapes, volumes and nature of the necessary works that will be executed in order to carry out the proposed objective. Governmental Decree no. 225 bis/19.08.1994 regulates the general frame in which the feasibility studies concerning the execution of the new objective are carried on, which determine its purpose and destination. On principle, the designer needs to have at his disposal:

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The map of the country (on the 1:25,000 scale) including the area (areas) aimed for location; Other maps at different scales (1:100,000 1:10,000) with the mentioned areas; Topographic plans on large scales (1:5,000 1:100); Longitudinal and transversal profiles of the aimed terrain, watercourses, traffic routes from the area, profiles and drafts of the vertical systematization and of technical-utilitarian networks (water, sewer, heating, electric energy, methane gas, telecommunications).

Some remarks need to be made regarding the way of providing these graphical materials, indispensable for carrying out technical-economical, feasibility and outline analyses for the execution project: Small-scale maps and plans generally exist in the archive of design institutions; Large-scale plans need to be updated and completed with specific data (networks, support bases, relief); Some requirements referring precision, fidelity and detail of the plan need to be fulfilled in representing the planimetry and altimetry on large-scale topographic plans. These represent the bases for selecting: The plan scale 1:n; The contour interval E.

The precision of planimetry representation It refers to: The precision of the plan in comparison to the support base from the area; The reciprocal precision of the represented details.

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The graphical precision of the plan is given by the following relation:

1 mpe = n md

where md: is the mean total position error of the point in the field, the graphical precision of the topographic plan; mpe: is the mean error of drawing up the topographic plan, of representing or extracting the points from the plan. E.g.: md = 0.1 m, mpe = 0.2 mm, results n = 500. md = 0.2 m, mpe = 0.2 mm, results n = 1000. Note that increasing md, will increase the value of the denominator of the plan scale n. For large scale plans (1:2,000, 1:1,000, 1:500, 1:200, 1:100) the mean total position error mpe of the contour point on the original plan will be given by the relation:

m pe = m2r + m2c + m2 g
mr: the mean square error of elevating the point;

(1.2)

mc: the mean square error of map plotting (point repeating); mg: the mean square error of engraving (drawing) the editorial original of the plan. The precision of plane representation of the relief It is characterized by the total error of determining the height of a point depending on the contours traced on the plan. The general relation is:

mH = m 2 h + m 2 c
by the levelling precision;

(1.3)

where mh = the mean error of the plane position of the contour determined

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mc = the mean error of the plane position of the contour determined by the contours interpolating precision. A comprehensive relation regarding the influence of all factors that control mH, is:

m H = m 21 + m 2 2 + m 2 3 + m 2 4
m2 = the mean error of field measurements;

(1.4)

m1 = the mean error of determining the height of support benchmarks; m3 = the mean square error of repeating on the plan the measured levelling point; m4 = the mean error of interpolating and drawing the contours. Remark: for the plan scale between 1:200 and 1:500, mH is estimated to be = 0.01 0.15 m. Plan fidelity and detailing Plan fidelity represents the degree of resemblance of the images of planimetric and altimetric details scaled on the plan, to the real elements of the terrain. Plan detailing represents the covering degree of the plan with details that exist in the field, whose representation is possible at the given scale and contour interval. The plan scale and the contour interval are chosen depending on the minimal sizes of objects or of the distances between them, as well as on the copying degree of the relief on the plan. THE CONTENT OF TOPOGRAPHIC WORKS DURING EXECUTION The Content of Topographic Works During Execution Field application of construction projects in order to be executed needs office and field topographic works to be performed. Office works are carried out as part of the topographic preparation of the construction project 13

with a view to field application. Field works are composed of field tracing works of construction axes, object contours and details during execution, as well as of measurements during the assembly of construction elements and concrete prefabricates. Tracing works differ from topographic surveillances depending on their content. In surveillance, plans and profiles of the terrain are drawn up based on the field measurements; in tracing, the procedure is reversed, characteristic points and axes of constructions are applied in the field with a view to execution, based on the plans and profiles of the project. Because of that, tracing methods differ from surveillance methods, and the precision of tracing methods is usually higher. Tracing a point in the field, based on the elements given in the project is performed in the following way: the designed horizontal angle (namely, the second side of the angle) is traced in the field, the length from the project is traced on this direction and the position in the plan of the point is marked in the field, and the height from the project is transmitted on the vertical of the traced point, obtaining the position in space of the designed point. In order to increase the precision of tracing angles, lengths and heights in the field, proceed as follows: start by temporarily tracing the values given in the project, go on measuring the angle, length or height preliminarily traced and finish with the final tracing, namely, with correcting the position of the temporarily traced point (by applying in the field the values of the corrections determined from the comparison of the designed and measured values). Tracing buildings in the field usually requires three steps, the last one being specific to industrial constructions. In the first step is carried out the tracing in the field of the main axes of the construction from the points of the geodetic basis used in the topographical surveillance. During tracing the main axes, only the general

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position of the construction in the field and its orientation with respect to the surrounding buildings and the contours of the objects that exist in the field are determined. The precision of these works, if not specified otherwise, matches the graphical precision of the general plan scale of the construction. The second step is tracing in detail the construction, which is carried out with respect to the main axes. Corresponding to the execution steps of the building, the longitudinal and transversal axes of the construction parts and their details, as well as the axes of the construction elements (the reinforced concrete prefabricates) in the assembling process, are traced in the field and measurements are carried out in order to determine the plane and height position of all characteristic points of the horizontal and vertical sections through the positioned construction elements. Detail tracing establishes the reciprocal position of construction elements and requires a much higher precision than tracing main axes. The third step involves tracing and positioning the assembling axes and the assembling of the technological (industrial) equipment in the designed position. This step requires the highest precision of measurements, these being performed by geodesists. The general precision of tracing works (concepts) In the field application of the project, the tracing works must respect the designed shape and sizes of the building, including the reciprocal position with respect to other buildings. Fulfilling this important requirement entails topographic works to be carried out with a certain tracing precision. Determining correctly the required precision of tracing buildings is very important because an insufficient tracing precision could lead to a inadequate execution, and an inflated tracing precision leads to an unjustifiable waste of time and material means and in addition extends the execution time of the construction.

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Three precision classes, corresponding to the three main steps of performing the tracing assembling works, can be admitted: The precision of tracing the main axes; The precision of detail tracing and assembling the prefabricated reinforced concrete elements; The precision of assembling the industrial equipment. The computations of the precision required in the field application of the project for execution are performed by geodesists. There exist normative laws that establish the tracing assembling margins, as well as technical instructions concerning the method for executing the tracing works. The precision of executing the constructions depends on three main factors: the precision of topographic measurements during tracing assembling, the precision of computations during the execution project elaboration and the precision of performing the construction assembling works. Accepting that these factors independently influence the value of the mean square deviation of the construction point, m, with respect to the theoretical position, this can be presented in the general form as:

m 2 = m 2T + m 2 P + m 2 C
measurements (length, angle and height errors);

(1.5)

where: mT is the mean total square error of the influence of topographic mP is the mean total square error due to the elaboration process of the construction project; mC is the mean total error of the construction assembling works, including the errors that appear in the execution of the prefabricated elements. The construction project is preferred to specify the value of permissible deviation , with respect to the designed sizes (the margin). In 16

this case, a correlation between the values of the errors that compose the expression (1.5) needs to be determined, taking into consideration both the technical possibility to achieve the precision in the three separated processes (design topographic tracing execution) and the total economical efficiency of solving the execution of the building. For a preliminary computation of the necessary precision for tracing assembling topographic works, one of the following values can be accepted: mT (0.5 0.3) or mT (0.35 0.15) where
T T

(1.6)

is the permissible deviation (margin) for tracing assembling

topographic measurements, specified in the tracing normative documents. The topographic preparation of the project with a view to the field application The components of the project for its field application are the following: The general plan of the building (on the 1:500 1:2,000 scale), which is the contoured topographic plan on which the contours of all designed buildings, the designed coordinates of the main points and the heights of the characteristic surfaces and of communication access lines were placed; Execution details, which contain large-scale (1:200 1:1) plans and drawings, profiles, horizontal sections on different levels and vertical sections, in which the sizes and heights of the construction details are given; The vertical systematization project formed of large-scale (1:2,000 1:200) plans and drafts, including profiles, by which the existing relief of the terrain is transformed in small

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slope surfaces needed to evacuate water from the surface of the construction area and to provide traffic (streets, sidewalks, roads, railways, etc.). In the project, the black, red and embankment heights, as well as the transport directions of earth masses, are placed on the square network or in transversal profiles; Longitudinal profiles and plans of traffic routes (roads, railways), of technical-utilitarian networks and of airlines on the 1:1,000 1:5,000 scales for plans and 1:100 1:500 for heights; The control network diagrams of the topographic surveillance of the construction site, the topographic descriptions of the bearing points, the index of coordinates and heights. The geometric base of the project for its field application is represented by the tracing axes of the constructions, with respect to which are given all the sizes of the project, in the execution drawings. The main axes of the construction are connected to the topographic points of the control network. As main axes are taken the following: for linear constructions (dams, bridges, roads, railways, drains, tunnels), their longitudinal axes; for buildings, the axes of the exterior walls, and for each stake, the symmetry axis of its foundation. The heights of plans, floors and isolated points of the project are given with respect to a conventional level (for buildings, with respect to the level of the finished floor of the ground floor) and are placed on plans with the sign plus (above this level) or minus (below the conventional level). The conventional level of each construction corresponds to a certain altitude, whose value is mentioned in the project.

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The content of the topographic preparation of the project is the following: Drawing up the tracing drafts and connecting the main axes to the points of the topographic base; The elaboration of the project for the tracing topographic works, done by the geodesist, in the case of complex construction projects (industrial units, hydro-technical junctions, airports, railway junctions, large bridges, etc.). The tracing drafts are extracted from the general plan of the construction or from other execution details, drawn up at satisfactory scales, large and topographically processed; these are official documents that are delivered in order to be exactly executed. The tracing drafts synthetically represent, in a graphical form, the organization of detail tracing works of objects or of some parts of them. The tracing draft includes, apart the drawing, the following data: The elements that need to be traced (angles, distances, altitude differences, heights, slopes); The way tracing is performed (the tracing method and procedures, the points and sides of the tracing base); The measures that need to be taken in order to assure the tracing precision, especially in the case of difficult conditions that may appear (obstacles, temperature variations, wind, etc.); The instruments and auxiliary equipment used for tracing and the special measures concerning their verification; When does tracing start and when does it end; Tracing control, indications regarding the draw up of the execution diagram (the diagram with the elements found at control measurements);

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Tracing reception and delivery of traced points; Points materialization and beaconing; Other measures, including those concerning the safety of the operator and his aids during tracing.

The schedule of performing the tracing works on steps is connected to the schedule of the construction execution.

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