Fertilizer

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Fertilizers are soil amendments applied to promote plant growth. They are usually applied directly onto the soil, but can also be applied onto leaves (foliar feeding). The main nutrients added in fertilizer are nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium but other nutrients are added in smaller amounts. Fertilizers can be either organic (e.g. manure) or inorganic (mined or synthesized chemically). Organic fertilizers and some mined inorganic fertilizers have been used for centuries whereas chemically-synthesized inorganic fertilizers were only developed on an industrial scale in the 20th century. Increased understanding and use of fertilizers was an important part of both the pre-industrial British Agricultural Revolution and the industrial green revolution of the 20th century.

Chemical content
Fertilizers typically provide, in varying proportions, the three major plant nutrients: nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, known shorthand as N-P-K). They may also provide secondary plant nutrients such as calcium, sulfur, magnesium. Micronutrients may be provided: boron, chlorine, manganese, iron, zinc, copper, molybdenum and selenium. [edit]Macronutrients

and micronutrients

Fertilizers can be classified by their macronutrients and micronutrients content (concentrations by dry matter). There are six macronutrients: nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, often termed "primary macronutrients" because their availability is usually managed with NPK fertilizers, and the "secondary macronutrients" calcium, magnesium, and sulfur which are required in roughly similar quantities but whose availability is often managed as part of liming and manuring practices rather than fertilizers. The macronutrients are consumed in larger quantities and normally present as a whole number or tenths of percentages in plant tissues (on a dry matter weight basis) There are many micronutrients, required in concentrations ranging from 5 to 100 parts per million (ppm) by mass . Plant micronutrients include iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), boron (B),copper (Cu), molybdenum (Mo), nickel (Ni), chlorine (Cl ), and zinc (Zn).
.

Macronutrient fertilizers (N-P-K)

Collectively, the main nutrients vital to plants by weight are called macronutrients, including: nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) (i.e. N-P-K). Synthetic macronutrient fertilizer can be referred to as artificial or straight, where the product predominantly contains the three main nutrients.Compound fertilizers are N-P-K fertilizers with other elements purposely intermixed.

Reporting of N-P-K

Fertilizers are classified according to the content of these three elements (e.g. a mainly N fertilizer mix can be described as a nitrogen fertilizer. Labeling is according to relative amounts of each of the three elements by weight (i.e, mass fraction). Nitrogen percentage is reported directly, howeverphosphorus is reported as the mass fraction of phosphorus pentoxide ((P2O5 , the anhydride of phosphoric acid), and potassium is reported as the mass fraction of potassium oxide ((K2O) the anhydride of potassium hydroxide).
[1]

Fertilizer composition is reported in this way for historical reasons (dating back to Liebig) due to analytical processes.

'Mass fraction' conversion

In the U.K., packaged fertilizer does not provide ratios of each element, though some packaging also reports elemental mass fractions. U.K. fertilizer-labeling regulations
[2]

allow for additionally reporting

elemental mass fractions of phosphorus and potassium, rather than phosphoric acid and potassium hydroxide, (in parentheses after standardized values). The regulations specify the factors for converting from the P2O5 and K2O values to the respective P and K elemental values as follows:  For phosphorus pentoxide-derived fertilizers, phosphorus constitutes 43.6% of the total mass[citation
needed]

. Thus, the official UK mass fraction (percentage) of elemental phosphorus is 43.6%.

 

Likewise, the mass fraction (percentage) of elemental potassium is 83%. [K] = 0.83 x [K2O] Thus an 185120 fertilizer contains by weight:    18% elemental (N) 22% elemental (P), and 16% elemental (K) (the remaining 11% is ballast or filler[1] which may or may not be useful to plants, depending on filler material)

History
Main article: History of fertilizer While manure, cinder and ironmaking slag have been used to improve crops for centuries, the use of fertilizers is one of the great innovations of the Agricultural Revolution of the 19th Century.

Inorganic fertilizers (synthetic fertilizer)

Fertilizers are broadly divided into organic fertilizers (composed of enriched organic matterplant or animal), or inorganic fertilizers (composed of synthetic chemicals and/or minerals). Inorganic fertilizer is often synthesized using the Haber-Bosch process, which produces ammonia. This ammonia is used as a feedstock for other nitrogen fertilizers (e.g. anhydrousammonium nitrate and urea).

These concentrated products may be diluted with water to form a concentrated liquid fertilizer, UAN. Ammonia can also be used in the Odda Process in combination with rock phosphate and potassium fertilizer to produce compound fertilizers.

Application
Synthetic fertilizers are commonly used to treat fields used for growing maize, followed by barley, sorghum, rapeseed, soy andsunflower
tion needed] [cita

Major users of nitrogen-based fertilizer[3] Total N consumption Country China USA France 18.7 9.1 2.5 (Mt pa) Amount used for feed & pasture 3.0 4.7 1.3 1.2 0.7 0.9 0.3 0.9 0.3 0.5 0.1

. One study has shown that application of

nitrogen fertilizer on off-season cover crops can increase the biomass (and subsequent green manure value) of these crops, while having a

Germany 2.0 Brazil 1.7 1.6 1.5 1.3 1.3 1.2

beneficial effect on soil nitrogen levels for the main Canada [4] Turkey crop planted during the summer season.

Trace mineral depletion

Many inorganic fertilizers do not replace trace mineral elements in the soil which become gradually depleted by crops. This depletion has been linked to studies which have shown a marked

UK Mexico Spain

Argentina 0.4

fall (up to 75%) in the quantities of such minerals present in fruit and vegetables. However, a recent review of 55 scientific studies concluded "there is no evidence of a difference in nutrient quality between organically and conventionally produced foodstuffs"
[6]

[5]

In Western Australia deficiencies of zinc, copper, manganese, iron and molybdenum were identified as limiting the growth of broad-acre crops and pastures in the 1940s and 1950s
[citation needed] [citation needed]

. Soils in

Western Australia are very old, highly weathered and deficient in many of the major nutrients and trace elements . Since this time these trace elements are routinely added to inorganic
[citation needed]

fertilizers used in agriculture in this state

Over-fertilization
Main article: Fertilizer burn Over-fertilization of a vital nutrient can be as detrimental as underfertilization.
[8] [7]

"Fertilizer burn" can

occur when too much fertilizer is applied, resulting in a drying out of the roots and damage or even death of the plant.

Energy consumption
The production of synthetic ammonia currently consumes about 5% of global natural gas consumption, which is somewhat under 2% of world energy production.
[9]

Natural gas is overwhelmingly used for the production of ammonia, but other energy sources, together with a hydrogen source, can be used for the production of nitrogen compounds suitable for

fertilizers. The cost of natural gas makes up about 90% of the cost of producing ammonia.
[citation needed]

[10]

The

increase in price of natural gas over the past decade, along with other factors such as increasing demand, have contributed to an increase in fertilizer price .

Long-Term Sustainability
Inorganic fertilizers are now produced in ways which cannot be continued indefinitely. Potassium and phosphorus come from mines (or saline lakes such as the Dead Sea) and such resources are limited. While atmospheric nitrogen is effectively unlimited (forming over 70% of atmospheric gases), relatively few plants engage in nitrogen fixation (conversion of atmospheric nitrogen to a plantaccessible form). To make nitrogen accessible to plants, nitrogen fertilizers are synthesized using fossil fuels such as natural gas and coal, which are limited.

Organic fertilizers
Organic fertilizers include naturally-occurring organic materials, such as manure, worm castings, compost, seaweed,humic,guano, brassin and peat moss, or naturally occurring mineral deposits (e.g. saltpeter). In addition to increasing yield and fertilizing plants directly, organic fertilizers can improve the health and long-term productivity of soil. Organic nutrients increase the abundance of soil organisms by providing organic matter and micronutrientsfor organisms such as fungal mycorrhiza, which aid plants in absorbing nutrients. It is evident that 'organic' meaning natural agricultural methods are more environmentally friendly and better maintain soil organic matter (SOM) levels.

Comparison with inorganic fertilizer

Organic fertilizer nutrient content, solubility, and nutrient release rates are typically all lower than inorganic fertilizers   
[11][12] [which?]

. One study

found that over a 140-day period, after 7 leachings:

Organic fertilizers had released between 25% and 60% of their nitrogen content Controlled release fertilizers (CRFs) had a relatively constant rate of release Soluble fertilizer released most of its nitrogen content at the first leaching

In general, the nutrients in organic fertilizer are both more dilute and also much less readily available to plants. According to UC IPM, all organic fertilizers are classified as 'slow-release' fertilizers, and therefore cannot cause nitrogen burn[13]. Non-concentrated organic fertilizers with dilute concentrations of nutrients have greater transport and application costs. Organic fertilizers from treated sewage, composts and other sources can be quite variable from one batch to the next. Without batch testing the amounts of applied nutrient cannot be precisely known. Nevertheless they are at least as effective as chemical fertilizers over longer periods of use.

Sources
Animal

Animal-sourced Urea and Urea-Formaldehyde (from urine), are suitable for application organic agriculture, while pure synthetic forms of urea are not
[14][15]

. The common thread that can be seen

through these examples is that organic agriculture attempts to define itself through minimal processing (e.g. via chemical energy such as petroleumsee Haber process), as well as being naturally-occurring or via natural biological processes such as composting. Sewage sludge use in organic agricultural operations in the U.S. has been extremely limited and rare due to USDA prohibition of the practice (due to toxic metal accumulation, among other factors)
[16][17][18]

. The USDA now requires 3rd-party certification of high-nitrogen liquid organic

[19]

fertilizers sold in the U.S.

Plant
Cover crops are also grown to enrich soil as a green manure through nitrogen fixation from the atmosphere
[20]

; as well as phosphorus (through nutrient mobilization)

[21]

content of soils. Minerals such

as mined rock phosphate, sulfate of potash and limestone are considered organic fertilizers, though by a contain no (carbon) molecules (inorganic chemicals in an organic chemistry sense).

Mineral
Naturally mined powdered limestone
[22]

, mined rock phosphate and sodium nitrate, are inorganic (in

a chemical sense), and are energetically-intensive to harvest, yet are still approved for usage in organic agriculture in minimal amounts
[expand] [22][23][24]

. This is a contradictory stance however, because high[which?]

concentrate plant nutrients (in the form of salts) obtained from dry lake beds by farmers for centuries in a very minimal fashion
[opinion]

are excluded from consideration by most

[which?]

organic enthusiasts and

many governmental definitions of organic agriculture chemical exists .

. No such dichotomy between organic and

Environmental effects of fertilizer use

See also: Environmental effects of agriculture and Human impacts on the nitrogen cycle

Water
Eutrophication
The nitrogen-rich compounds found in fertilizer run-off is the primary cause of a serious depletion of oxygen in many parts of the ocean, especially in coastal zones; the resulting lack of dissolved oxygen is greatly reducing the ability of these areas to sustain oceanic fauna.
[25]

Visually, water may become

cloudy and/or discolored (green, yellow, brown, or red). About half of all the lakes in the United States are now eutrophic, while the number of oceanic dead zones near inhabited coastlines are increasing.[26] As of 2006, the application of nitrogen fertilizer is being increasingly controlled in Britain and the United States
needed] [citation needed] [citation

. If eutrophication can be reversed, it may take decades

before the accumulated nitrates in groundwater can be broken down by natural processes.

High application rates of inorganic nitrogen fertilizers in order to maximize crop yields, combined with the high solubilities of these fertilizers leads to increased runoff into surface water as well

as leaching into groundwater.

[27][28][29]

The use of ammonium nitrate in inorganic fertilizers is

[30]

particularly damaging, as plants absorb ammonium ions preferentially over nitrate ions, while excess nitrate ions which are not absorbed dissolve (by rain or irrigation) into runoff or groundwater.

Blue Baby Syndrome

Nitrate levels above 10 mg/L (10 ppm) in groundwater can cause 'blue baby syndrome' (acquired methemoglobinemia), leading to hypoxia (which can lead to coma and death if not treated)
[31]

Soil
Acidification
Nitrogen-containing inorganic and organic fertilizers can cause soil acidification[32]. [4]

Toxic persistent organic compounds

Dioxins, polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs), and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs) have been detected in fertilizers and soil amendments
[33]

Heavy metal accumulation

The concentration of up to 100 mg/kg of cadmium in phosphate minerals (for example, minerals from Nauru
[34]

and the Christmas islands

[36]

[35]

) increases the contamination of soil with cadmium, for

example in New Zealand. fertilizers

[citation needed] [36]

Uranium is another example of a contaminant often found in phosphate

. Eventually these heavy metals can build up to unacceptable levels and build up

in produce.

(See cadmium poisoning)

Steel industry wastes, recycled into fertilizers for their high levels of zinc (essential to plant growth), wastes can include the following toxic metals: lead
[37]

arsenic, cadmium

[37]

, chromium, and nickel. The

[40]

most common toxic elements in this type of fertilizer are mercury, lead, and arsenic.[38][39] Concerns have been raised concerning fish meal mercury content by at least one source in Spain

Also, highly-radioactive Polonium-210 contained in phosphate fertilizers is absorbed by the roots of plants and stored in its tissues[citation needed]. Tobacco derived from plants fertilized by rock phosphates contains Polonium-210 which emits alpha radiation estimated to cause about 11,700 lung cancer deaths each year worldwide.[41][42] [43][44][45][46] For these reasons, it is recommended that nutrient budgeting, through careful observation and monitoring of crops, take place to mitigate the effects of excess fertilizer application.

Atmosphere
Through the increasing use of nitrogen fertilizer, which is added at a rate of 120 million tons per year presently[47] to the already existing amount of reactive nitrogen, nitrous oxide (N2O) has become the third most important greenhouse gas after carbon dioxide and methane, with a global warming potential 296 times larger than an equal mass of carbon dioxide, while it also contributes to stratospheric ozone depletion.
[48]

Storage and application of some nitrogen fertilizers in some

[which?]

weather or soil conditions can cause

emissions of the potent greenhouse gasnitrous oxide. Ammonia gas (NH3) may be emitted following application of 'inorganic' fertilizers and/or manures and slurries.
[citation needed]

The use of fertilizers on a global scale emits significant quantities of greenhouse gas into the atmosphere. Emissions come about through the use of: 
[49]

animal manures and urea, which release methane, nitrous oxide, ammonia, and carbon dioxide in varying quantities depending on their form (solid or liquid) and management (collection, storage, spreading)

fertilizers that use nitric acid or ammonium bicarbonate, the production and application of which results in emissions of nitrogen oxides, nitrous oxide, ammonia and carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.

By changing processes and procedures, it is possible to mitigate some, but not all, of these effects on anthropogenic climate change
[citation needed]

Increased pest problems

Excessive nitrogen fertilizer applications can also lead to pest problems by increasing the birth rate, longevity and overall fitness of certain agricultural pests.

Fertilizer is a substance that contains plant nutrients that are added to the environment around a plant. Usually, fertilizer is added to soil or water, but some fertilizers can also be sprayed directly onto plant leaves, or into the air. Although it is common for many fertilizers to be called plant food, this is not a proper description. Plants produce their own food, using water, carbon dioxide and solar energy. This food, which consists of sugars and carbohydrates, is then combined with plant nutrients to produce enzymes, proteins, vitamins and other things necessary to plant growth. Commercially-obtained fertilizers are based on their primary nutrient content: nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K). All commercially available fertilizers sold as plant nutrients have three numbers fixed to their container. The first number is the weight percentage of nitrogen, the second is the percent by weight of phosphorus and the third is the percent by weight of potassium. A fertilizer is considered "complete" when it contains those three elements. Manufacturers are required by law to state the nutrient amounts on the container. Examples of a "complete" fertilizer are 10-10-10, 15-5-10, 20-10-5, or other combinations of those numbers.

Definition Organic or inorganic plant foods, which may be either liquid or granular, used to amend the soil in order to improve the quality or quantity of plant growth. Definition Fertilizers or fertilisers are compounds given to plants with the intention of promoting growth; they are usually applied either via the soil, for uptake by plant roots, or by foliar spraying, for uptake through leaves. Fertilizers can be organic (composed of organic matter, i.e. carbon based), or inorganic (containing simple, inorganic chemicals). They can be naturally-occurring compounds such as peat or mineral deposits, or manufactured through natural processes (such as composting) or chemical processes (such as the Haber process). Fertilizers typically provide, in varying proportions, the three major plant nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium), the secondary plant nutrients (calcium, sulfur, magnesium), and sometimes trace elements (or micronutrients) with a role in plant nutrition: boron, manganese, iron, zinc, copper and molybdenum. Inorganic fertilizers y y Examples of naturally-occurring inorganic fertilizers include diatomaceous earth and limestone. Examples of manufactured or chemically-synthesized inorganic fertilizers include ammonium nitrate, potassium sulfate, and superphosphate, or triple superphosphate.

Synthesized materials are also called artificial fertilizers, and may be described as straight, where the product predominantly contains the three primary ingredients of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium/potash (K), often described as NPK fertilizers. They are named or labelled according to the content of these three elements, thus a 5-10-5 fertilizer would have 10 percent phosphate in its ingredients. If nitrogen is the main element, they are often described as nitrogen fertilizers.

Alternatively they may be described as compound where there is a mix of nutrients. Chemist Justus von Liebig (in the 19th century) contributed greatly to understanding the role of inorganic compounds in plant nutrition and devised the concept of Liebig's barrel to illustrate the significance of inadequate concentrations of essential nutrients. At the same time he deemphasized the role of humus. This theory was influential in the great expansion in use of artificial fertilizers in the 20th century. Nitrogen fertilizer is often synthesized using the Haber -Bosch process, which produces ammonia. This ammonia is applied directly to the soil or used to produce other compounds, notably ammonium nitrate, a dry, concentrated product. It can also be used in the Odda Process to produce compound fertilizers such as 15-15-15. Inorganic fertilizers sometimes do not replace trace mineral elements in the soil which become gradually depleted by crops grown there. This has been linked to studies which have shown a marked fall (up to 75%) in the quantities of such minerals present in fruit and vegetables.[1] One exception to this is in Western Australia where deficiencies of zinc, copper, manganese, iron and molybdenum were identifed as limiting the growth of crops and pastures in the 1940's and 1950's. Soils in Western Australia are very old, highly weathered and deficient in many of the major nutrients and trace elements. Since this time these trace elements are routinely added to inorganic fertilizers used in Agriculture in this state. In many countries there is the public perception that inorganic fertilizers "poison the soil" and result in "low quality" produce. However, there is very little (if any) scientific evidence to support these views. When used appropriately, inorganic fertilizers enhance plant growth, the accumulation of organic matter and the biological activity of the soil, while reducing the risk of water run -off, overgrazing and soil erosion. The nutritional value of plants for human and animal consumption is typically improved when inorganic fertilizers are used appropriately. Organic fertilizers y Examples of naturally occurring organic fertilizers include manure and slurry, urine, peat, seaweed and guano. Green manure crops are also grown to add nutrients to the soil. Naturally occurring minerals such as mine rock phosphate, sulfate of potash and limestone are also considered Organic Fertilizers. Examples of manufactured organic fertilizers include compost, dried blood, bone meal and seaweed extracts. Other examples are natural enzyme digested proteins, fish meal, and feather meal. A listing of products may be found at Organic Materials Review Institute and California Organic Fertilizers Inc..

The decomposing crop residue from prior years is another source of fertility. Though not strictly considered "fertilizer", the distinction seems more a matter of words than reality. Some ambiguity in the usage of the term 'organic' exists because some of synthetic fertilizers, such as urea and urea formaldehyde, are fully organic in the sense of organic chemistry. In fact, it would be difficult to chemically distinguish between urea of biological origin and that produced synthetically. On the other hand, some fertilizer materials commonly approved for organic agriculture, such as powdered limestone, diatomaceous earth, and Chilean saltpeter, are inorganic in the use of the term by chemistry. Although the density of nutrients in organic material is comparatively modest, they have some advantages. For one thing organic growers typically produce some or all of their fertilizer on -site, thus lowering operating costs considerably. Then there is the matter of how effective they are at promoting plant growth, chemical soil test results aside. The answers are encouraging. Since the majority of nitrogen supplying organic fertilizers contain insoluble nitrogen and are slow release fertilizers their effectiveness can be greater than conventional nitrog en fertilzers. Implicit in modern theories of organic agriculture is the idea that the pendulum has swung the other way to some extent in thinking about plant nutrition. While admitting the obvious success of Leibig's theory, they stress that there are serious limitations to the current methods of implementing it via chemical fertilization. They re emphasize the role of humus and other organic components of soil, which are believed to play several important roles:

y y y y

Mobilizing existing soil nutrients, so that good growth is achieved with lower nutrient densities while wasting less Releasing nutrients at a slower, more consistent rate, helping to avoid a boom -and-bust pattern Helping to retain soil moisture, reducing the stress due to temporary moisture stress Improving the soil structure

Organics also have the advantage of avoiding certain long-term problems associated with the regular heavy use of artificial fertilizers; y y y y the possibility of "burning" plants with the concentrated chemicals (i.e. an over supply of some nutrients) the progressive decrease of real or perceived "soil health", apparent in loss of structure, reduced ability to absorb precipitation, lightening of soil color, etc. the necessity of reapplying artificial fertilizers regularly (and perhaps in increasing quantities) to maintain fertility the cost (substantial and rising in recent years) and resulting lack of independence

Organic fertilizers also have their disadvantages. As acknowledged above, they are typically a dilute source of nutrients compared to inorganic fertilizers, and where significant amounts of nutrients are required for profitable yields, very large amounts of organic fertilisers must be applied. This results in prohibitive transportation and application costs, especially where the agriculture is practiced a long distance from the source of the organic fertilizer. The composition of organic fertilizers tends to be highly variable, so that accurate application of nutrients to match plant production is difficult. Hence, large -scale agriculture tends to rely on inorganic fertilizers while organic fertilizers are cost -effective on small-scale horticultural or domestic gardens. Finally, some organic fertilizers such as manures can contain bacteria or heavy metals harmful to human heal th. In practice a compromise between the use of artificial and organic fertilizers is common, typically by using inorganic fertilizers supplemented with the application of organics that are readily available such as the return of crop residues or the application of manure. It is important to differentiate between what we mean by organic fertilizers and fertilizers approved for use in organic farming and organic gardening by organizations and authorities who provide organic certification services. Some approved fertilizers may be inorganic, naturally occurring chemical compounds, e.g. minerals.