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6.1 Signal Parameter Estimation
6.1.1 The Likelihood Function 6.1.2 Carrier Recovery and Symbol Synchronization in Signal Demodulation
Introduction
In a digital communication system, the output of the demodulator must be sampled periodically, once per symbol interval, in order to recover the transmitted information. Since the propagation delay from the transmitter to the receiver is generally unknown at the receiver, symbol timing must be derived from the received signal in order to synchronously sample the output of the demodulator. The propagation delay in the transmitted signal also results in a carrier offset, which must be estimated at the receiver if the detector is phase-coherent. Symbol synchronization is required in every digital communication system which transmits information synchronously. Carrier recovery is required if the signal is detected coherently.
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r (t ) = s (t ) + n (t )
: propagation delay
s ( t ) = Re sl ( t ) e j 2 fc t
sl(t): the equivalent low-pass signal The received signal may be expressed as:
r ( t ) = Re sl ( t ) e j + z ( t ) e j 2 fc t
The precision to which one must synchronize in time for the purpose of demodulating the received signal depends on the symbol interval T. Usually, the estimation error in estimating must be a relatively small fraction of T.
1 percent of T is adequate for practical applications. However, this level of precision is generally inadequate for estimating the carrier phase since fc is generally large.
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p (r | ) p ( ) p ( | r) = p (r )
If there is no prior knowledge of the parameter vector , we may assume that p() is uniform (constant) over the range of values of the parameters.
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--- (A)
where T0 represents the integration interval in the expansion of r(t) and s(t; ). By substituting from Equation (B) into Equation (A):
1 lim rn sn ( ) = N N 2 2 n =1 0
N 2
T0
r ( t ) s ( t ; ) dt
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c ( t ) s ( t ) = 1 A ( t ) cos + 1 A ( t ) cos 4 f c t + + 2 2
y ( t ) = 1 A ( t ) cos 2
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( ) B ( t ) cos ( ) +
( ) A ( t ) sin ( )
There is a reduction in the power of the desired signal component by a 2( - ). factor of cos There is also crosstalk interference from the in-phase and quadrature components. Since the average power levels of A(t) and B(t) are similar, a small phase error causes a large degradation in performance. Hence, the phase accuracy requirements for QAM and multiphase coherent PSK are much higher than for DSB/SC PAM.
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1 2 ( ) = exp T0 r ( t ) s ( t; ) dt N0 1 2 1 2 = exp T0 r ( t ) dt + N 0 T0 r ( t ) s ( t; ) dt N 0 N0
Independent of
T0 s ( t ; ) dt
2
A constant, equal to the signal energy over the observation interval T0 for any value of . 22
ML = tan 1 r ( t ) sin 2 f c t dt
T0
r ( t ) cos 2 f c t dt (B) T0
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The loop filter is an integrator whose bandwidth is proportional to the reciprocal of the integration interval T0.
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Assuming that the input to the PLL is the sinusoid xc(t)= Accos(2fct+) and the output of the VCO is e0(t)= -Avsin(2fct+), where represents the estimate of , the product of two signals is: ed ( t ) = xc ( t ) e0 ( t ) = Ac cos ( 2 f c t + ) Av sin 2 f c t +
= 1 Ac Av sin 1 Ac Av sin 4 f c t + + 2 2
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2 f c t + ( t ) = 2 f c t + K v ev ( )d
t
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(s) =
(s)
(s)
= 1 H ( s) =
s s + Kv Kd F ( s )
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n = K 1 and = n ( 2 + 1 K ) 2
The closed-loop transfer function becomes: 2 2 2 n n K ) s + n ( H (s) = 2 s 2 + 2 n s + n
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= 1 critically damped loop response. < 1 underdamped response. > 1 overdamped response.
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= Ac sin + n1
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j 1 L ( ) = Re e N0
j 1 I n nT rl ( t ) g ( t nT ) dt = Re e N n =0 0 ( n +1)T yn = rl ( t ) g ( t nT ) dt
K 1
( n +1)T
I y n =0
K 1 n n
nT
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I yn sin = 0 n=0
K 1 n
K 1 K 1 ML = tan Im I n yn Re I n yn (6.2-38) n=0 n=0 ML is the decision-directed (or decision-feedback) carrier phase estimate. It can be shown that the mean value of ML is . -- unbias.
1
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The loop filter rejects the double-frequency term. The desired component is A2(t)sin, which contains the phase error for driving the loop.
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K 1 Re I n yn n=0
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1 A sin m + ns ( t ) sin m sin + double-frequency terms 2 r ( t ) sin 2 f c t + cos m = 1 A cos m + nc ( t ) cos m sin 2 1 A sin m + ns ( t ) cos m cos + double-frequency terms 2
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(6.2-42)
This error signal is the input to the loop filter that provides the control signal for the VCO. We observe that the two quadrature noise components in (6.2-42) appear as additive terms. There is no term involving a product of two noise components. This M-phase tracking loop has a phase ambiguity of 360/M, necessitating the need to differentially encode the information sequence prior to transmission and differentially decode the received sequence after demodulation.
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The likelihood function given by Equation 6.2-9 is conditional on a given value of A and must be averaged over the two values.
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2 = exp N0
1 2 1 2
r ( t ) cos ( 2 f c t + ) dt
2 + exp N0 2 = cosh N0
r ( t ) cos ( 2 f c t + ) dt
r ( t ) cos ( 2 f c t + ) dt
r ( t ) cos ( 2 f c t + ) dt
--- (A)
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r ( t ) cos ( 2 f c t + ) dt
The corresponding log-likelihood is: 2 2 T L ( ) = 0 r ( t ) cos ( 2 fct + ) dt N0 ML estimate of is obtained by differentiating the above equation and setting the derivative to zero.
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n=0
K 1
r ( t ) cos 2 f c t + dt
( n +1)T
nT
r ( t ) sin 2 f c t + dt = 0
This equation suggests the tracking loop configuration illustrated in the following figure.
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Note that the multiplication of the two signals from the integrators destroys the sign carried by the information symbols. The summer plays the role of the loop filter.
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Since the modulation is a cyclostationary stochastic process, the expected value of s2(t) is:
E s 2 ( t ) = 1 E A2 ( t ) + 1 E A2 ( t ) cos ( 4 f c t + 2 ) 2 2 Hence, there is power at the frequency 2fc. The squaring of s(t) has removed the sign information contained in A(t) and has resulted in phase-coherent frequency components at twice the carrier. The filtered frequency at 2fc is used to drive the PLL.
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A ( t ) + nc ( t ) ns2 ( t ) sin ( 2 )
2
1 ns ( t ) A ( t ) + nc ( t ) cos ( 2 ) 4
This error signal is filtered by the loop filter, whose output is the control voltage that drives the VCO. If the loop filter in the Costas loop is identical to that used in the squaring loop, the two loops are equivalent.
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r (t ) = s (t; ) + n (t )
s ( t ; ) = I n g ( t nT )
n
As in the case of ML phase estimation, we distinguish between two types of timing estimators: decisiondirected timing estimators and non-decision-directed estimators.
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Thus, we obtain,
L ( ) = C L I n r ( t )g ( t nT ) dt = C L I n yn ( )
n n T0
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yn ( ) = r ( t )g ( t nT ) dt
T0
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L ( ) = ln cosh C yn ( )
1 2 Since ln cosh x x for small x, the square-law 2
n
approximation
2 L ( ) 1 C 2 yn ( ) 2 n
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y ( ) = 2 y ( ) d
n n n n
=0
In both structures, we observe that the summation serves as the loop filter that drives the VCC.
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We observe that the early-late gate synchronizer is basically a closed-loop control system whose bandwidth is relatively narrow compared to the symbol rate 1/T. The bandwidth of the loop determines the quality of the timing estimate.
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The early-late gate synchronizer is a non-decisiondirected estimator of symbol timing that approximates the ML estimator.
proof: By approximating the derivative of the log-likelihood function by the finite difference, i.e.,
d L ( ) L ( + ) L ( ) 2 d
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y ( + ) y ( )
2 n 2 n n
r ( t ) g ( t nT ) dt
n T0 2
r ( t ) g ( t nT + ) dt T0
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