lA Body Language

What The Information Analyst Should Know About Body Language

By: A. Milton Jenkins Randaii D. Johnson

Introduction
The Information Analyst's job is becoming increasingly more important in the development of Management Information Systems. This paper introduces a non-traditional tool bodyi language and discusses its value to the Information Analyst (lA). The first section: (1) discusses the role of the Information Analyst, (2) defines kinesics (body language) and describes its origin and, (3) discusses the relevance of kinesics to the lA. The second section develops models of the human communication subsystem and the User/IA dyad. The following three sections discuss in some detail the individual elements in these models. These sections stress kinesics research findings and illustrate the relevance of this research to the Information Analyst.

Role of the Information Analyst

The role of the lA has yet to be clearly delineated in the literature; however, some of the activities and orientations have been presented [2,4,8]. The major distinction between the lA and the more traditional Systems Analyst (SA) is in their perspectives. The lA is human or user oriented while the SA is computer or hardware and software oriented. The lA's major objective is to secure information from and to communicate with the users of an MIS. As the MIS develops in organizations, emphasis on the application system user increases and the role of the lA enlarges. At the transactional and operational level, the users are generally grouped into classes or types and the application systems are structured to serve these classes. When moving to the tactical and strategic levels there is a perceived need to: (1) view the user as an individual decision-maker; (2) design systems with an Increasing emphasis on the person rather than the job; and therefore, (3) recognize, understand, and cope with the individual differences, attitudes, needs, and feelings of the user. The lA interacts with the user and secures information, both factual and attitudinal, which impacts the application system under study. Consequently, Interviewing is widely discussed in Systems Analysis texts I3.5,20,24J. However, to our knowledge no text deals specifically with

Abstract
The role of the Information Analyst is growing more important in the development of Management Information Systems. This paper introduces a non-traditional subject body language to the techniques employed by the analyst. The role of the Information Analyst and the relevance of body language (kinesics) is discussed. A conceptual model of the human communication subsystem, emphasizing total body language communication is developed. Individual elements in this model, with numerous references to the kinesics research findings, are presented in some detail. The authors conclude that body language is much too powerful a communication construct to be ignored by the Information Analyst. An annotated reference bibliography is available from the MIS Quarteriy office for those readers interested in further information on this subject.

Keywords: Information Analysis, Communication, Body Language, Interviewing Categories: 2.42. 3.3

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lA Body Language
of the lA's job. The lA goes to the user to learn from the user environment. She/he attempts to pick up clues to the user's operation that are not readily available in procedure manuals or from conversations with a top manager. The lA wants the most complete picture possible. This individual needs to observe and assimilate each aspect of the operation, and needs the personal experience of interacting with the user in the user's environment. Much of the learning from that personal experience derives from the nonverbal communication inherent within that environment. The manner in which instructions are given and the celerity with which they are carried out are forms of nonverbal communication. The atmosphere and mood of the organization are important determinants of operational effectiveness. The lA, then, must properly interpret user nonverbal communication during systems project development. The analyst must be aware of the meanings that can be attached to user behavior. On the other hand, the manner in which the lA conducts the study will have a great deal to do vi/ith user acceptance of a system. The lA needs to foster cooperation and does not want to communicate a suspicious or disrespectful attitude to the user. The analyst must be careful to control his/her own nonverbal behavior and to transmit only those messages he/she wants to communicate to the user. This article discusses body language as perceived both by the user and by the lA.

the interpretation of interpersonal interaction, in particular the subject of body language and its role in the lA's function. This omission is significant. For example, research has indicated that total feeling is communicated 7% verbally. 38% through tone of voice, and 55% through facial expression [291. ^ appears, then, that in general a person's body language has more bearing than his words in communicating attitudes to other people. The I A's understanding of body language becomes not simply useful, but essential to fulfill the communication function with this person's increasing activity at the strategic and tactical levels.

Definition and Origin

Communication among people occurs In many forms. One of these is body language. People smile, shrug their shoulders, hug. clench their fists, shake and nod their heads, and in general express a wealth of feeling and ideas without the use of spoken language. Most scientists feet that body language is founded in primitive animal behavior since animals must communicate without verbalizing. It is not surprising then that the father of evolution. Charles Darwin, first attempted to explain nonverbal behavior in an 1872 book, The Expression of Emotions In Man and Animals [6]. Darwin dealt with the most obvious forms of nonverbal behavior: weeping, laughter, blushing, smiling, etc. He also described the most readily discernable emotional states; grief, love, joy. hatred, fear, shame, etc. The researchers who followed Darwin have provided little new or startling information. Although some have tried to examine more subtle nonverbal communication, results still tend to support what most people would consider a common sense interpretation of nonverbal behavior. This fact does not need to be disturbing because it indicates that body language is a practiced method of communication in our society.

Conceptual Models
This section develops two conceptual models to facilitate reader understanding. The first illustrates the relationships among the individual elements which comprise the field of kinesics from a systemic perspective. The second, building on the first, shows the relationship between the lA and the MIS user from a kinesic perspective.

Relevance to Information Analysis

Since body language is a widely used communication construct, the lA must understand it in order to capture all information flowing in the user environment and correctly interpret this information. This charge is inherent in the nature

The Human Communications Subsystem

There are many approaches available for investigating the subject of body language. This article is presented from a systemic approach. As the

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name body language indicates, we are concerned with the activities of elements of the human body; hence, we are dealing with a communication subsystem of the "human system." Figure 1 illustrates this "Human Communications Subsystem." The boundary of this subsystem has been drawn to include the major elements which have been identified and discussed in the kinesic research. The elements within the subsystem are: (1) hand movements. (2) facial expressions. (3) eye contact visual behavior or interaction, (4) posture, (5) proxemics how humans deal with the space around them, (6) body rhythms "vibes," and (7) speech the semantic interpretation of messages. Each of these elements and their major interactions are discussed in detail in the third section of this paper. There are a large number of possible environmental inputs to the Human Communications Subsystem as with all open systems. These inputs influence the elements within the subsystem and subsequently the subsystem's outputs. Kinesic research has identified three which are of major importance. The first, cultural inputs, deals with the behavioral norms within a given society. Next, the geographical inputs concern mannerisms which are characteristic of a particular region. Finally, the occupational inputs refer to characteristics which tend to be endemic to a particular job. These three environmental inputs are discussed in the fourth section of this article. All remaining inputs are simpiy classified as "other environmental inputs" in Figure 1. The most important outputs from the Human Communications Subsystem flow directly from the seven elements identified within the subsystem. Each of these is represented as one channei of the multi-channel output. The total body language communication then, as illustrated in Figure 1. is derived from the messages emanating from each of the channels within the context of the environmental inputs. This "total body language communication" or "context of the whole" is discussed in the fifth section that follows.

The User/IA Dyad

When body language communication is occuring between two persons, the outputs from one human communication subsystem become inputs to the other and vice versa. Thus, the multi-channel output of a single subsystem as shown in Figure 1 becomes the multi-channel interface between two subsystems as demonstrated in Figure 2. Communication is transmitted within this interface in a duplex mode. Figure 2. the User/IA Dyad, simply illustrates the interaction between two "Human Communications Subsystems." The identical elements within each subsystem have been omitted for clarity. However, the environmental inputs to each subsystem have been shown. This is to emphasize that these inputs may be, and often are, very different. The dyadic relationship between the lA and the User, shown in Figure 2, provides the context in which the remainder of this article is presented.

Major Subsystems Within The Human Communication Subsystem

This section discusses the outputs from each element within the human communication subsystem: hand movements, facial expressions, eye contact, posture, proxemics. body rhythms, and speech.

Hand Movements
Ekman and Friesen present a fairly encompassing classification of hand movements [14]. Hand movements fall in one of three classes: emblems, illustrators, or adaptors.

Emblems Emblems result from specific culture, social, or work learning. They are nonverbal acts: "which have a direct verbal translation usually consisting of a word or two. or a phrase.

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lA Body Language

Cultural Inputs

Geographicai Inputs

HUMAN COMMUNICATION SUBSYSTEM Other Environmental Inputs

Occupational Inputs

Multi-channel Output

Total Body Language Communication

Figure 1. The Human Communications Subsystem

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lA Body Language

cultural inputs

geographical inputs

occupational Inputs

HUMAN COMMUNICATION SUBSYSTEM NO, 1 (USER)

other environmental inputs

multi-channel "^ interface I to transmit body / language communication

occupational inputs

HUMAN COMMUNICATION SUBSYSTEM NO. 2 (lA)

other environmental inputs

cultural inputs

geographical inputs

Figure 2. The User/iA DIad

MIS Quarterly I September 1977 37

M Body Language

for which this precise meaning Is known by most or all members of a group, class, subculture, or culture which are most often deliberately used with the conscious intent to send a particular message to the other person(s) for which the person(s) who sees the emblem not only knows the emblem's message, but also knows that it was deliberately sent to him

rhythmic movements movements which depict the rhythm or spacing of an event kinetographs movements which depict a bodily action, or some non-human physical action pictographs movements which draw a picture in the air of the shape of the referent emblematic movements emblems used to illustrate a verbal statement, either repeating or substituting for a word or phrase. Changes in the frequency of illustrator activity can give clues to mood or problems in verbal communication. When the frequency drops, the person may be demoralized, tired, discouraged, or unenthusiastic. He may also, however, have come into a nondominant position in a formal interaction or setting or be concerned about the listener's impression. The rate of iliustrators Increases with enthusiasm, excitement, dominance of role, and lack of concern for the impression conveyed. The speaker will also tend to increase the use of iilustrators when he experiences difficulty in finding the right words or when listener feedback suggests the proper message has not been communicated. Illustrators serve as conversation aids and regulators which accelerate the flow of ideas. Research 113] indicates that the use of illustrators decreases when the speaker is trying to deceive the listener. Generally speaking, the hands and the body are better indicators of deceptive behavior than is the face when the observer has a period of honest behavior to use as a comparison base. The lA may obtain a relaxed behavior frame of reference by engaging in small talk at the beginning of the interview.
Adaptors

for which the sender usually takes responsibility for having made that communication" [141Emblems should present no real message perception problem for the lA. However, the analyst should be aware that different meanings associated with the same emblems can be attached by different cultures. When working with people of different cultural backgrounds, the analyst must verify his understanding with the user. Although emblematic communication can be peculiar to the work group, these emblems witi probably be small in number. The analyst needs to be cognizant of the possibility of their existence, though, and ask questions where meanings may not be clear.
titustrators

These movements follow and supplement the pattern of speech. They closely relate on a moment-to-moment basis to what is said and how it is being said. They are commonly known as gestures. Illustrators differ from emblems in that they are peripheral, not focal, to the intended communication. Like emblems, the speaker uses them intentionally. They may either augment, contradict, or substitute for verbal communication. Their general function, however, is augmenting. Ekman and Friesen Identify eight types of illustrators [14]: batons movements which accent or emphasize a particular word or phrase ideographs movements which sketch the path or direction of thought dietic movements pointing to an object. place, or event spatial movements movements which depict a spatial relationship

These are acts originally learned to attempt to satisfy body and self needs, to manage and cope with emotions, or to carry out certain bodily actions. These actions reflected in mustache tweeking, head scratching, eye rubbing, etc. are usually performed in their entirety only in private or in public when the person is alone. Adaptors can be either seif-adaptors or objectadaptors. In self-adapting, the hands touch the person's body. Specific self-adaptor types are associated with specific attitudes. For example. "Picking or squeezing part of the body is

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aggression against the self or aggression towards others temporarily displaced onto the self; covering the eye with a hand is relevant to preventing input, avoiding being seen, and shame" [14]. Object-adaptors occur when the person plays with or manipulates some object or prop such as a paper weight, cigarette lighter, pencil, etc. A person is generally more aware of the objectadaptor activity than the self-adaptor activity. Research on adaptive activity indicates that people perceive others as more honest and straightforward when they relax and use fewer self-adaptors [15]. Self-adaptors are associated with anxiety, guilt feelings, hostility, and suspiciousness. Therefore, in an interviewing or conversational setting, the IA should control his/her self-adaptive activity and realize that if the other person displays self-adaptive activity, he/she probably feels uncomfortable about the interview. When people are asked to display an emotion or to attempt to deceive another person, they usually resort to manipulating their facial expressions [26]. People are more conscious of their faces than of the rest of their bodies. In deceptive or controlled conversations, then, the hands may be communicating information contradictory to the face or the spoken word. The hands can be very revealing of attitudes the individual wishes to hide. user thus smiles and outwardly appears very content in the interview. However, careful observation of the user's face will probably reveal his/her true feelings. Haggard and Isaacs suggest that people produce facial expressions which last only a fraction of a second [21]. A person can be showing a pleasurable countenance, change to a scowl, and then back to pleasure in such a brief time that normal human observation will not detect it. These expressions are known as "micromomentary" expressions or "micros." Although not intended as communication, micros do express a person's true feelings. Micros act as an outlet for expression of otherTwise unacceptable emotion. Ekman [14] tested students by running a film replete with micros at normal speed and at 1/6 speed. He found that students could not catch micros at normal speed, but could at the slower speed. Nurses, however, who were experienced in human interaction could identify the micros at normal speed which demonstrates that micros are perceptable. Using students again, Ekman flashed pictures on a blank screen at 1/1000 of a second duration. Students claimed to have seen nothing, but testing revealed that subconsciously they had seen the message. In recognizing emotions, Ekman's subjects also proved to have a blind spot an unpleasant emotion such asangerordisgust, which subjects unconsciously block out. This research Indicates that the IA can be trained to observe the true feelings expressed by a user's micros. Even if not consciously aware of the micro expression, the peoplesensitive analyst can develop a subconscious impression of the user's attitude. Equally important, the user will probably develop a feeling from the lA's micros. If the analyst has negative feelings about the user or the user's environment, these feelings may be detrimental to the interview situation.

Facial Expressions
The face is the most controlled part of the body, therefore it communicates valuable inforcnation. Facial expressions tend to be fairly universal and thus easy to read. Smiling, frowning, forehead wrinkling, etc., are widely understood, Ekman has conducted cross cultural research which indicates a common facial appearance for such emotions as fear, anger, sadness, disgust, surprise, happiness, and interest [12]. When these emotions are the intended communication, the appropriate facial expressions are easily used and readily discernable. The IA would have little difficulty in correctly interpreting them. However, emotions and true feeling are very often suppressed. In the user's environment, certain political pressures may compel her/him to paint a rosy picture of a bad situation. The

Eye Contact
The study of eye contact which is also called visual behavior or gaze direction or visual interaction, can take several directions [16]. Visual behavior can be a consistent, informative attribute of an individual, of gender, or of personality. Eye contact is also a major regulator

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lA Body Language
of the fiow of conversation and the pacing of speech. Gaze direction can be determined by the desire to seek or shut out information. Studies can examine how one person's visuai behavior affects another. They can aiso iook at the effect of eye contact on another's cognition. Finaiiy, studies can ask. "to what extent is visuai behavior communicative?" Studies have tended to concentrate on the first five areas ignorirrg the sixth due to the difficulty of inciuding intentionality as a research variabie. There have been interesting findings in each of the first five study areas as shown in the following. IndlvMual Differences Individual differences in the amount of eye contact used are very great. Studies have found that women engage in more eye contact than men [17]. Extroverts use more visual contact than introverts. Dominant, socially poised people use more eye contact than submissive, socially anxious people [16]. The lA. therefore, cannot make a series of comparison judgements about attitudes of different user personnei. Judgements must be made on an individual basis. Regulatory Function There are a number of fairly universal eye contact patterns in our society. In a conversation, eye contact does serve a regulatory function. It lets the listener know that the speaker is saying what he means to say and wants to continue speaking [16]. It is normal for the speaker to look away from the listener at the beginning of an utterance or new train of thought and look up again only at the end to check the listener response [161. The speaker is seeking nonverbal clues from the listener indicating how weil he is doing {information seeking). The amount of eye contact can be a function of the nature of the topic. It the speaker knows it well, he will use greater eye contact [1 ]. Looking away during periods of uncertainty helps avoid distractions. The iA. then, can observe how well the user appears to understand what is being discussed by the amount of eye contact displayed. Research indicates there is more eye contact if the conversation members like each other and if they are cooperating with each other. Exiine's research has shown that people with an affiliation orientation will use more contact in aff iliative than in competitive situations; whereas competitively oriented people will do the opposite. Eye contact decreases when there is tension in the relationship or if one person has recently deceived the other [15]. Extine and Winters found that subjects who had been given negative evaluations from an interviewer decreased their eye contact with him; while subjects who were positiveiy evaiuated increased eyecontact [18]. Thus, positive feeling and eye contact are ciosely related. Instrument ot Power Eye contact can aiso be an Instrument of power. A speaker will rate people who look at him/her as valuing him/her more. Thus, the more the speaker is iooked at by the audience, the more powerful the speaker feels. Likewise, the listener who doesn't look at the speaker is seen as having more powerthanthespeaker [16]. The IA will usually want to show respect for the position and authority of the user. Therefore, he/she shouid always practice attentive iistener eye contact. Emotional Arousal Eye contact generally produces emotional arousal. The nature of the emotion depends on other environmental factors. A positive effect may not always result from eye contact. If the relationship, actual or assumed, is not a pleasant one, negative feelings may be heightened. Many times, new user groups will be apprehensive and fearful about an initiai systems effort. Computers can be strange to them, and they may feel threatened. These users may assume the worst in an initial contact situation with the IA. Therefore, the analyst should avoid excessive eye contact with the new user until he has created a positive interview environment. Pupii Size Experiments have shown that the pupils enlarge when the person is presented with a pleasant stimulus. Hess has found that in problem solving, the pupils continue to enlarge from initial problem formulation to final solution attainment [25]. By watching the user's pupil size, then, the iA may get a ciue as to whslher or not the user understands a system procedure and if the user is satisfied with the proposed design.

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Posture
As mentioned in the discussion of hand movements, posture is generally less controlled than facial movements or voice. Therefore, posture can bean ideal mechanism for observing attitude or feeling "leakage" [14]. Posture is also the simplest nonverbal clue to recognize. Attitude leakage and ease of interpretation, then, can make "posture reading" an effective feedback mechanism for the IA. Postural Dimensions Scheflen has outlined three postural dimensions found in interpersonal relationships: inclusiveness vs. noninclusiveness, body

IA could structure the conversational setting so that the chairs are not face-to-face. The third dimension is congruence or non' congruence which refers to the degree of similarity in the body positioning of group members. If group members are in agreement or like each other, they will tend to exhibit the same posture. If they disagree, their body positions will be different. The analyst can discern which members of a user group are in accord and which aren't, tn an interview the analyst can induce user acceptance and cooperation by echoing the user's postures, thus promoting rapport.

orientation (vis-a-vis or parallel),

congruence vs. non-congruence [31].

and

The inclusiveness dimension determines accessibility to a group as well as access within a group. If the group does not feel the need for privacy or topic intimacy is low, they will stand or sit in a position open to others. If the group wishes to exclude others, their bodies will be turned inward to the group and away from others. In a conversational setting an individual can close himself/herself off from the other person by folding his/her arms or turning his/her body away. Studies have revealed that the interviewer's or communicator's body position can even promote attitudechange in the listener [27]. McGinley, et ai, found that communicators who maintained an open body position changed interviewee opinion much more than communicators who used closed body positions. Since the IA often needs to be an effective salesperson with the user and top management, an open body position should be integrated into his/her interviewing style. The second postural dimension is vis-a-vls or parallel body orientation. When people are sitting or standing vis-a-vis, they are facing each other. When parallel, they are sitting or standing side-by-side. The vis-a-vis position suggests that the people are confronting each other and Involved in each other's reactions. The parallel position generally indicates less interaction and concern for the other person. Most of the lA's interviews are for information gathering purposes and a face-to-face involvement is necessary. However, occasionally the analyst may find himself/herself in a sensitive situation with an irate user. To avoid a confrontation the

Proxemics
Proxemics is the study of how people deal with the space around them. For purposes of applying proxemics to information analysis problems, proxemics can be viewed as ". . . the human perception, structuring, and use of space on the interpersonal level how man structures microspace, how he relates physicaily to other persons with whom he is interacting, and what is communicated by these physical relationships" [32]. Hall [22] has proposed that people operate in four distinct zones: (1) intimate distance, (2) personal distance, (3) social distance, and {4) pubiic distance [23]. Generally, the IA need not worry about the intimate distance (less than 1 '^ feet from the other person) or the public zone (over 12 feet away). Most communication with the user will take place in the personal ( r ^ - 4 feet) and social (4-12 feet) zones. Personal Distance Zone The IA can best control the climate of an interview within the personal zone. The close ranges of the personal zone, to about arm's length, allow personal interest topics to be discussed comfortably. The far end of the personal zone permits the individual to assume a certain amount of privacy and yet discuss some personal topics. "Subtle shifts within the zone during the course of the interview may encourage greater openness and honesty" [10]. By moving into and out of the personal zone of the Interviewee, the analyst may be able to elicit the most candid and accurate responses to his/her questions.

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IA Body Language
message he/she wants to present and that he/she wishes to continue speaking [16]. The listener's synchrony indicates that she/he follows what the speaker is saying. When disagreement or failure to communicate arises, synchrony dissolves [7]. Studies have shown that intentionai faiiure to adopt a body rhythm or synchrony is a definite effort to exclude others just as adopting another's rhythm expresses rapport [7]. Thus, the IA should attempt to move with the user's rhythm when he/she wishes to promote acceptance and cooperation. If the user seems "out of step." the analyst should be alerted to the probabiiity that communication is not occurring.
How Much a Person Speaks

Social Zone

Most impersonal business takes place in the close phase of the social zone; formai interviews occur here, in the far sociai zone, business and social discourse tends to be very formal with high emphasis on status or position [10]. In tact, communication distance can be a good key to the relative status of managers or users. When entering an executive's office, an IA who wishes to show respect for the manager's position should stop just inside the door to talk unless invited to come closer. The greater the distance displayed between two people in this situation, the greater the status differences that can be inferred. Sitting at the head of a table or sitting furthest from the door can also be interpreted as a symbol of status or superiority. The analyst will generally not want to convey these feelings, and therefore, she/he should be careful to avoid these positions when the object of an interview or discussion is maximum communication [23]. If the iA is able to arrange seating for an interview, the most effective arrangement for maximum communication is at a 90 degree angle around a table or desk corner [23]. A number of researchers have proposed that interpersonal communication reaches an equilibrium distance depending on topic intimacy, faciai expression, and other nonverbal communication variables. The next section looks at the rhythms of the human encounter and examines how the flow of communication can be based on an equilibrium level of the nonverbal communication variables.

In a group, the person who speaks the most is usually chosen as leader. The group also tends to be most ambivalent toward this person [7]. The person who Interrupts often is attempting to dominate. Interrupting at the beginning of a speaker's statement Is a good deal more unsettling than interrupting in the middle of his/her talk. Interviewers, therefore, should be cautious about how and when they interrupt.
Speaking Turns

Body Rhythms
One of the amazing phenomena of life is that human beings move and iive according to naturai rhythms [7]. Studies have shown that rhythm is particuiarly important to conversational behavior. As a person speaks, gestures and body movements almost dance to the rhythm and flow of speech. And, as the listener listens, he/she aiso moves in time with the speaker. This phenomenon is called interactional synchrony.
Synchrony

How people take turns speaking has become an entire area of study in Itself. Duncan [11] has proposed a number of speaker and listener signals which communicate intention to yieid the speaking turn, retain it. or capture it. The turnyielding signai is nested In specific behaviors in content, syntax, intonation, paralanguage, and body motion. The speaker may ask a question, pause, move into a comfortable listening position, etc. The iistener need not accept the speaking turn when this signai is given, but the probability of acceptance increases iinearly with the number of signais given. The speaker may aiso use a gesticuiation signai to inhibit the listener from taking a speaking turn. This signai consists of the speaker's hands being used to gesticulate a) to support what is being said, or b) in the form of a tensed hand, such as a fist. These cues are neither selfadaptore or object-adaptors. As the listener, then, the IA should avoid interrupting when the gesticulation signal is present but should contribute to the conversation at each turnyielding signal. The listener can exhibit two kinds of behavior, back-channel or speaker-state. Back-channel

When synchrony Is present, the speaker and listener are in agreement and their bodies move to the same rhythm. The speaker's rhythmic movements indicate that he/she is encoding the

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behavior consists mainly of the synchronous responses alluded to earlier. They consist of nods and shakes and verbalizations such as "m-hm" and "yeah" which serve to give the speaker feedback. Back-channel behavior can also consist of sentence completions, requests for clarification, and brief restatements. Each serves to reaffirm that the dyad members are on the same wave length. The listener can also exhibit speaker-state signals which indicate that he/she wishes to become the speaker. Typical speaker-state signals are: shifting the head away from the speaker; taking a sharp, audible breath of air; making a gesticulation signal; or intensifying back-channel behavior.The IA should watch for these behaviors in the interviewee and allow him/her to offer any information he/she wishes to volunteer. The conversation should cater to the user's needs, yielding to the user at every opportunity. Conversational Equilibrium Argyle and Dean [1] hypothesized that a convversation develops an equiiibrium based on the "intimacy" between two people. The intimacy level is a function of the components eye contact, physical proximity, topic intimacy, smiling, etc. At any interpersonal intimacy level, there are both approach and avoidance forces at work. The approach forces include affiliative needs, feedback requirements, etc. The avoidance forces stem from fear of being seen, fear of rejection, fear of revealing inner secrets, etc. "If the equilibrium level for intimacy is exceeded, anxiety results; if intimacy is below equilibrium, the dyad feels affiliationdeprived" [16]. When theequilibrium level of one component is violated, such as an increase in eye contact, one or more of the other components will shift in the opposite direction to restore overall equilibrium. The increase in eye contact, for example, could be compensated for by an appropriate decrease in smiling. If it is not possible to adjust one of the other components or If the deviation in one is too extreme, the individual will feel uncomfortable about the conversation [30]. The !A needs to maintain the proper equilibrium levels throughout the conversation with the user. If eye contact is becoming too extreme, he/she should adjust his/her facial expression or increase conversational distance. If the conversational topic seems to become too formal and impersonal, the analyst could move closer to the user, smile more, and use more eye contact. The lA's objective should be to put the user at ease.

Speech
This subject, speech or verbal communication, may appear misplaced in a paper discussing body language. However, Interest here lies in only one aspect of verbal communication the semantic interpretation of user messages. The verbal channel is nearly always the one that transmits the intended communication. And, since people are usually held accountable for what they say, words are often carefully chosen so as to be acceptable in many contexts. The interested reader can find a good introduction to the entire subject of verbal communication in Mehrabian's Silent Messages [28]. Through word choice, the speaker reveals much about his/her true feelings. For example, the user who refers to a project as "that system" rather than "this system" could be trying to minimize his/her personal involvement by holding the project at a distance. Word choice can reveal closeness, responsibility, enthusiasm, liking, agreement, and other attitudes. Statements that may appear similar on the surface, may actually be quite different due to a slightly different word choice.

Environmental Inputs
The human communications subsystem, like any open system, receives many inputs from the environment. Kinesic research has identified three major influences: cultural, geographical, and occupational. Each of these is separately discussed in this section. Only the total effect of all the environmental influences however, provides the context for interpretation. Too much attention directed to any one influence can lead to a very inaccurate interpretation.

Cultural Influences
Just as verbal language changes from culture to culture, so does body language. Some expressions such as fear, anger, sadness.

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IA Body Language

disgust, and interest are fairly universal. However, cultures tend to develop their own communication styles. For example. Arabs feel the need for extremely close contact in personal interaction whiie Germans try to maintain distance and order [19]. In some cultures, eye contact can be a sign of disrespect, while in our cuiture. the lack of eye contact is viewed as a sign of guiit or hiding. Certain cultures are taught to smile whenever speaking regardless of the subject. The analyst should be alert to these patterns when interpreting the nonverbal behavior of persons from different cuitures.

Context of the Whole

The third section of this article expiored the major elements of body language. Hand movements, faciai expressions, eye contact, posture, proxemics, and speech are all nonverbal communication channels. Each is capable of transmitting messages containing information, attitudes, feelings, or personality traits. The iA, however, shouid not isolate any one channel for the purpose of drawing total conclusions about the user. All of the environmental influences discussed in preceding sections must be considered to obtain an accurate picture of the user. The resulting context of the situation, and the messages emanating from each of the channels compose a total view of the person observed. Total communication and feeling are not a function of any one of these channels. As illustrated in Figure 1, each channel's message can only be interpreted in the context of the whole system.

Geographical Influences
In a manner related to cultural influences, geographical influences have a large influence on body language. The IA should recognize that these influences can be found over relatively short distances, such as areas within one city, as well as over larger distances, such as parts of a country. This is true even when the cultural influences remain relatively constant. A Sales Executive from Atlanta will have different gestures, semantic content, and posture than his Boston-based counterpart. The iA must be aware of these possibie environmental influences. When visiting a new city, peopie must be observed in the way they communicate and react to one another. Environmentai acclimation can only occur through observation and interaction with the people in that environment.

The Multi-Channel Output

The multi-channei output approach is supported by most behavioral scientists. When Ekman and Friesen wrote about hand movements, they qualified their study as follows:

Occupational Influences
Occupationai influences can significantly affect body language communication. The IA must become familiar with the aggressiveness of the ]unior executive, the persuasiveness of the salesperson, and the characteristics of every employee group worked with. These three environmental influences are not the only environmental factors which influence the human communication subsystem. They will, however, provide the IA with considerable insight in determining the correct context within which he/she can evaiuate the other elements in the human communication subsystem.

"Throughout our studies we have emphasized a comprehensive approach, considering not just one aspect ot motor behavior, such as laciai expression, or eye contact, or hand movements, or posture, or leg movements, but all of these, if possible, on the same subject In the same settings. This comprehensive approach Is based on our assumption that because activities In different areas of the body can serve equivalent or substitutive functions, studies of lust one type ol activity may provide an incomplete picture of what Is occurring. Further, we believe that studies ol the sequence of nonverbal behavior requires study ol activities across the face and body; and. to the extent we are interested in one person's impression of another, we must consider the entire range of nonverbal behavior (and voice and words as well), since that Is what is available to each participant tn most Interactions" [UJ.

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IA Body Language

Communication, then, is multi-channeled. Information flows from a number of different sources and is a function of the environment.

expression of any message and use that channel which is most likely to reach the user. Some users may need excessive gestures or drawings to understand a point.
Information Variety

Five Functions of Muitl-Channel Communication

Mehrabian [29] proposed the following five functions of multi-channel communication.
Message Reliability

Communication through more than one channel can be redundant in order to increase message reliability and heighten message force. The IA should place greater confidence in those user messages expressed redundantly via several communication channels. If the user slouches in her/his chair, yawns, shakes her/his head, frowns, and continually scratches her/his scalp, the analyst can fairly safely infer that the user is unhappy with the current discussion topic.
Multiple Messages

Multi-channel communication allows a cue in one channel to serve as a context for a signal In another channel. This permits a larger variety of Information to be communicated. A user may verbally state that he/she is willing to perform some system function, but the context provided by the nonverbal channels may reveal the true message. For example, a shrug of the shoulders could indicate a "what choice do I have?" whereas, a wink and a rap of the fist on the table would indicate total agreement and a resolve to do a good job.
Interaction Regulation

Multi-channel communications can convey via incompatible signs, contradictory messages or multiple messages. For example, the user may be saying, "I like my job," but may fail to use eye contact or may shake her/his head. The nonverbal channels are contradicting the verbal ones. The IA must somehow interpret this situation; contradictory messages are discussed in more detail later in this article. In displaying multiple communications, the interviewee may say, 'The job is OK" and then look at a co-worker and frown and roll her/his eyes as if to say not everyone carries his/her own load. The analyst should be alert to recognize such communications.
Human Adaptabilities

A signal from one channel may be interaction regulating while the substantive message is being conveyed via another channel. While conversing with the user, the analyst can use eye contact and hand gestures to maintain the listener's attention. These regulative aspects of communication channels were discussed in the body rhythm section. Since interpersonal communication is multichanneled, both the environment and the other communication channels determine the context of the message emanating from any one channel. While factoring facilitates the study of individual communication channels, the IA, when dealing with the user, must consider the total context before interpreting messages.

Resolving Contacting Messages

One of the functions of multi-channel communication is the sending of contradictory messages via incompatible signs. A person's words can be expressing appreciation and commitment, but tone of voice, facial expression, posture, or gesticulations may be indicating reservation. Which communication channel is conveying the true message? Mehrabian [29j found that actual decoding of communication relies 7% on verbal behavior, 38% on tone of voice, and 55%on facial expression. Other studies have confirmed this relationship. What this and other studies have indicated is that nonverbal cues are the better

Multi-channel communication facilitates human adaptability. The communicator may not be able to explain what he/she means through some communication channels and the listener may not be able to perceive the message through certain channels. By having many channels of communication open, the parties in a conversational setting are more likely to properly communicate. The IA should constantly be aware of the different channels available for the

MIS Quarterly / September 1977 45

IA Body Language

indicators of true feelings. People automaticaily give more weight to body language comrnunioation. Therefore, the IA in dealing with the user should feel free to place the most reliance on the nonverbal messages. When nonverbal communication channels conflict, the least controlled channel (posture as opposed to faciai expression) is probably transmitting the truer feeiing. Similarly, the IA should be cognizant of the fact that the user v^ill rely on the analyst's nonverbal channels when messages conflict and take care that his/her body language transmits the Intended message.

References
[1] Argyle. Michael and Dean, Janet. "Eye-Contact, Distance, and Affiliation," Scclometry. Vol. 28,1965, pp. 289-304. [2] Ashenhurst, fl. L (ed.). "Curriculum Recommendations for Graduate Professional Programs in Information Systems," Communications of (rte i4CAf, Vol. 15. No. 5. May 1972. pp. 363-398. [3] Burch, John G.. Jr. and Strater, Felix R., Jr. information Systems: Thaory and Practica, Hamilton Publishing Company. Santa Barbara, California. 1974. (4) Couger, Daniel J. (ed.). "Curriculum Recommendations tor Undergraduate Programs In Information Systems," Commufiicalions of the ACM, Vol. 16, No. 12. December 1973. pp. 727-749[5] Daniels. Alan and Yeates. Donald. Systama Analysis. Science Research Associates. Inc., College Division, Palo Alto. California, 1971. [6] Darwin, Charles. Tha Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals, University of Chicago Press, Chicago. Illinois, 1965. [7] Davis, Flora. Inside intuition: What We Know About Nonverbal Communication, McGraw-Hill. New York, 1973. [8] Davis, Gordon B. Management Information Systems: Conceptual Foundations, Structure and Development, McGraw-Hill Book Company. New York. 1974. [9] Davis, Martha. Understanding Body Movement: An Annotated Bibllograpfiy. Arno Press. New York. 1972. (10] Delahanty, David. "Three Aspects of Nonverbal Communication," Personnel Journal, September 1970. pp. 757-759. [11] Duncan. Starkey. Jr. and Niedershe. George- "On Signaling That It's Your Turn to Speak." Journal of Experiments Social Psychology, Vol. 10, No. 3, May 1974. pp. 234-247. l12] Ekman, Paul, "Unlversals and Cultural Differences In Facial Expressions of Emotions," Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, 1971 (James K. Cole, Editor), University of Nebraska Press. Lincoln. Nebraska, pp. 207-283. [131 Ekman, Paul, and Friesen. Wallace V. "Detecting Deception Uorp the Body or Face," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 29, No, 3, March 1974, pp. 288-298. [14] Ekman, Paul, and Friesen, Wallace V. "Hand Movements," Tha Journal of Communication. Vol. 22. December 1972, [151 Ekman, Paul, and Friesen. Wallace V. "Nonverbal Leakage and Clues to Deception," Psychiatry, Vol. 32. 1969. pp. 88-105. [16] Ellsworth, Phoebe C. and Ludwig, Linda M. "Visual Behavior in Social Interaction," Tfie Journal of Communication, Vol. 22. December 1972. pp. 37540a (171 Exiine. Ralph V. "Explorations In the Process of Person Perception: Visual Interaction In Relation to Competition, Sx, and the Need for Affiliation," Journal of Personality. Vol.31, March 1963. pp. 1-20. [18] Exiine, Ralph V.. and Winters, Lewis. "Affective Relations and Mutual Glances in Dyads," In Affect. Cognition, and Personality (edited by S. S. Tomkim and C. E. Izard). Springer, New York, 1965. pp. 319-350.

Conclusions
The information analyst's role Is as critical to the deveiopment of a successful application system as that of the systems analyst. A large number of technically sound systems have failed because they didn't satisfy the user's needs. A system must be responsive to the user to work well. The lA must integrate these user needs in the system. Therefore, he/she must itnow as much as possible about the user and his/her environment. Body language communicates much of this information. Today in systems organizations, the emphasis is shifting from transactional data processing systems to management information systems. The analyst must spend more time with strategic and tactical levei management in an effort to personaiize the system to their needs and to provide the appropriate information. This more personalized design requires the anaiyst to be very user sensitive. An understanding ol user body language is extremely important to such sensitivity. Body language, then, is too powerful a communication construct to be ignored by the IA. Whether information is conveyed by the eyes. face, hands, posture, spoken word, or written word is not an issue. The analyst needs to consider all possible communication channels to attain the most compiete and accurate analysis of user needs.

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[19J Fast, Julius. Sod/Language, M.Evans and Company, New York. 1970, [20] Gore, Marvin and Stabbe, John. Elements of Systems Analysis for Business Data Processing. William CBrown Company Publishers. Dubuque, Iowa. 1975. [21] Haggard. Ernest A. and Isaacs. Kenneth S. "Micromomentary Facial Expressions as Ego Mechanisms in Psychotherapy," in Methods Researcfi in Psychotherapy (Louis A. Gottschalk and Arthur H. Auerback, editors), Appleton-Century-Crofts, New York. 1966, pp. 154-165. [22] Hall, Edward T. "A System for Notation of Proxemic Behavior," American Anthropologist, Voi, 65, Nos. 1003-1026, 1963. [23] Hail, Edward J..The Hidden Dimension, Doubleday & Co., Garden City, 1966, [24) Hartman, W., Matthes, H,, and Proeme, A. Management Information Systems Handbook, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1972. [25] Hess, Ecklund H. "Attitude and Pupil Size," Scientific American. Vol. 212, 1965, pp- 46-54. [26] Knapp, Mark L., ef al. "Exploration of Deception as a Communication Construct," Purdue University, Lafayette, Indiana, Communication Research Center, November 1973, 32 pages, [27] McGinley. Hugh, LeFevre. Richard, and McGinley, Pat. "The infiuence of a Communicator's Body Position on Opinion Change in Others." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol, 13. No. 4. April 1975. pp, 686-690. [28] Mehrabian, Albert. Silent Messages. Wadsworth Publishing. Beimont. California, 1971. [29] Mehrabian. Albert, and Wiener, M. "Decoding of Inconsistent Communication," Journa/o/Persona/if/ and Social Psychoiogy. Vol. 6, 1967. pp- 109-114.

[30] Patterson. Miles L. "Compensation in Nonverbal Immediacy Behavior: A Review," Sociometry. Vol. 36. No, 2, 1973, pp. 237-252, [311 Sheflen, Albert E. Body Language and Social Order. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs. New Jersey, 1972. [32] Watson. C. Michael. "Conflicts and Directions in Proxemic Research," The Journal of Communication, Vol. 22, December 1972, pp. 443-459.

About the Authors

A. Milton Jenkins Is an Assistant Professor of MIS In the Operations and Systems Management Department al the Graduate School of Business, Indiana degrees University, In He holds undergraduate and Mechanical Engineering

Economics, an MBA from the University ot New Mexico and a Ph.D. In MIS from the University of Minnesota. Milt has twelve years experience In industry. He Is currentiy engaged In research on the MiS user-system Interface. Randaii D. Johnson is a senior systems analyst with EXXON Corporation In Houston, Texas. He has a BA In Economics from Western ililnois University and an MBA In MIS from the University of Minnesota. Mr. Johnson Is currently engaged as a project manager In the design of marketing information systems.

MIS Ouarterly I September 1977

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