FLOWERING PLANTS Each part of the flower serves a certain function : the pedicel supports the flower in the

he best position for pollination; The petals are usually big & brigh tly coloured to attract insects/birds for pollination; The sepals protect the flower when it is still a bud. The male structure = stamen (consists of a filament& an anther). The anther functions in producing pollen grains& is supported by the filament. The male gametes are found in the pollen grain. The female structure = pistil (consists of stigma, style & ovary). Inside the ovary, one @ more ovules can be found. The female gametes @ egg cell is found in the ovule. Pollen grain are received by the stigma.

THE FORMATION OF POLLEN GRAINS formed in the anther &Each anther contains 4 chambers called pollen sacs in which pollen grains are formed. The tapetum provides nourishment to the developing pollen grains. Each pollen sac contains many diploid pollen mother cells meiosis a tetrad of 4 haploid cell separate & become the pollen grain. The haploid nucleus divides by mitosis to produce a generative nucleus& a tube nucleus.Pollen grain is a microspore & not a gamete. Male gamete are form when the generative nucleus divides.

THE FORMATION OF EMBRYO SAC Embryo sac = a structure containing the egg cell found in the ovule. Initially, the ovule contains similar diploid cells, nucellus one of the cells enlarges to become the embryo sac mother cell. Embryo sac mother cell meiosis 4 haploid cells, 3 disintegrate. The remaining cell (which represents the young embryo sac) will undergo mitosis thrice to produce 8 nuclei. 2 of the nuclei will move to the middle of the embryo sac polar nuclei. Other 6 nuclei are enveloped with cytoplasm & become cells 3 antipodal cells, 2 synergids, 1 egg cell mature embryo (megaspore containing the female gamete) Only the egg cell & the 2 polar nuclei are important in fertilisation the other will disintegrate. The ovule becomes enveloped by 2 layers of integuments, leaving a small opening (micropyle) connected to the ovary by funicle. megaspore (embryo sac containing the female gamete).

THE FORMATION OF POLLEN TUBE POLLINATION = the transfer of pollen from the stamens to the stigma Self-pollination / cross pollination The stigma secretes a sugary liquid which stimulates germination. The pollen germinates a pollen tube is produces through the tissues of the style into an ovule. The generative nucleus divides by mitosis to produce 2male nuclei. FERTILISATION When the pollen tube arrives at the embryo sac, the tube nucleus disintegrates. 1 of the male nuclei fuses with egg cell to form a diploid zygote develops into embryo which consist of the radicle, plumule, & 1 @ 2 cotyledons. The other male nucleus fuses with the 2 polar nuc lei to form a triploid nucleus (3n) endosperm (store food for the developing embryo). The ovary becomes a fruit pericarp& the ovules become seeds. The outer integument becomes the seed coat @ testa (to protect the seed) The inner integument becomes tegmen, a thin membrane underneath the testa. All parts of the flower wither away.

PERICARP Fleshy, succulent; edible

MODE OF FRUIT DISPERSAL Eaten by animals seeds are then discarded, far from the parent. Sticks to fur of passing animals Easily carried by wind.

Hook / spines Wing-shaped; dry & light; feathery hairs Fibrous tissue with many air spaces Uneven drying of fruit wall causing sudden rupture Double FertilisationIn Flowering Plants

Carried by water. Seeds dispersed by explosive mechanism

THE IMPORTANCE OF DOUBLE FERTILISATION FOR THE SURVIVAL OF FLOWERING PLANTS Double fertilisation is important for two reasons : By formation of the 3n nucleus endosperm, the parent plants provide an important nutrient store for the developing plant. It is ensure that the nutritive tissue formed is not wasted because it will be used by the growing embryo the endosperm only develops if the ovum has been fertilised. The provision of food for the embryo is important for the survival of flowering plants. The presence of food enables the embryo to live for a long period of time even when conditions are unfavourable such as dry & cold conditions.

When favourable the food in the endosperm will be broken down into simple molecules such as sugar, amino acids, glycerol & fatty acids absorbed by the embryo to build tissues for germination.

Primary & Secondary Growth in Plants  Two types of growth : primary growth & secondary growth.  Primary growth = occurs after germination, shown in all plants.  Secondary growth = the growth in diameter of the stem, root & trunk of plants. (perennial plants) PRIMARY GROWTH  Refers to elongation of its shoot & root enables a plant to increase in height.  Tissues involved the apical meristem (shoot meristem & root meristem)  3 growth zone : cell division, cell elongation & cell differentiation.  Result in an increase in length of the stem & root. SECONDARY GROWTH Refers to an increase in the girth/ diameter of a plant. Occurs in dicots but rarely in monocots. Two types of lateral meristems :vascular cambium & cork cambium. Vascular cambium is found in between phloem & xylem in the vascular bundle. Cork cambium is found in the cortex beneath the epidermis. Cells in vascular cambium divide radially many cambial cells in between the vascular bundle. link together ring cambium Cambium ring divide actively cells on the outside, inside the ring. Outside differentiate secondary phloem primary phloem to be pushed outwards. Inside differentiate secondary xylem primary xylem pushed inwards. Formation of more vascular tissues because the plant grow bigger need more food & water, support. Cork cambium divide inside secondary cortex, outside become cork

COMPARISON BETWEEN PLANTS THAT UNDERGO SECONDARY GROWTH WITH THOSE THAT DO NOT UNDERGO Mostly dicots Vascular cambium present Cork, cork cambium & secondary cortex present Generally bigger in size Have woody stems Have more vascular tissues (secondary phloem & xylem present) Perennial plants DO NOT UNDERGO Mostly monocots Vascular cambium absent Cork, cork cambium & secondary cortex absent Generally smaller in size Have non-woody stems Have less vascular tissues (only primary phloem & xylem present) Live for one season only

The Economic Importance of Plant that Undergo Secondary Growth Have woody stems great economic value. Firewood as a source of fuel. Timber logs for construction, building houses & bridges. Making furniture & paper (pulps). Production of resin & oils (meranti) Ornamental/decorative pieces

The Growth Curve PARAMETER IN MEASUREMENT OF GROWTH Length or height-Easily measured using a ruler Volume-Takes into consideration the length, width & height. Irregular shapes determination a difficult task. Dry mass -After all its water has been removed. Fresh mass o Closely related to volume. o Easily determined using a weighing scale. o Not be an accurate changes with the water content. Sigmoid GROWTH CURVE Growth is rapid during the infant & childhood stages, highest during the adolescent stage. Female growth faster puberty earlier (age 12), male (age 14). Males have a longer period of growth (until 18 years old), because adult males are generally taller than adult females. INSECT GROWTH CURVE Discontinuous growth have hard & inelastic exoskeleton limits growth Need to shed their exoskeleton from time to time ecdysis. Ecdysis : new, soft exoskeleton grows beneath taking a lot of air @ water to expand its body old exoskeleton cracked tissues builds to fill the spaces new exoskeleton hardens. Period between 2 ecdyses instar.