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BALANCED SCORECARD: A Multi-stream Performance Measurement tool for Public Sector Corporations in Bangladesh
Md. Nazim Uddin Bhuiyan, FCMA* Mofijul Hoq Masum**
Abstract: The Balanced Scorecard (BSC) developed by Kaplan and Norton (1992) has become a very popular and useful performance measurement and strategic management tool, because it considers both the financial and non-financial factors of a firm to measure its performance. However, the assumptions of the BSC, as developed by Kaplan and Norton (1992), are essentially based on private organizations (PO). In this paper a framework of the balanced scorecard for the Public Sector Corporations (PSC) was attempted based on the original BSC theoretical framework. From the study, five dimensions are suggested for a Public Sector Corporations BSC (PSC-BSC), those are 1. Financial condition; 2. Service Efforts Accomplishments and stakeholders satisfaction; 3. Internal operating efficiency and effectiveness; 4. Innovation, learning and growth and 5. Non market perspective. It is expected that by applying this technique the Public Sector Corporations will be able to get competitive advantages in the market as it uses some strategically linked financial & non financial measurement tools in order to evaluate performance. This technique will help them to translate their strategies into actions as well. Keywords: Public Sector Corporations Balanced Scorecard, Performance Measurement, Service Efforts Accomplishment, Nonmarket Perspective.
Introduction
Over the past two decades, several financial crises involved major governmental entities in the country like the Adamjee Jute Mills in Naraynganj, Khulna Newsprint Mills Limited in Khulna, Karnaphully Paper Mills in Chittagong, Bangladesh Biman, etc. Some of the public sector corporations were liquidated due to the incurrence of huge loss over the years. One of the severe problems of these public sector corporations is their one stream performance measurement systems which only consider the financial factors, in case of measuring the performance of the corporations. The arguments put forward in the relevant literature reveal that the use of non-financial measures for performance evaluation enables the manager to understand those factors that are most critical to the firms long term success (Lynch and Cross, 1991; Maisal, 1992; Newing, 1995; Thorne, 1995). Besides this there were hardly any linkage between the activities of these public sector corporations & the vision & mission of these companies. For these reasons we need a multi facet performance measurement system that considers not only the financial factors, but also the nonfinancial factors. At the same time the performance measurement system of the entities should construct a linkage among the vision, mission and functions of an entity. Kaplan and Norton (1992) developed an innovative performance measurement tool called Balanced Scorecard (BSC) that consider both the financial & nonfinancial factors to measure the performance of the entities. We believe that this performance measurement tool can be adopted for the public sector corporations in Bangladesh. After more than ten years, the BSC has become popularly accepted and its literature is now inexhaustible. Figg (2000) reported that
* Mr. Md. Nazim Uddin Bhuiyan, FCMA, Associate Professor, Department of Accounting & Information Systems, Faculty of Business Studies, University of Dhaka, Cell Phone: 01818946368 ** Mr. Mofijul Hoq Masum, Lecturer, Faculty of Business Administration, Eastern University, Dhanmondhi R/A, Dhaka-1205, Cell Phone: 01199436474
Many of the worlds leading organizations claim that balanced scorecard technique gives them an edge in objectively quantifying, tracking, and managing business performance. Kaplan and Norton (1993) suggested how to put the BSC to work, while Kaplan and Norton (1996, 2001a and 2001b) extended the BSC beyond a simple measurement tool to a strategic tool. Hence we believe that the BSC philosophy can provide us the way to remove the existing shortcomings of the public sector corporations & accelerate its operations.
Literature Review
Traditional financial performance measures such as Return On Investment (ROI) or Net Income (NI) does not consistently support the intended strategy. In recent years numerous authors have expressed discontent with traditional measures of organizational
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Management
performance, which mainly focus on financial criteria (Lynch and Cross, 1991; Kaplan & Norton, 1996). Consequently the past overemphasis on such financial criteria as operating income , sales growth, return on investment and earnings per share to measure the firms performance have resulted in the organizations losing sight of important indicators which measures levels of customer satisfaction, process flexibility or adaptation in response to changing needs. The argument put forward in the relevant literature that use of nonfinancial measures for performance evaluation enables the managers to understand those factors that are most critical to the firms long term success (Lynch and Cross, 1991; Maisal, 1992; Newing, 1995; Thorne, 1995). The National Association of Accountants (NAA) in its monograph Measuring Entity Performance (1986) observed: Nonfinancial performance measures provide a rich opportunity for managers to improve entity evaluations and operations. Such measures direct managements attention to the entities operation and, in the long term, may better reflect the financial returns generated by an entity, than do the short term historical financial measures. (cited in Lothian, 1987) Several writers (e.g.,Kaplan & . Norton, 1996; Simons 1995) suggested the appropriate performance measures to include in a performance reporting system depended on the business strategy. Ittner et al. (1978) suggested one potential determinant of the relative information content of alternative performance measures is the firms business strategy. Kaplan and Norton (1992) developed an innovative performance measurement tool called balanced scorecard (BSC) that consider both the financial & non-financial factors to measure the performance of the entities. Moreover the balanced scorecard translates an organizations mission & strategy into a comprehensive set of performance measures (Kaplan and Norton, 1996). However, until recently, researchers have essentially focused their attention on the application of the BSC in private organizations only. Research on the applicability of this useful measurement and strategic management tool to public sector corporations is very limited. A few prior studies have looked at the application of the BSC to not-for-profit organizations like schools and universities (Pineno, 2007; Papenhausen & Einstein, 2006; Drtina, Gilbert, & Alon, 2007; and Chang & Chow, 1999; Hoque, Akter, Hossain 2008). Studies on the applicability of the BSC to public sector corporations are needed, because the contexts in which private organizations (PO) and PSC operate and the ways they operate are not exactly the same. Hence the development of a customized BSC model for public sector corporations is beyond question. initiative to revise the investment policy making greater room for private enterprises in the economy. In the revised investment policy of 1974, only 18 sectors were reserved for the public sector and the remaining sectors were kept open for private investment and the ceiling for private investment was raised to taka 30 million. The Second Five-year Plan for 1980-85 was revised and the allocation for private sector industry was enhanced from 25% in 1980-81 to 59.4% in 1981-82 (2nd Five-year plan). A few sectors were set aside for state-owned enterprises; those were air transport, telecommunication, and nuclear energy, power, and defense goods. All other sectors and kinds of industries were made open for private investment without any upper limit. The major capital intensive public sectors such as jute and cotton textile, sugar, paper, steel, shipbuilding, heavy electrical, minerals, and oil and gas were also made open for either public or private investment or for partnership of both. In 1998-99, the non-financial public sector enterprises as a whole suffered operating loss of taka 47.56 million while the financial, insurance and other departmental undertakings transferred taka 31.58 million from their profit to the treasury (www.banglapedia.org). Thirty eight public sector enterprises have been identified as defaulters in repayment of loan of the nationalized commercial banks and development financial institutions and the amount of default on 31 January 2000 stood at taka 209.01 million, which was 47% of their total borrowings (www.banglapedia.org). Earlier, on June 30, 2002, the government closed the Adamjee Jute Mills after it had incurred a loss of Tk 12 billion since its nationalisation in 1972 (www. thefinancialexpress-bd). The government took the decision to hand over the total area and assets of the closed mill to BEPZA for establishing an EPZ on December 1, 2004. One of the major problems of these public sector corporations is their one stream performance measurement system. Moreover these companies have very little linkage between its opertions and its mission & vision. For that reason we believe that if these corporations use the multi stream performance measurement system, like the Balance Scorecard then they can avoid the above phenomena.
Management
For instance, according to the Financial Accounting Standard Boards (FASB) Concept Statement No. 4, the primary objective of external financial reporting of the PSC is to provide information that is useful to resource providers. On the basis of this information they usually decide whether or not to provide additional resources to these organizations. Statement of Accounting Standards (SAS) No. 117 have enumerated the followings with respect to the content of information about PSC: Name of the Statement Contents Statement of Financial Position Amount and nature of the assets, liabilities and net assets of the organization Statement of Activities The effects of transactions and other events and circumstances that change the amount and nature of net assets The amount and kinds of inflows and outflows of economic resources during a period and the relation between the inflows and outflows, how cash is obtained and spent. The service efforts and accomplishments of the PSC. some modifications. We show this by discussing the elements included in each of the four perspectives of the general BSC: financial, customer, internal, and innovation and learning. Besides this we also discuss the significance of non-market perspective, an added perspective with the original BSC model, in case of measuring the performance of the PSC.
According to International Accounting Standard (IAS) # 01, an entity should include the followings on its complete set of financial statements: Name of the Statement Income Statement Contents Shows all of the expenses and revenues of the company during a period. Shows all of the assets, liabilities & capital of the company. Shows all the financial impacts of items concer-ned with the owners. Shows all the cash inflow & outflow of the companies according to its operating, investing & financing activities.
Besides this the company should disclose all other related information that has impact on the above financial statements on the notes & disclosures.
Management
(2) Service Efforts Accomplishments and Stakeholders Satisfaction: The Service Effort Accomplishment (SEA) component is typical for PSC. It addresses how the customer perspective of the original BSC might be applied to the public sector organizations. The SEA allows considering several factors in the analysis. For example, in private organization, sales revenues reflect a market assessment of perceived utility of the product or service provided. Customers perceiving some utility of a product or a service voluntarily enter into transactions with the providers of that goods or services on a supply and demand law basis. Values received and values given are directly related to the utility or satisfaction that the consumer expects to find in the product or service. Although, in case of PSC there exists no such direct relationship; the level of the value given by a producer or supplier may be unrelated to the level of value (and thus the satisfaction) received in counterpart. For instance, the level of taxes paid by a tax payer has nothing to do either with the level, the quality or utility of the public service that he or she may receive. Additionally, the high transaction cost associated with PSC prohibits the stakeholders to assess the value of these organizations properly (Zimmerman, 1977). The customer satisfaction aspect of the BSC could not apply directly to the PSC, but SEA and stakeholders satisfaction be used instead. Assessing Service Efforts Accomplishments and stakeholders Satisfaction can be based on existing public sector corporations accounting literature. The goals, measures & factors of Service Efforts Accomplishments and Stakeholders Satisfaction perspective are stated in Table-02 in the appendices. (3) Internal Operation :The third analysis block of the PSC-BSC gives the internal perspective which administrators may need to better serve their stakeholders. Specifically, this block must help to assess the technological capability, manufacturing or service excellence, design productivity, and new product or service introduction performance. One can assess technological capability by divergent manufacturing or servicing compared to the other PSCs. According to Kaplan and Norton (1992), manufacturing or service excellence can be measured in term of cycle time unit cost yield . Design productivity can be estimated by the efficiency of the PSC engineering. Finally, new product or service introduction performance of a PSC can be obtained by comparing actual introduction schedule with predetermined schedule, for an instant variance analysis. The goals, measures & factors of internal operation perspective are stated in Table-03 in the appendices. (4) Learning and Growth : Though previous performance measures are important for the competitiveness of a PSC, the measures related to innovation, learning and growth are also more significant as it energies the above factors overwhelmingly. It will assist the PSC to create the intellectual worker for them. Undeniably, the intense global competition of the knowledge-based era requires that, not only private companies, but also public sector corporations make persistent improvements to their existing services, products and processes. Moreover the PSCs have innovations ability to leverage and sustain existing capabilities as well. It is already been stated, like Kaplan and Norton, that a PSCs ability to innovate, improve, learn and grow is directly tied to the value of that PSC. That value can be assessed through the PSCs ability to launch new products, services, create more value for stakeholders, and improve operating efficiency continually. The appraisal can focus on the PSCs technological leadership, its manufacturing or
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service learning, its product or service focus, and its time to introduce a new service. The technological leadership of a PSC will be measured through the relative time to develop the next cohort of a product or service provided by that organization. The estimation of the process time to maturity may be a way of assessing the manufacturing or service learning of a PSC. Lastly, the contrast of new product or service ability of a PSC, compare to the ability of other organizations may comprise a way of assessing a PSCs time to market. The goals, measures & factors of learning & growth perspective are stated in Table-04 in the appendices. (5) Non Market Perspectives: The rationale of this perspective is to present the fundamental factors (the environmental factors suggested by Groves and Valente) that may have influence on reported performance. The public sector corporations should consider the relevant environmental or social aspects that significantly influence the success of the PSC. The performance of the public sector corporations depends on some other environmental factors for an instance, satisfaction of community needs, utilization of aggregate resources, external economic conditions; inter governmental constraints and political cultures (Groves and Valente). Although, some time the PSC has to incur loss, its existence can not be denied for the smooth running of the social functions of any country. Financial profit should not be considered as the core base of performance measurement technique for a public sector corporation. The implicit performance measurement factors of a PSC are: how does it contribute to the society? How it increases the standards of living? How it ensures the utilization of the resources in the society? The PSC should act as an invisible hand of the government that will maximize the interest of the citizens. Hence the performance of the PSC overwhelmingly depends on these factors. To measure the performance of the public sector corporations it must be considered. The goals, measures & factors of non-market perspective are stated in Table-05 in the appendices. Government Mission Financial For-Profit Business Goals/Strategies Financial Customer Internal Processes
Conclusion
The main purpose of this paper, was initially to know whether the Balanced Scorecard (Kaplan and Norton, 1992) is applicable to
The Cost and Management, September-October, 2010
Management
the public sector corporations and on the basis of the literature review, it is found that the BSC can be applicable to the PSC. Consistently, a PSC-BSC is proposed as a possible performance measurement tool for public sector corporations. Like the original BSC, the proposed PSC-BSC incorporates both financial and nonfinancial as well as both lag and lead performance measures. In addition, another extra perspective is suggested for the public sector corporations named as non-market perspective. One of the main purposes of the public sector corporations is to serve the nation and for that reason non-market perspective must be included with the dimensions of BSC for PSC. Hence the proposed PSC-BSC has five perspectives, a special focus was placed on service effort accomplishment (SEA) & Non-market perspectives. The service effort accomplishment (SEA) is crucial because the SEA information, in terms of outputs and of programs, is predicted to significantly enhance the value of information provided to PSC stakeholders. The Non-Market perspective is vital because the PSC must put their efforts to serve the nation. In the above circumstances, it is beyond question that the one stream performance measurement systems is impractical and mislead the performance of the public sector corporations of the country. The public sector corporations in Bangladesh may enhance their contribution to the economy & enlarge their performance by implementing the BSC in their operations. To do so, the performance measurement system of the public sector corporations should consider the qualitative & quantitative information and in this situation the public sector corporations should adopt the Balanced Scorecard suggested above to ensure their survivality. r References:
Kaplan, Robert S. and David P. Norton (1992). The Balanced Scorecard: Measures that drive performance. Harvard Business Review (January-February): 71-79. Kaplan, Robert S. and David P. Norton (1993). Putting the Balanced Scorecard to work. Harvard Business Review (September- October): 134-147. Kaplan, Robert S. and David P. Norton (1996). Using the Balanced Scorecard as a strategic management system. Harvard Business Review (January-February): 75-85. Kaplan, Robert S. and David P. Norton (2001a). Transforming the Balanced Scorecard from performance measurement to strategic management: Part I. Accounting Horizons (March) . Vol.15, No. 1, 87-105. Kaplan, Robert S. and David P. Norton (2001b). Transforming the Balanced Scorecard from performance measurement to strategic management: Part II. Accounting Horizons (June ). Vol. 15, No. 2, 147-161. Anthony, Robert. N., (1995). The Nonprofit Accounting Mess. Accounting Horizons. Vol. 9 , No. 2, 44-54. Chang, Otto H. and Chee W. Chow (1999). The Balanced Scorecard: a Potential Tool for Supporting Change and Continuous Improvement in Accounting Education. Issues in Accounting Education, Vol. 14(3): 395-413. Drtina, Ralph; James P. Gilbert and Ilan Alon (2007). Using the Balanced Scorecard for Value Congruence in an MBA Educational Setting. Sam Advanced Management Journal, Vol. 72(1): 4-13. FASB, (1980). Statement of Accounting Concepts No. 4: Objectives of Financial Reporting by Non-business Organizations. FASB, (1993). Statement of Financial Accounting No. 117: Financial Statements of Not-forProfit Organizations. GASB, (1994). Concepts Statement No.2: Service Efforts and Accomplishments Reporting. Norwalk, CT (April). Groves, Sanford. M. and Maureen G.Valente (1994). Evaluating Financial Condition: A Handbook for Local Government. Washington, DC: International City/County rd Management Association, 3 Edition: 200p. Ingram, Robert W. and Ronald M. Copeland (1981). Financial Accounting Information and Voting Behavior. The Accounting Review, Vol. 5(4): 830-843. Papenhausen, Chris and Walter Eistein (2006). Insights from the Balanced Scorecard: Implementing the Balanced Scorecard at a College of Business. Emerald Group Publishing Limited, Vol. 10(3): 15-22. Pineno, Charles J. (2007). The Business School Strategy: Continuous Improvement by Implementing the Balanced ScoreCard. Research in Higher Education Journal, Vol. 1: 68-77. Wrege, William. T.; R. Penny Marquette (1998). Service Efforts and Accomplishments: a new reporting requirement? Ohio CPA Journal, Vol. 57( 2): 34-39. Dodor, Jean Baptiste K. Gupta Rameshwar D. and Daniels Bobbie (2008) A Framework for Governmental Organizations Balanced Scorecard. Journal of Financial Accountancy, Vol. 13, 27-39. Isoraite Margarita (2008). The Balance Scorecard Method : From Theory to Practice. Intellectual Economics, No. 1(3), p. 1828 Nicholas J. Mathys. (2006) Using the Balanced Scorecard: Lessons Learned from the U.S. Postal Service and the Defense Finance and Accounting Service. p. 910.
Appendices:
Goals Assessing financial viability Table 01: Financial Condition Perspectivective Measures Factors Financial measures l Revenues l Expenses and Expenditures l Operating position l Debt structure l Unfounded liabilities l Condition of capital plan
Note: These 6 measures are based on Grove & Valente (1994) Table 02: SEA and Stakeholders Satisfaction Perspective Goals Assessing Service Effort Accomplishment Assessing stakeholders Satisfaction Measures SEA measures Factors l Accountability l Economy l Efficiency and Effectiveness
Stakeholders Satisfaction l Citizenship Behavior Index measures l Voting rate and distribution l Location propensityd tituents
Table 03: Internal Operation PerspectiveInte Goals Measures Factors Assessing Technology l Estimate of Technology Technology Capability measures infrastructure Assessing Service Service Delivery l Cycle time Unit cost yield Excellence measures Assessing Design Productivity l Productivity statistics Productivity measures Assessing ability to introduce new services Innovation measures l Comparison of actual introduction schedule with planed introduction schedule
Table 04: Learning and Growth Perspective Goals Assessing Technology Leadership Assessing Learning Assessing Service Focus Assessing Time to Constituents of services Goals Assessing environmental viability Factors Relative time to develop the next generation of a product or service provided to stakeholders. Process time An estimation of the process to maturity time to maturity Focus measures Percentages of services yielding at least 80% of the PSCs revenues New services introducAnnual number of new services tion measures introduced as compared to similar PSC. Table 05: Non Market Perspective Measures Factors External environment l Community needs and measures resources l External economic conditions l Intergovernmental constraints l Natural disasters and emergencies l Political cultures Organizational l Management practices measures l Legislative policies Measures Technological innovation measures
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Feature
uneasy and anxious. He can make everyone around him miserable by not being able to unwind constantly telephoning the office to ask whether all is well, every two hours, giving instruction as to how to carry on till he returns. Why some persons are such compulsive executives? Some experience the addicts symptoms at particular times-the accountant at year ending, the sales-girls and salesmen at festive times. Some others because they feel they may be fired, if they are not seen working hard and for long hours; others because they cannot do their job as they should. Some try to create an impression, seeking a promotion. Some others engage themselves in work to escape or gain comfort in distress from depressing emotional problems-a death, loss of job etc. Occupational therapy has always been an effective pain killer and tranquilizer for them. Most A Types, try to do too much in too little time, in an attempt to store up accomplishment; to overcome a general sense of insecurity and to control what is often not controllable. Work- addicts find them selves fighting for time. It is as though they are using a stop watch every minute of the day. The best way to throw away an invisible stop watch is to substitute a calendar as a time line to success. Think in terms of years and months, instead of minutes and seconds. Set weekly priorities that are realistic, this will take them from where they are, to where they want to be without being affected by stress related diseases, Slow down and live. It is well to remember that life is not a destination, but a road to be enjoyed. Can one recover from the grip of work holism? Yes, they can if the workaholic can recognize the symptoms and seek to develop interests in matters other than job. Develop hobbies pursue interest in music, arts, sport, collection of stamps, art objects, gardening, poetry, reading, social service, renewing friendships etc. or whatever he enjoys doing. Diagnosis/ warning: Any sudden change from hard driving to slowing down, may tend to develop a variety of physical and psychological illnesses. These addicts may benefit from frequent short breaks. An incipient addict with a hard driving Type A personality should soon consider a slowing down pace of life. The introduction of a changed lifestyle, regular walks, exercise, routine yoga, meditation, relaxed times with the family, short holidays and time for cultivation of hobbies is bound to cure work holism and make way for long life and happiness for the victim, colleagues, family and friends. So as with all illnesses, an early diagnosis promises hope of an early cure, good health and happiness. So, if are you a workaholic, work hard to analyze yourself and prescribe a suitable cure suiting your needs and interest. You can diagnose yourself where you stand by answering the following questions. You are Type A, if your answers to questions are similar to given below otherwise you are Type B.
Sl No. 06 07 08 09 10 Questions Answers No. Yes Yes Yes No. Yes Do you like to help your spouse with her chores? Do you often, bring work home? Are you particular about being punctual? Do you get annoyed and upset, when kept waiting? When you are in a meeting or doing work, do you refuse telephone calls and ask Not to be disturbed? When someone is talking to you, do you let your mind be occupied with other thoughts?
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Professional Field
3.16 Honesty, Loyalty & Corruption Eradication He was thoroughly an unbiased person throughout his life. He used to find, hear, feel and try to asses the problems whole heartedly ad give solutions to those problems for overall welfare of all and in the greater interest of the establishment. In all the projects /undertakings of the Public Sector Corporations where he served the ultimate relationship between himself and the Trade Union Leaders developed so friendly that the latter started giving him due respect. But in one project, we know, he never compromised
The Late Editor of The Cost & Management, Mr. Md. Nurul Hassan, FCMA, Past President, ICMAB and SAFA, is seen with his family members. with the Union Leaders and finally got himself transferred to another project and even preferred to go outside Dhaka. In the beginning of his service life in the Military Accounts Department, Lahore, Pakistan he discovered a little big forgery case when he was young. The forgery matter was then taken up by his superior bosses in the department. Finally we came to know the alleged person was jailed. After confession in the court the Guilty announced that he purchased necklace worth Rupees ten thousand for his beautiful wife.
The Cost and Management, September-October, 2010
personal life but never expected any services to be rendered from others even from his own family members. This also occurred truly at the time of his last departure from this earth. 4.02 Determination One day, he told me, "Suppose you are on the battle field. It you go to the front side, you will be killed there, if you go to the back side, you will be killed there. What the side will you choose? Definitely you should choose the front side to be
43
the Hon'ble deceased again proved to be true. He used to remind us the verdict announced by the Great Leader Suhrawardy when the latter was confined to hospital bed before his death "I am not intended to live more because I am unable to do anything for my people any more". He hated some politician those who are contradictory in nature and commitments before and after sworned in. At the same time he strongly criticized the Military rule in the country. On the other side he used to say there must have a definite rule of conduct for the Politician as they are bound to respect the rules and regulations on their performances towards, responsibility and accountability in the Parliament, so that the Army rule could no longer exist. Although he was not a Politician he honoured the sovereignty of our motherland and was eager to enhance the economic and professional cooperation among the SAARC countries internationally. When OBAMA became the President elect, the Iranian people started dancing and enjoying on the road side that was telecasted in the TV news. He told us "how foolish the Iranian people are"? He told us that they had no idea about American foreign policy. The American never compromise with their foreign policy. Wait and see what OBAMA does later after holding power. As the 70% of the American economy is controlled by the Jews the concept of foreign policy would be as before. We may guess what prudence he had in the international politics. There are lot of facts relating to his political knowledge that can only be expressed in larger episode. r
The Cost and Management, September-October, 2010
was leading by General Ayub Khan, The Chief of Army Staff of the then Pakistan was plotting against to overthrow him from the power though he was elected democratically within a few days the situation happened like that General Ayub Khan took over power and declared himself as the President of the country, banning the parliament-and all constitutional rights and arrested Leader Suhrawardy and the rule of the great leader was over and the prudence of
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Management
Introduction
Globalization has had a major impact on all types of business entities, companies activities have become global by nature, thereby affecting the greater part of economic life(ohmac,1990,Barnet and Cavanagh,1994,Brecher Costello,1994 and perraton et al,1997).Person and Seyfang(2001)describe globalization as a recent and accentuated trend against the context of accelerating global institutional governance of international integration, while increasing the deregulation and de-protection of workers. The costs and benefits of globalization are unevenly distributed, with developing countries facing special difficulties in meeting this challenge, according to the literature, which suggested that the current process of globalization is unsustainable in the long run unless we introduce new institutions and policies able to govern it (Tisdell,2001). Inresponding to the challenges of globalization business entities are organised differently compared to the past. Changes have been made to the supply chain in the form of new development such as inter company organizational structure. However, the supply chain management performance strategies affects the customer satisfaction, present profitability and future sales. Especifically, the supply chain process influences the flow of products from the supplier to the ultimate desired customers. the resources used in exceuting this process determine the production cost of a product available to the customers(Niraj et al,2001). Thus landed cost will affect the buyers decision to purchase the product for consumptions. Again, the level of costs will determine the profits of the company. The decision to structure the supply chain process is an optimization issue and powerful tool capable to measure internal and external performance of a company and where the management evaluates the various supply chain alternatives to optimize the corporate goal of profit maximization. Inventory management decision have direct impact on the required capital of the company(Rebert,2005). The latest supply chain techniques such as Just-in-time(JIT), Efficient consumer response(ECR) and Quick
* Mr. Imtiaz Alam, FCMA, General Manager and CFO, Mosotafa Group of Industries, M. Rahaman Chamber, 277, Khatungonj,Chittagong, Bangladesh, Cell: 01970006500, Email: imtiaz_fcma@yahoo.com ** Mr Arjun Kumar Das, Assistant Professor, Faculty of Business Studies, Premier, University, Chittagong, Bangladesh. Cell: 01712684826, Email: arjun_puc@yahoo.com *** Mr. Rajib Datta, Lecturer, Faculty of Business Studies, Premier University, Chittagong, Bangladesh., Cell: 01819895389 Email: supta_ part@yahoo.com
response(QR)focus on reducing the inventory level of a company, thereby reducing the capital required for inventory. But companies with high value products such as light commercial vehicles, heavy commercial vehicles and heavy industrial items are more concerned about reducing the finished goods inventory because of higher value of finished products.
c)
Management
the increasing level of international competion. Despite the wide use of the term, no standard definition for supply chain management has been accepted. However, a conceptual framework for the classification of the different definitions has been developed by bechtel and Jayaram,1997). They have defined five school in this context, each with a different approach and focus in the definition of SCM. By analyzing definitions of SCM, two different fundamental approaches can be found: the first group explians SCM in direct reference to logistics(e.g. Simchi-Levi,2004,Kaninsky and Bowersox, Close and Cooper,2004, Chirstopher,1998)as this group understands the SCM as a logistic chain and logistic network, the second group does not consider SCM as having a direct relationship to logistics, rather, they interpret SCM generally as the inter-organizational management of business processes, as co-operation management or relationship management(e.g. Coopher, Lambert and Pagh-1997, Lambert,Emmelheinz and gardner,1997, Hewitt,1994). Nevertheless, an overarching clarification of the term has not been achieved. Following an extensive literature and the conducted interviews with leading managers and top executives of the industry level, we define SCM in the industry in the following manner: Supply chain management is the powerful & strengthens design and use of interrelations among atleast two organizations that are positioned on different tiers of the same value chain. The goal is internal, as well as inter-organizational processes optimization of all concerned material and information flows, inorder to maximize the creation of value. The prime task of SCM is to gurantee a smooth flow of goods. For this, an efficient and effective information flow, which has to be ensured inter-departmentally by the SCM is crucial. The aim is to design the exchange of information between the departments in such a way that each individual employee process the necessary information promptly. In addition, SCM must guarantee an efficient and effective information flow to the market partners beyond the organizations border. The supply chain is often refferred to as a value chain. A typical supply chain includes information, funds and physical material flows, which run parallel to the value chain. Supply chain management is the integration of the integration of the activities associated with the flow and transformation of goods from the raw materials stage(extraction), through to the end-user and improved supply chain relationship to achieve competive advantages material and information flow up and down the supply chain(Hardfield and Nichols,1992). The diagrammatic presentation of the overall picture of the core function of the SCM includes an array of interdependent activities
Developed part of the world:
Research & Development
from sourcing and purchasing production distribution and transportation and sales that operate in the developed and developing world, as shown in (figure-1) very often, offices in the developed world deal with research and development(R&D), sourcing and purchasing functions and sales to the customers. Products are manufactured and packeged in the developing world and transported to the developed world.
Sales
Figure-1: The Typical Supply Chain Mangement cycle.
Transportation
Management
Where, Then, Where, Therefore, Profits = Sales-Costs Costs = P % of Sales Profits = Sales-(P % of Sales) or, Profits = Sales (1- P %) (1- P %)= Profit Margin Sales= Profit + Profit Margin Figure -2 Supply chain impact on Return on Assets:
Supply Chain Effectiveness
Revenue
Profits
The following table(Table-1) shows the equivalent sales for various supply chain cost savings using the data of a hypothetical Automobile manufacturer. Table-1 Sales Equivalent for Cost Savings Sales Equivalent for Cost Savings of:
(000) Sales Total Costs Net Profits % 12,50,000 78,12,500 65,62,500 12,50,000 25,00,000 1,56,25,000 1,31,25,000 25,00,000 37,50,000 2,34,37,500 1,96,87,500 37,50,000 50,00,000 3,12,50,000 2,62,50,000 50,00,000 20,00,000 100% 16,80,000 3,20,000 84% 16%
Costs
+
Inventory Return on Assets (RO A)
+
Receivables
Accounts Capital Employed
+
Cash
Tk. 12,50,000 supply chain costs savings 16% Profit margin. Tk. 25,00,000 supply chain costs savings 16% Profit margin. Tk. 37,50,000 supply chain costs savings 16% Profit margin. Tk. 50,00,000 supply chain costs savings 16% Profit margin. Table-1 shows the equivalent sales for different supply chain costs savings. On the basis of a profit margin 16%, a Tk.12,50,000 supply chain costs savings has the same effect as increasing sales by Tk. 78,12,500, a percent increase in sales. Similarly, Tk.25,00,000, Tk.37,50,000 and Tk. 50,00,000 costs savings have equivalent sales of Tk.1,56,25,000,Tk.2,34,37,500 and Tk. 3,12,50,000 respectively. The lower profit margin, the higher will be sales equivalent for a given supply chain cost because it takes a greater sales volume to produce a given profit. For a Tk. 1,00,000 cost savings, the equivalent sales are, 1,00,00,000 with a profit margin but it is only Tk. 5,00,000 with a 20% profit margin. Therefore, supply chain cost savings have a greater sales impact for companies with low profit margins. The Table-2 shows the equivalent sales with varying profit margins. Table -2 Equivalent sales with varying profit margins Profit Margins
20% Sales Total Costs Cost Savings/Net profits 5,00,000 4,00,000 1,00,000 16% 6,25,000 4,25,000 1,00,000 10% 10,00,000 9,00,000 1,00,000 5% 20,00,000 19,00,000 1,00,000 1% 1,00,00,000 99,00,000 1,00,000 Sales cost of goods sold Gross margin
+
Fixed Assets
The supply chain effectiveness affects the revenues/ sales level, and the efficiency affects the total costs of the company (Gianpaols et, al, 2005). It forms the first components of ROA. The Level of inventory held in the supply chain determines the assets deployed. The account receivables and cash depend on the average collection period, which further depends on the order-processing time and the transit time. Finally, the warehousing decisions impact the fixed assets. Thus the capital employed is the second component of ROA. ROA = Profit Capital employed Higher the profits, higher will be the ROA, alternatively, the lower the capital employed for a given level of profits, the higher the ROA. Table-3
Financial impact of 10 percent reductions in inventory, Transportation and warehousing costs in an Automobile industry Automobile Industry 1,00,00,000 80,00,000 20,00,000 1,00,000 1,20,000 1,50,000 3,00,000 6,70,000 13,30,000 1,30,000 60,000 11,40,000 Average inventoty reduced by 10% 1,00,00,000 80,00,000 20,00,000 1,00,000 1,20,000 1,50,000 3,00,000 6,60,000 13,40,000 1,30,000 60,000 11,50,000 Warehousin Transportation cos reduced cost reduced by 10% by 10% 1,00,00,000 80,00,000 20,00,000 1,00,000 1,20,000 1,50,000 3,00,000 6,58,000 13,42,000 1,30,000 60,000 11,52,000 1,00,00,000 80,00,000 20,00,000 1,00,000 1,20,000 1,50,000 3,00,000 6,55,000 13,45,000 1,30,000 60,000 11,55,000
The Supply Chain Financial Impact: Return on Assets (ROA) is also used a benchmark to compare the efficiency of supply chain management of a company with that of another. Return on Net worth and Return on Assets both are dependent on the profitability level of the company. An efficient supply chain management assures the higher profitability of the supply chain costs will lower the profitability of the company. The following figure (Figure-1) shows the financial relationship between the supply chain management and return on assets (ROA) (Coyle, Bardi and Langley, 2003)
inveventory costs Warehousing costs Transportation costs Other operating costs Total operating costs EBIT Interest Taxes EAIT
13
Management
Assets deployment Fixed Assets Inventory Cash/Bank Accounts Receivable Total Assets Ratio Analysis* 60,00,000 2,00,000 2,50,000 3,50,000 68,00,000 60,00,000 2,00,000 3,50,000 3,50,000 67,80,000 60,00,000 2,00,000 1,80,000 3,50,000 68,00,000 60,00,000 2,00,000 2,50,000 3,50,000 68,00,000 Aupperle, K.E., Carrol, A. B. and Hatfield, J.D. (1985) An Empirical Examination of the Relationship between Corporate Social Responsibility and Profitability Academy of , Management Journal, Vol.28, No.2, pp.446-463. Ahmed, K. and Nicholls, D., (1994), The impact of non-financial company characteristics on mandatory disclosure compliance in developing countries: the case of Bangladesh, The international Journal of Accounting 29, pp 62 77. Bacallan, J.J. (2000) Greening the Supply Chain Business and Environment, Vol. 6, No.5, , pp.11-12. B. Sonnier, K. Carson, C. Philips,(2007), Accounting for intellectual capital: The relationship between profitability and Disclosure Journal of Applied Manager and Entrepreneurship Bowen, F. E., Cousins, P. D., Lamming, R. C. and Faruk, A. C. (2000) Explaining the Implementation of Environment-Related Green Supply Initiatives: the Role of Supply Management Capabilities Paper accepted for presentation at the Academy , of Management Annual Meeting, held in Toronto. Bowen, F.E., Cousins, P.D., Lamming, R.C. and Faruk, A.C. (2001) The Role of Supply Management Capabilities in Green Supply Production and Operations , Management, 10(2): 174-189. Bremer, J. and Udovich, J. (2001) Alternative Approaches to Supply Chain Compliance Monitoring Journal of fashion marketing and management, Vol.5, No.4, pp.333-352. , Bowen, F.E., Cousins, P.D., Lamming, R.C. and Faruk, A.C. (2001) The Role of Supply Management Capabilities in Green Supply Production and Operations , Management, 10(2): 174-189. Bremer, J. and Udovich, J. (2001) Alternative Approaches to Supply Chain Compliance Monitoring Journal of fashion marketing and management, Vol.5, No.4, pp.333-352. , Business Impact (2000) Winning with Integrity: A Guide to Social Responsibility, Business in the Community, London. Carter, J.R. and Narasimhan, R. (1998) Environmental Supply Chain Management: Focus Study, Center for Advanced Purchasing Studies, Michigan State University, U.S. Christopher, M. G. (1998) Logistics and Supply Chain Management: Strategies for Reducing Costs and Improving Services, Pitman Publishing, London. Cadbury, A. (2002) Corporate Governance and Chairmanship: A Personal View, Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp.160-161. Coyle, Bardi and Langley (2003) The Management of Business Logistics- A Supply Chain Perspective, 7th Ed. Thomson South- Western, Singapore. Carter, J.R. and Narasimhan, R. (1998) Environmental Supply Chain Management: Focus Study, Center for Advanced Purchasing Studies, Michigan State University, U.S. China Business Strategy Daily News (2004) East China Electricity Shortage Worsens, in http://www.chinaready.com/news/May2004/EastChinaElectricityShortageWorsens0 50504.htm. Christmann, P. and Taylor, G. (2001) Globalization and the Environment: Determinants of Firm Self-Regulation in China Journal of International Business Studies, Vol.32, No.3, , pp.439458. Christopher, M. G. (1998) Logistics and Supply Chain Management: Strategies for Reducing Costs and Improving Services, Pitman Publishing, London. Clarke, C. E. (2000) Differences between Public Relations and Corporate Social Responsibility: An Analysis Public Relations Review, Vol.26, No.3, pp.363-380. , Daily Times (2005) Critics Brand: 4 Multinational Companies Irresponsible, World Economic Forum on the 27th Jan, 2005 in Switzerland, in www.dailytimes.com.pk. Frankental, P. (2001) Corporate Social Responsibility A PR Invention? Corporate Communications An International Journal, Vol.6, No.1, pp.18-23. Gascoigne, J. (2002) Supply Chain Management: Project Acorn Corporate environmental , strategy, Vol.9, No11, pp.62-68. Gianpaolo et al. (2005) Inventory Driven- CostsHarvard Business Review,March 2005. , Handfield, R.B. and Nichols, E.L. (1999) Introduction to Supply Chain Management, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Handfield, R.B. and Nichols, E.L. (1999) Introduction to Supply Chain Management, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Havard Business School (HBS) (2003) Harvard Business Review on Corporate Responsibility, The Competitive Advantage of Corporate Philanthropy, Havard Business School Press, pp.28. Henderson, D. (1996) Introduction to purchasing and supply chain management, Chartered Institute of Purchasing and Supply, pp.88. Mohan, A. (2001) Corporate Citizenship: Perspectives from India Journal of Corporate , Citizenship, Vol.2, pp.107-117. Moir, L. (2001)What do We Mean by Corporate Social Responsibility? Corporate Governance, Vol.1/2, pp.16-22. M.H.U. Bhuiyan, P. K. Biswas: (2007) Corporate Governance and Reporting: An Empirical Study of the Listed Companies in Bangladesh Journal of Business Studies, 28(1). Niraj, Gupta and Narsimhan(2001) Customer Orifitabily in a Supply Chain Journal of , Marketing, Vol.55 July,2001,pp 1-16. O. A. Farrooque, T. V. Zijl, K. Dunstan and A. W. Karim (2007), Corporate Governance in Bangladesh : Link between Ownership and Financial Performance, CorporateGovernance, 15(6). Robert Avanzo et al(2005) Supply Chain and the Bttom Line: A Critical Link The ICFAI Journal of Supply Chain Mangement,Vol.II No.2 June 2005
Comparison of supply chain alternatives 11.50% 16.7617% 40.4444 times 1.50% 1.20% 11.52% 16.9411% 40 times 1.50% 1.20% 11.55% 16.9853% 40 times 1.50% 1.20%
1. Profit Margin 11.40% 2. Return on Assets 16.7647% 3. Inventory Turnover 40 times 1.50% 4. Transportation as % of Sales 1.20% 5. Warehousing as % of Sales 6. Inventory carrying cost as % of Sales l l l l l l
Profit Margin= EAIT/Sales Return on Assets= EAIT/ Total Assets Inventory Turnover= Cost of Goods Sold/ Average Inventory Trnsportation as % of Sales= Transportation Costs/Sales Warehousing as % of Sales =Warehousing Costs/Sales Inventory Carrying Costs as % of Sales= Inventory Carrying Costs/ Sales
Based on the financial data given in the Table-3, we can analyze the different alternatives available to the industry to improve profitability. The basic supply chain alternatives a variable are reduction in the different alternatives has been analyzed, to determine the financial impact. The firm had a net income of Tk.11,40,000 on sales of Tk.1,00,00,000 with a profit margin of 11.40% . Total assets utilized were Tk.68,00,000 and the ROA was 16.7647%. The inventory turnover was 40 times and the transportation costs amounted to 1.5% on sales, warehousing 1.2% and inventory carrying costs 1.00% of sales. The 10% reduction inventory has increases from 11.40% to 11.50%. Return on assets increases from 11.7647% to 16.9617%. Inventory carrying cost as a percentage of sales goes down from 1.00% to 0.90%. Transportation and warehousing costs as a percentage of sales dont change. The table3 also shows the changes and the effects on various financial ratios due to 10.00% decrease in warehousing and transportation costs. In each case the comparisons are made. In both the cases the profits, profit margins and ROA increase. This analysis provides the data to answer the question related to that supply chain alternatives, which provides the greatest advantage for increased profitability. The greatest advantage in terms of profit margin and ROA lies when the transportation cost is decreased. This is due to the fact that transportation cost is a greater percentage of sales than the warehousing and inventory costs. However, the benefit through reduction in inventory cost alternatives is two-fold, reduction in the inventory carrying cost and a reduction in assets. The inventory turnover ratio has increased from 40 times to 44.4444 times.
Conclusion
The financial goal of supply chain management is to increase the profitability of the company by examining and optimizing various alternative courses of actions. In this context, the impact of cost saving or reductions, inventory level changes and other supply chain action on profitability is significant. r References:
Altekar, Rahul.(2005) Supply Chain Management- Concepts and cases, Prentice Hall of India, New Delhi. Ackerman, R.W. (1975) The Social Challenge to Business, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, M.A. Arrow, K.J. (1973) Social Responsibility and Economic Efficiency Public Policy Vol. 21, pp.303. 317.
14
Economics
( Continued From Previous Issue )
power embodied in a ruler or governmental body. In international relations, a sovereign state is equal to other states; it can govern its own territory, declare war, and so on. In the wave of globalization the concept of nation-state is increasingly becoming irrelevant. Globalization is undermining nation states by two ways. First, it is empowering corporations at the expense of the nation state, and secondly, the international institutions such as the WTO and World Bank are not democratic. They are making their mission to open the world to the influence of transnational corporations. The IMF rules make it hard for nations to legislate to stop currency speculators from attacking their economy. The World Bank insists that nations to which it makes structural adjustment loans privatize government enterprises, often handing them to transnational. It is clear that the World Trade Organizations effort to break down trade barriers is designed to open markets to transnational corporations (Globalizationguide, 2002). However, the increasing significance of a global economy and communication network has gone hand in hand with a decline in the nation state. And TNCs are the driving force behind a world-wide system of competitive capitalism which increasingly creates conditions that allow TNCs to escape the rules and controls of national states. As individual countries feel increasingly powerless to regulate investments from TNCs, they try to make themselves competitive to attract investors, often at the price of reducing wages and benefits for workers and by deregulating environmental protection. This however, is only one aspect of globalization and there are other components of this process (Jauch, 2000). The IMF (2000, cited in Mostert, 2003) argues that globalization does not impact negatively on the sovereignty of nations in terms of economic policy, but acts as discipline for the monetary and fiscal authorities in countries. Despite this view of the IMF, it is still true that excessive short term capital flows can be disruptive to the economy of a country. The response to globalization by different societies, even societies within a nationstate, will be different. Those societies expecting to benefit are likely to welcome globalization while others will view it as an immediate threat to their lifestyle. The new global economy looks like a battlefield between economic giants in the form of TNCs from the USA, Western Europe, Japan and more recently the Asian Tigers. These TNCs are the driving force behind a world-wide system of competitive capitalism which increasingly creates conditions that allow TNCs to escape the rules and controls of national states. As TNCs operate across the globe, national governments have less power to control them. Democratic rules and decisions are difficult to enforce due to weak bargaining positions of national governments and parliaments. In the absence of a global government to set the rules, TNCs have become powerful organizations which try to control the global economy while nation-states feel compelled to offer a competitive environment to attract investment. So, Bangladesh as controlled by World Bank and International other Agencies are gradually becoming powerless to control the TNCs. 8.4 NGOs activities Social context in 21st century is far different from twentieth century.
The Cost and Management, September-October, 2010
Economics
Globalization is a focused issue already started from the end of twentieth century. Absence of competition between two polarized countries has assisted in forming one globe. In the sphere of economic and societal life globalization is booming and booming. It strengthens civil society particularly NGOs often through the intervention of external actors. Bangladesh features globally as the country of the NGOs for their leading role in the social mobilization, getting access to over one-fifth of the countrys external resources. Using this opportunity they not only encroach into the democratic realm but may also further limit the scope of democratic governance and hence of the democratic route to globalization. While professedly they serve as agents of civil society in reality they themselves most often are unaccountable and non-transparent. Most importantly, the NGOs have also intruded both into businesses as well as into the minefield of the countrys politics, adding further volatility to the fragile political system of Bangladesh (Kalam, 2008). Now foreign NGOs are able to impinge on business dealings in ways that were unimaginable only a few years before. So NGOs are formidable actors for many businesses (Pearce et al 2003). Although in the present context of Bangladesh, accountable, transparent and non-political NGOs are evitable but a survey showed that the role of NGOs for overall development activities is about 9 percent (Rashid, 2001). It is also complained that many NGOs for example BRAC, ADAB, ASA, CARITUS, PROSIKA etc are directly involving politics even they already intruded into the businesses. Furthermore, for commercialization of poverty, World Bank and donor agencies are gradually pushing government to conduct development works through NGOs. It is open that NGOs are getting money from abroad and they are utilizing these funds and earning but they in return are not paying any tax on income. This leads to a huge revenue loss of government. Contrary, native traders and industrial entrepreneurs are administering their businesses within the rules and regulations of government (ibid). So government needs to reduce the disparity otherwise NGOs will grab the control of economy as well as also businesses. managed, otherwise it may be harmful. Nevertheless the wave of globalization is not stoppable, this is why Bangladesh like other developing countries, must consider the benefits that can be derived by minimizing the level of threats of globalization as because the country has no way to overlook the impact of globalization. However, Bangladesh needs to establish competitive capabilities beyond cheap labor. These can take the form of educated workers, high quality infrastructure, local R&D capabilities, and strong entrepreneurial skills.
10.0 Recommendations
Different opinions explain the impact of globalization differently. Somebody explains globalizations as the panacea- the elixir that will eradicate all poverty, remove disparity and enable the global citizens to enjoy a decent lifestyle, others look at globalization as the evil that will further enslave them to the rich. It is evident that globalization is not necessarily going to have homogenizing effects; rather its impact is more likely to be asymmetric over different societies. In this context, Bangladesh like other developing countries needs to consider the benefits that can be derived by minimizing the level of threats of globalization as because the country has no way to overlook the impact of globalization. The best way is to prepare ourselves to face this challenge with prudence and determination way. However, this study suggests some recommendations described below: l Cross-border economic transactions are dominated by transnational corporations, governance is moving from national policies and rules to international institutions and rules but until the mid-1990s, the economic activities of transnational corporations were governed largely by national rules or national policies. TNCs extracted more resources through transfer pricing and still the practices exist. TNCs, in the form of FDI, have invested in different sectors of Bangladesh but there is scope for them detrimental profit-shifting activities through transfer pricing. In order to protect the thrust sectors of economy: readymade garments, knit wears and shrimp Bangladesh as far as possible to govern the TNCS by her own rules and policies. Moreover, extracting resource through transfer pricing by TNCs should be controlled through national taxation polices. Technology, managerial skill and other capabilities offered by TNC should be utilized adapting our own style of industrial development. l GATS open the country's gate for a host of services including the foreign giants. Foreign banks and other service organisations with their superior financial and technological base pose tougher and bitter competition to the local banks and other service institutions that have very weak technological and financial base. The government can hardly withstand the prescriptions given by the World Bank (WB), International Monetary Fund (IMF) and other international aid giving agencies and if these agencies want that more service sectors should be opened, then it will be difficult to resist. It is, therefore, important that we should prepare ourselves to face the challenges of globalization prudently and without further delay. l In the wave of globalization the concept of nation-state is increasingly becoming irrelevant. Globalization is undermining nation states by two ways. First, it is empowering corporations at the expense of the nation state, and secondly, the international institutions such as the WTO and World Bank are not democratic.
33
9.0 Conclusion
Globalization has become a rare opportunity to breakout the cycle of perennial poverty. More and more countries consider global economy as a path to economic success. Multinational Corporations continue looking for new markets and low-cost production sites, and creating new opportunities for those countries to participate in the global economy. Bangladesh with her low economic profile has already aligned with the globalization process. A number of remarkable changes have been observed in the economic arena. Obviously, the potential benefits of globalization for Bangladesh are great. Increased access to capital inflow and technology, availability of goods and services at lower costs and employment opportunity are remarkable benefits for the economy of Bangladesh. It is proven that the benefits are not automatic and there are costs to liberalization. Domestic companies may be affected by foreign competition in home. Actually globalization is a deadly game, if we can call it a game; there will be winners and losers. In most cases developing countries are in the list of losers. It is evident that in the globalization process, developing countries are interacting in different ways with developed countries but in real sense they have very little chance to gain from this process. Meanwhile developing countries have confronted a great disaster in economic sphere, political arena, in the field of technology and even in the cultural. It should be understood that globalization is good, if it can be
The Cost and Management, September-October, 2010
Economics
They are making their mission to open the world to the influence of transnational corporations. TNCs operate across the globe; national governments have less power to control them. Democratic rules and decisions are difficult to enforce due to weak bargaining positions of national governments and parliaments. So, it is necessary to form global government to set the rules for controlling TNCs. l Bangladesh features globally as the country of the NGOs for their leading role in the social mobilization, getting access to over onefifth of the countrys external resources. Using this opportunity they are trying to encroach our democratic realm and are also trying to limit the scope of democratic governance and hence of the democratic route to globalization. Most importantly, the NGOs have also intruded both into businesses as well as into the minefield of the countrys politics, adding further volatility to the fragile political system of Bangladesh. While professedly they serve as agents of civil society in reality they themselves most often are unaccountable and non-transparent. Functioning as like as commercial organization certainly NGOs are deviating from their prime operation. However, in the present context of Bangladesh; government control mechanisms are inevitable to make the NGOs accountable, transparent, non business oriented and non-political. l Culture is a way of life. Social behaviour, education, politics, and economics tie to cultural bondage to every nation. But Globalization considers only the economic aspect of culture to be most important. The capitalist countries tried to establish their culture of consumerism by diffusing own culture of LDCs. Being not be capable enough to utilize domestic resources with the capital movement, MNCs have already diffused cultural bondage of developing countries. The spread of globalization will undoubtedly bring changes to the countries it reaches. It is not fully possible to protect the culture of consumerism but we should at least maintain our own way of life to defend the wave of globalization. r References:
Akram T.(2002) Transfer Pricing Policy for Bangladesh Columbia University, Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, Department of Economics BAKISA, 2009) Impact of Globalization on economic growth, quality of life, external stability on market economies. Web address: http://www.bukisa.com/articles/92708_impact-of-globalization-on-economicgrowthm-quality-of-life-external-stability-on-market-economies Barker, B.(2000), Technology and the Quest for Sustainability, Electric Power Research Institute, vol.25 (2000), available at WL2345. Bhuiyan, H. A. M. (2003), Study Materials on International Business, ICMAB, Dhaka. . CAFOD,(1998)The Asian garment industry and Globalization CAFOD policy papers at http://www.cafod.org.uk/policy/garment_industry.shtml CAFOD,(1998), A Development NGO Critique of Globalization CAFOD,(2002), A Development NGO Critique of Globalization Dipok Nayyar and Julius Court. Governing Globalization: Issues and Institutions UNU World Institute for Development Economics Research, 2002 (UNU/WIDER) DRPAD (1999), Information Technology, Globalization and Development, Economic and Social Survey of Asia and the Pacific, 1999. Globalizationguide, (2002).What is the role of the internet and communications technology in globalization? Website reviewed: http://www.Globalizationguide.org/index.htm Haq A.B.M. N.(2008) Globalization and its impact on insurance industry in Bangladesh IMF(1997), IMF, World Economic Outlook, May, 1997. www.imf.org/external/pubs/ weomay/weocon.htm Islam, S(2009), Paradoxes of Globalization, The Daily Star. Jauch,H(2000) Globalization and Employment: New Opportunities or Continued Marginalization? Web address: http://www.larri.com.na/papers/Globalization-Employmen.PDF Kalam, A(2002), Globalization and Bangladesh- In the New Century, Published by Forkan Ahmad , Palok Publisher, Dhaka Lall, S.(2002),The Employment Impact Of Globalization In Developing Countries. Mahmud, W.(2003), Bangladesh Faces the Challenge if Globalization. Reliance on exports and remittances exposes vulnerability Mostert, J (2003),The impact of globalization on developing countries. http://www.essa.org.za/download/2003Conference/MostertJ_The%20Impact%20Of%20 Globalization%20On%20Developing%20Countries.pdf Mozumder, S.(2007),Globalization and Bangladesh Najam, A., Runnalls, D., and Halle, M(2007),Environment and Globalization Five Propositions: International Institute for Sustainable Development, Denmark Osmani, R.S.(2004),The impact of Globalization on the poverty of Bangladesh, Pearce L. J. ().Globalization and NGOs: Transforming Business, Government and Society Edited by Jonathan P. Doh and Hildy Teegen Piven, F.F. (1995). Global Economics. New Left Review No.213, September/October 1995. RAHMAN, S. (2004), GLOBAL SHIFT: BANGLADESH GARMENTINDUSTRY IN PERSPECTIVE Asian Affairs, Vol. 26, and No. 1:75-91, January-March, 2004. Sarker, M. S. R.(2005) Information and Communication Technology: Engine of Growth and Poverty Alleviation: Asian Region, The Cost and Management, Number 2, Volume XXXIII,2005, Dhaka Rashid.R. Harrun(2001), Industrial and Trade Crisis of Bangladesh in Open Market Economy, Nowroz Kitabistan, Dhaka Ray O.(2001) Globalization and National Sovereignty - And the Struggle Against Opportunism www.mltranslations.org/us/ROL/ROLglobalization.htm Shamsuddoha, M.(2005) Opportunities and Challenges of Globalization for Bangladesh Social Science Research Network TIB, () Problems of Governance in the NGO Sector: The Way Out. Web address: http://www.ti-bangladesh.org/research/ExecSum-NGO-English.pdf Yusuf, S.(2001), Globalization and the Challenge for Developing Countries. Working Paper Number 93
34
ICMAB News
CPD Program on IAS and IFRS
Accounts & Admn., RZ Power Limited presented the papers on IAS 36 Impairment of Assets, Financial Instruments: Presentation, Recognition and Measurement covered by IAS 32 and IAS 39 , "Accounting for Income Tax covered by IAS 12" , and IAS 23- Borrowing Costs and IFRS 8 Operating Segments in four technical sessions respectively. Mr. Mohammad Abdul Mannan, Managing Director, Islami Bnak Bangladesh Limited, Mr. Ranjit Kumar Chakraborty, Additional Secretary, Ministry of Finance, Finance Division, Government of the People's Republic of Bangladesh. Mr. Md. Aminur Rahman, Member (Income Tax Policy), National Board of Revenue (NBR), and Mr. Shawkat Ali
The Institute of Cost and Management Accountants of Bangladesh (ICMAB) organized a 2 day long CPD Program on October 7-8, 2010 at ICMAB Ruhul Quddus Auditorium, Dhaka. Mr. Mohammad Faruk Khan, M.P., Honble Minister for Commerce, Government of the Peoples Republic of Bangladesh inaugurated the CPD Program as Chief Guest on October 7, 2010. Among others President of the Institute Mr. Md. Abdul Aziz, FCMA, Past President and Chairman, Seminar & Conference Committee Mr. AKM Delwer Hussain, FCMA, also spoke on the occasion and Treasurer and Past President of the Institute Mr. Md. Abdur Rashid, FCMA, offered vote of thanks. Mr. Mohammad Nesar Uddin, FCA, ACMA, Senior Vice President, Islami Mr. Bank Bangladesh Ltd, Muhammad Maniruzzaman, ACMA, Head of Financial Operations & Control, Eastern Bank Ltd. Mr. Ranjan Kumar Bhowmik, FCMA, Additional Director, BCS (Tax) Academy, and Mr. Arifur Rahman Meethu, FCMA, Manager-
Waresi, Joint Secretary, Ministry of Commerce, Government of the People's Republic of Bangladesh conducted the technical sessions-1,2,3 and 4 as Session Chairmen
37
ICMAB News
iii) Transfer of books and Model Solutions to the Branch Offices
During the year 224 copies of books and 576 copies of model solutions have been sent to the branch offices for providing services to the students, teachers and members.
i (a) Civil works have been crried out for constructing 2(two) rooms at 3rd floor of the CMA Bhaban, lawn improvement and internal road construction of ICMAB Chittagong Premises. Members Corner was set up there. (b) 52.5 KVA Generator has been installed at Chittagong CMA Bhaban. ii) The Institute started construction of 5 storied building at Khulna. By now, construction of Basement, Ground and First floor have completed and expected to start class from next session i.e. JanuaryJune, 2011.
New Appointment
Dr. G.M. Baqui Billah, DAIBB, FCMA has recently joined EXCELSIOR Group a very large group of Bangladesh involved in the production of Pharmaceuticals, respectively. A good number of Members of the Institute participated in the CPD Program. garments, accessories, shoes, biscuits, engineering and other big trading ICMAB Library business etc. as a Group Adviser. Prior to his new appointment he served as i) Procurement of books for Library Executive Director at Omani Group, A total of 1007 copies of text and reference books were procured in CA Bhaban, Dhaka and Senior this year to meet the growing needs of users of the libraries of General Manager Janata/Sonali Bank Ltd. for last 33 years. Mr. Billah has Dhaka, Chittagong, Khulna, Rajshahi and Comilla. wide exprience both at home and abroad specially in Banking sector of ii) Sold out unusable and old Books Bangladesh. We wish him success in Some written off books and Journals were sold out to the Members his new assignment. & Students of the Institute at a token price. The remaining items have been sold out as waste paper to make the Library environment neat & clean and enhance the storage capacity.
38 The Cost and Management, September-October, 2010
F-0606 SM Tazul, Mamun & Associates 2. Mr. Md. Mamun-Ur-Rashid Chowdhoury, Cost & Management Accountants Partner ACMA House # 25/26 (2nd floor) Road # 23 A-1060 Block D, Section 6 Mirpur, Dhaka-1216 Bangladesh Cell: 01816-269377
DBC News
Reception to the Newly Qualified CMAs
The Dhaka Branch Council (DBC) of the Institute organized a reception to the newly qualified Cost and Management Accountants (April, 2010 Exam) on September 21, 2010 at ICMAB Seminar Room. Mr. Md. Munirul Islam, FCMA, Acting Chairman of DBC presided over the program, while Mr. Md. Abdul Aziz, FCMA was present as the Guest of Honour. 23 CMAs qualified in April 2010 Exam attended the program along with their family members. All of them as well as their family members shared their feeling of dedication to the CMA profession. They also spoke of the hindrances in achieving the final success. A crest was awarded to all of them alongwith a small DBC souvenir as a token of recognition on behalf of DBC by the Institutes President. DBC council member Mr. Jayanta Kumar Podder FCMA, gave the welcome address. DBC Council Members Mr. Md. Akhtaruzzaman FCMA and Mr. Md. Kausar Alam FCMA, also spoke on the occasion. DBC Council Member Kazi Muhammad Ziauddin, ACMA conducted the program.
The Cost and Management, September-October, 2010
39
ICMAB News
different aspects of dedication of Mr. Ruhul Quddus FCMA. It may be mentioned that Mr. Ruhul Quddus left on 28th September, 2002. Secretary, Council Members and Past Presidents of ICMAB, current office bearers and other council members of DBC and a large member of fellow and associate members of ICMAB, officials of the Institute attended and prayed for the salvation of the departed soul.
Discussion Session on Important Changes in Customs & VAT issues in the Fiscal Budget 20102011
The Dhaka Branch Council (DBC) of ICMAB organized a discussion on Important Changes in Customs & VAT issues in the Fiscal Budget 2010-2011 for CMAs on October 27, 2010 at ICMA Bhaban, Nilkhet, Dhaka. Mr. Ali Haider Chowdhury FCMA, presided over the session. Mr. Zahir Uddin Ahmed, FCMA, Past President & Present Council Member of the Institute was present as the Session Chairman. Kazi Muhammad Ziauddin ACMA, D e p u t y Commissioner of Customs & VAT, National Board of
The Dhaka Branch Council of The Institute of Cost and Management Accountants of Bangladesh (ICMAB) organized "Orientation Program (July-December 2010 session)" for the newly admitted students of ICMAB at the ICMAB Ruhul Quddus Auditorium, Dhaka on October 13, 2010. Mr. Md. Munirul Islam FCMA, Acting Chairman of Dhaka Branch Council presided over the program. Mr. Munirul Islam in his speech emphasized the role of CMA in the context of present global economy and competitive business environment. Among others Institute's President Mr. Md. Abdul Aziz FCMA, Past President & Present Vice-President Mr. A. K. M. Delwer Hussain FCMA, Past President of ICMAB & Present Treasurer Mr. Md. Abdur Rashid FCMA, Past President of ICMAB & Present council Member Mr. Zahir Uddin Ahmed FCMA, Secretary Mr. Jasim Uddin Akond FCMA, spoke in the program. Mr. Ali Haider Chowdhury FCMA, conduct the program. DBC Treasurer Mr. Md. Bakhtiar Alam ACMA, proposed vote of thanks. There were some acrobatic events and cultural program organized by the DBC. A large number of newly admitted students and members of the Institute were present in the program.
Revenue spoke on the session as the resource person. DBC Council Member Mr. Jayanta Kumar Podder FCMA gave the welcome address and introduced the Session Chairman. DBC Treasurer Mr. Md. Bakhtiar Alam CMA gave the vote of thanks. A good number of members were present and actively participated in the discussion session.
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ICMAB News
CBC News
CPD on Mutual Fund-Bangladesh Perspective and Iftar Mahfil
The program was divided in two technical sessions in two days. The resource persons Dr. Saleh Jahur, Professor, Department of Finance & Banking and Information, University of Chittagong presented the paper on IFRS/IAS- 16 : Valuation of Property, Plant and Equipment on October 28, 2010 and Mr. Ahmad Dawood, ACA, ACMA presented the paper on IFRS for SMEs on October 29,2010. Mr. Imtiaz Alam, FCMA, Chairman, Chittagong Branch Council presided the two days long program and delivered the welcome address. A Good number of Fellow and Associate Members and senior students of the Institute attended the Workshop. The whole program was conducted by Mr. Md. Mostafa
A CPE on the topic of Mutual Fund Bangladesh Perspective was organized by Chittagong Branch Council (CBC) of the Institute of Cost and Management Accountants of Bangladesh (ICMAB) on the 3rd September, 2010 at Ambrosia Hotel & Restaurant, Agrabad, Chittagong. Mr. Ahmed Dawood, ACA, ACMA Head of Finance & Company Secretary, Chittagong Stock Exchange Ltd., Chittagong presented the paper on the occasion while Mr. Imtiaz Alam, FCMA, Chairman, Chittagong Branch Council chaired the program. The whole session was nicely conducted by Mr. Md. Mostafa Kamal, FCMA, Secretary, Chittagong Branch Council and the vote of thanks was offered by Mr. Md. Mahfuzul Hoque, FCMA, Vice Chairman of CBC. The session was followed by an Iftar Mahfil. Workshop on IFRS/IAS Chittagong Branch Council of the Institute of Cost and Management Accountants of Bangladesh organized 2 (two) day long Workshop on IFRS/IAS-16: Valuation of Property, Plant and Equipment and Section-23 of IFRS for SMEs at CMA Bhaban, Agrabad Chittagong on 28 & 29 October, 2010. Mr. AKM Delwer Hussain, FCMA Vice President & Past President, ICMAB and Mr. Mohammed Mohiuddin, FCMA, Past President, ICMAB & Managing Director, Island Securities Ltd., attended the programs as Chief Guest while Mr. Md. Jasim Uddin Akond, FCMA, Secretary, ICMAB was present as Special Guest.
The Cost and Management, September-October, 2010
Kamal , FCMA, Secretary, CBC & Vote of thanks was given by Mr.
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ICMAB News
The Chapter Night - 2010 was organized by the Canada Chapter Council of ICMAB on October 23, 2010 at the "Messy Square Party Centre", Toronto. Mr. S. M. Ebadul Islam, FCMA, Chairman, Canada Chapter Council gave the welcome address. Among others Mr. Akhtar Ahmad, FCMA, Mr. Aqamuddin Ahmed, FCMA, Mr. Nayeem Ali Kadri, ACMA, Mr. G M S Aziz Uddin Ahmed, FCMA, Mr. Md. Mahfuzur Rahman, ACMA, spoke on the occasion. A large number of members of Canada Chapter Council along with their spouses and children attended the program. The function was followed by a colorful cultural function, raffle draw and a fellowship dinner. Mr. Md. Mamunur Rashid, ACMA, gave the vote of thanks.
UK Chapter News
UK Chapter committee met several times to explore ideas for professional issues, shared information, exchanged ideas on future activities supportive to both social and professional development. r
The Cost and Management, September-October, 2010
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ISSN 1817-5090
Contents
1. Editorial 2. The Council 3. Articles a) The Balanced Scorecard: A Renewable Methodology and Framework of Action Towards Success for Air Line Prof. Md. Salim Uddin, FCA, MBA, FCMA M. Takibur Rahman b) Financial Impact of Supply Chain Management Decisions and Performance Imtiaz Alam, FCMA Arjun Kumar Das Rajib Datta c) Stakeholder Model of Corporate Governance under Islamic Framework Mohammed Mostafa Kamal FCMA Shahadat Hossain Balanced Scorecard: A Multi-stream Performance Measurement tool for Public Sector Corporations in Bangladesh Md. Nazim Uddin Bhuiyan, FCMA Mofijul Hoq Masum e) The impact of Asset Liability Management on the profitability of Private Commercial Banks of Bangladesh A comparative Analysis between the Conventional PCB'S and Islamic PCBS 24 Kazi Homaira Nirjhar, BBA, MBA f) Investment Pattern for Required Economic Growth to Achieve Poverty Reduction Targets Abdullahil Mamun Serajul Islam g) Globalization: A way of Prospects and Threats for the Economy of Bangladesh Md. Saidur Rahman Sarker, ACMA Feature 4. Can one recover from the grip of Work-holism ? Ruhul Ameen FCMA, F-0088 5. ICMAB News 6. Memory of Md. Nurul Hassan 37 43 35 32 29 15 11 3 4
EDITOR
Mr. Rafiq Ahmad, FCMA ASSOCIATE EDITORS Mr. Mohammad Abdul Hai, FCMA Mr. Md. Mamunur Rashid, FCMA JOURNAL COMMITTEE-2010 Chairman
Mr. Rafiq Ahmad, FCMA
Vice-Chairman
Prof. Aminul Islam, FCMA
Members
Mr. A.B.M. Shamsuddin, FCMA Mr. A. K. M. Delwer Hussain, FCMA Mr. Md. Jasim Uddin Akond, FCMA Mr. Md. Abdur Rashid, FCMA Mr. Md. Ishaque, FCMA Mr. Muzaffar Ahmed, FCMA Mr. Zahir Uddin Ahmed, FCA, FCMA Prof. Mamtaz Uddin Ahmed, FCMA Mr. Abu Sayed Md. Shaykhul Islam, FCMA Mr. Mohammed Salim, FCMA Mr. Arif Khan, FCMA Mr. Ranjaneswar Halder, FCMA Mr. A.K.M. Anwarul Islam, FCMA Mr. Zahir Uddin Ahmed Chowdhury, FCMA Mr. Md. Munirul Islam, FCMA Mr. Md. Sarwar Hossain, FCMA Mr. Md. Ejajur Rahman Chowdhury, FCMA Mr. Abul Bashir Khan, FCMA Qazi Meraz Uddin Arif, FCMA Mr. Md. Abadullah, ACMA Mr. Md. Bakhtiar Alam, ACMA Mr. Md. Rafikol Amyeen, ACMA Mr. Bipul Kumar Bhowmik, ACMA Mr. Muhammad Maniruzzaman, ACMA Mr. Md. Shafiqul Alam, ACMA Mr. Abdullah Al Mahbub, ACMA Mr. Sarif Mohammad Jana Alam, ACMA Mr. Joel Utpal Halder, ACMA Mr. Shamim Ahmed, ACMA Mr. Mahbubul Alam, ACMA Mr. Md. Rafiqul Islam, ACMA Mr. Md. Mahfuzar Rahman, ACMA
d)
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Secretary
Mr. Mohammad Mizanur Rahaman Deputy Director, ICMAB
PUBLISHER Mr. Aminul Islam, FCMA Executive Director (In-charge) The Institute of Cost and Management Accountants of Bangladesh
Request for Articles for The Cost and Management - Journal of The Institute of Cost and Management Accountants of Bangladesh
You are requested to submit article/paper for publication in the ICMAB Journal The Cost and Management. The following may kindly be treated as broad guidelines for the articles/papers. (a) The articles/papers should be original research based or theme based and should demonstrate the authors own thought and judgment.
(b) The manuscript must be typed on one side of the paper in double space and normally should not exceed more than 15 pages. Softcopy in CD or 3 . 5 diskettes will be preferred. (c) All notes except those included in the table and diagrams should be numbered consecutively throughout the article. (d) Bibliographical references should be made in defined structure. In case of article, the initiation should be as follows: Authors last name, First name and Middle Initial. The year of publication. Title of the articles Name of the journal (Italicized), volume number , (month or issue). Page number. For example : (In case of article) 1. Nichols. D. 1989 The handbook of Investors Relations Homewood, IL: Dow Jones-I In the text of the article (i) Ahmed (1995) (ii) Khondoker & Mazumder (1993) (iii) (FASB 1986, 9) states. (e) An abstract of around 50 words should be given along with the articles/papers. (f ) Name(s) and designation of the author(s) with the title of the article/paper should be provided on a separate sheet. (g) Two copies of the article/paper should be submitted to: Office of the Editor The Cost and Management The Institute of Cost and Management Accountants of Bangladesh ICMA Bhaban, Nilkhet, Dhaka-1205, Bangladesh. (h) Articles on any demanding topics of Business and Economics can be submitted. But articles on Accounting, Costing, Management Accounting, Business Finance, Financial Management, Taxation, etc. with current concerned development will be appreciated. (i) Articles based on practical experience in various sectors of the economy, specially by members of the Institute will receive perference.
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Opinions expressed by the contributors in this Journal are their own and do not necessarily represent the views of the Institute.
Editorial
Member
Mr. Zahir Uddin Ahmed, FCA, FCMA(UK), FCMA House # 24, Road # 121 Gulshan, Dhaka-1212, Bangladesh Res. 8810468, 8851533
Member
Prof. Mamtaz Uddin Ahmed, FCMA Department of Accounting & Information Systems Faculty of Business Studies University of Dhaka Dhaka-1000, Bangladesh Off. 9661920-73/7891, 7906 Res. 9668889, Cell : 01816-235109 Fax: 88-02-8615583 E-mail: mamtaz_uddinahmed58@yahoo.com
Vice-President
Mr. A.B.M. Shamsuddin MBA (USA), FCMA Apt. # 2/803, Eastern Corner 10/A, Circuit House Road Kakrail, Dhaka-1000, Bangladesh Res. 8315815, Cell : 01819-252805 E-mail: abm_shamsuddin@hotmail.com
Member
Mr. Abu Sayed Md. Shaykhul Islam, FCMA Chairman, FATCOM Bangladesh Ltd. E/16, Arambag R.A, Eastern Housing Block # E, Road # 7, Section # 7, Pallabi, Mirpur Dhaka-1216, Bangladesh Off. 8061119, Res. 8024295, Fax: 88-02-9884546 E-mail: shaykhul@radiancegroup-bd.com
Vice-President
Mr. A. K. M. Delwer Hussain, FCMA Director (Finance) Bangladesh Sugar & Food Industries Corporation Chini Shilpa Bhaban (4th floor), 3, Dilkusha C.A. Dhaka-1000, Bangladesh Off. 9565866, Cell : 01711-171650 E-mail: delwer_fcma@yahoo.com Secretary Mr. Md. Jasim Uddin Akond, FCMA Comptroller Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology (BUET) Dhaka-1000, Bangladesh Off. 9665615 (D), 9665650-80/7146 Cell : 01713-083618, Fax: 88-02-8613046 E-mail: jakond64@yahoo.com
Member
Mr. Mohammed Salim, MBA(UK), FCMA General Manager (Finance) Power Grid Company of Bangladesh Ltd. (PGCB) IEB Bhaban (3rd Floor), Ramna Dhaka-1000, Bangladesh Off. 9550514, 9560882, 9553663/25 Cell : 01711-644859, 01911-360928 E-mail: salimlsc@yahoo.co.uk
Member
Mr. Arif Khan, MBA, CFA, FCMA Deputy Managing Director IDLC Finance Limited Bay's Galleria (1st floor) 57, Gulshan Avenue, Dhaka-1212, Bangladesh Off. 8834990-4, Res. 8854137 Cell : 01713-019446, Fax : 88-02-8834377 E-mail: khan@idlc.com
Treasurer
Mr. Md. Abdur Rashid, DAIBB, LLB, FCMA Abdur Rashid & Company Cost & Management Accountants Suite No. 1203, Eastern Commercial Complex, 73, Kakrail, Dhaka-1000 Res. 9146108, 9144469 Cell : 01711-430121 E-mail : marashidfcma@hotmail.com
GOVERNMENT NOMINEES
Member
Prof. Syed Abul Kalam Azad Marketing Department University of Dhaka.
Member
Mr. Md. Ishaque, FCMA Adviser, DBL Group BGMEA COMPLEX (12 Floor) 23/1, Panthopath Link Road, Kawran Bazar, Dhaka-1215 Off. 8140207-12, Res. 9337288, Cell : 01713-041913 E-mail : ishaque@ho.dbl-group.com
Member
Mr. Shawkat Ali Waresi Joint Secretary Ministry of Commerce Government of the Peoples Republic of Bangladesh Bangladesh Secretariat, Dhaka.
Member
Mr. Amalendu Mukherjee Joint Secretary Finance Division, Ministry of Finance Government of the Peoples Republic of Bangladesh Bangladesh Secretariat, Dhaka.
Member
Mr. Muzaffar Ahmed, FCS, FCMA President and CEO Credit Rating Information and Services Ltd. Nakshi Homes (4th floor) 6/1-A, Topkhana Road, Segunbagicha, Dhaka-1000, Bangladesh Off. 9565780(D), 7173700-1, Res. 8314189 Cell : 01819-213014, Fax: 88-02-9565783 E-mail: crisl@bdonline.com
Member
Mr. Md. Khalilur Rahman Siddiqui Joint Secretary Ministry of Industries Government of the Peoples Republic of Bangladesh Shilpa Bhaban, Motijheel, Dhaka.
Finance Investment Pattern for Required Economic Growth to Achieve Poverty Reduction Targets
Abdullahil Mamun* Serajul Islam**
Abstract: Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP) of Bangladesh has been designed targeting to eradicate extreme poverty and hunger by 2015. Success of PRSP largely depends on the assessment of the performance of the economy based on the benchmark information on poverty levels and various sectors. The paper will investigate the recent performance of Bangladesh economy with special attention to investment scenario and poverty trends of recent years. Relative share of public and private investment in GDP and the causal relationship exists between them- none can guarantee the required GDP growth rate to achieve the poverty reduction targets. An all out efforts both from government and private entrepreneurs are therefore necessary to place the economy on the growth path envisaged in PRSP. Keywords: Investment Pattern, Growth Rate, PRSP.
1. Introduction
According to the Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP) document, an enhanced economic growth rate of 8 to10 percent per annum is required to achieve the poverty reduction targets set by Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) in Bangladesh. During 2006-09, the economic growth of Bangladesh is averaged 6.16 percent per annum. The economy is estimated to have grown at a rate of 6 percent in FY10, slightly above the growth rate (5.9 percent) of FY09, but still it falls short of an economic growth of 8 to 10 percent as would be consistent with PRSP. Therefore, poverty reduction targets will remain unrealized unless the factors responsible for lower economic growth are identified accordingly and managed, one of which is the lower investment spending. considerably higher than earlier, still our economy is operating far below the targeted growth rate as mentioned in PRSP. It may be the result of insufficient investment spending to attain and maintain the required growth rate set by the MDGs. It is therefore the major challenge of Bangladesh to raise investment to a certain level so that the required growth can be achieved. Again, a complementary relationship between public and private investment is crucial for sustained economic growth. And especially the acceleration of private investment growth does matter for fostering industrial growth. Annual growth rate data of public and private investment exhibit a perfectly symmetric inverse relationship between them, that is, in alternating periods, growth of investment in one sector offsets the growth of other sector and this causal relationship holds for most of the years. Atukeren (2004) lists the correlation coefficient as 0.90, 0.19, -0.41 and -0.43 for the sample period 1970-1979, 1980-1989, 1990-2000 and 1985-2000 respectively for the case of Bangladesh. In another study, Rahman (2005) reports the negative impact of percentage growth in public investment on percentage growth in private investment is -0.53 for the period 1992* Mr. Abdullahil Mamun, Lecturer, Department of Business Administration, International Islamic University Chittagong, Bangladesh, e-mail: ahm_economics@yahoo.com, Mobile: 01712138373 ** Mr. Serajul Islam, Associate Professor , Department of Business Administration, International Islamic University Chittagong, Bangladesh, Investment Pattern for Required Economic Growth to Achieve Poverty Reduction Targets
2004, which is slightly higher than -0.49 measured for the period 1987-2004. Both the studies testify a substitute relationship between public investment and private investment. However, Public investment may have substantial spillover benefits for private investment. Sound theoretical arguments point in both directions, so whether public investment actually helps or hinders private investment is an empirical question (Erden, Holcombe, 2005). In this backdrop, the paper will examine the nature of relationship between the growth of public and private investment. Growth of public and private investment and their relative contribution on economic growth will also get attention.
2. Relative Contribution of Public and Private Investment in Economic Growth Even though current investment spending in Bangladesh is
Cross country economic growth data says that the foremost essential for high economic growth is high investment-GDP ratio. Initially the Investment-GDP ratio in Bangladesh was very low, which was 9.48 percent in 1970s. Gradually it increases and reaches to 24.35 percent in 2010, but still it is low enough compared to some other Asian developing countries like Singapore, Malaysia, Taiwan and Hong Kong economies of which are recently experiencing 35-40 percent Investment-GDP ratio.
During 2006-09, the economic growth of Bangladesh is averaged 6.16 percent per annum. The economy is estimated to have grown at a rate of 6 percent in FY10, slightly above the growth rate (5.9 percent) of FY09, though it falls short of the average annual growth rate which was 6.16 during 2006-09, which is basically due to the adverse effects of global recession transmitted to our economy via cross-border financial linkages through capital flows, stock market investors, and exchange rates and the decline of growth in manufacturing and wholesale and retail trade sectors. Furthermore, economy of Bangladesh is projected to grow at a rate of 6.7 percent, 7.2 percent, 7.6 percent, 8 percent and 8 percent for FY2011, FY2012, FY2013, in FY2014 and 2015 respectively. Investment at the rate of 24.35 percent of GDP in 2010 enables us to achieve a growth at a rate of 6 percent. Thus, to achieve the projected growth rate of GDP 8 percent by 2015, the current rate is much lower than the required rate which should be around 35 percent. Furthermore, if the mission is to achieve the Millennium
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Finance
Development Goals (MDGs) and elimination of poverty by 2015, the above mentioned rate of investment as percent of GDP is much slighter than required. It is to be noted that yearly average rate of poverty reduction increased from 0.50 to 1.50 while human poverty index went down to 32.0 from 41.6 due to adoption of different innovative programmes during 1996-2001, the present Government aims at reducing poverty rate from 25 to 15 within 2013 to 2021. In 1996 Investment-GDP ratio was 17 percent which rises to 23.1 percent in 2001, which claims an increase of average rate of investment by 1.02 percent per annum. Therefore, to achieve the MDGs at least by reducing poverty rate to 25 by 2013 as the government aims, an investment at the rate of 35 percent of GDP is required. become crucial as an intermediation cost of private investment spending, which is not as much significant for the case of public investment as public has many safe sources of investment financing with lower intermediation cost. Table B: Industrial term loans of banks and financial institutions (billion Taka) Particulars Disbursement Recovery Outstanding FY 05 87.0 85.4 226.3 FY 06 96.5 67.6 273.8 FY 07 123.9 90.7 339.2 FY 08 201.5 136.2 400.9 FY 09 199.7 163.0 478.1
3. Development of Investment Spending in Table C: Equity through private placement and public offerings (billion Taka) Bangladesh
An analysis of the investment data reveals that the contribution of public sector in total investment as percent of GDP is gradually decreasing whilst the contribution of private sector investment is gradually increasing. At the beginning of the nineties, the share of private investment in total investment was about 60 percent, which stood at 80.84 percent in FY 2008-09. Table-A shows the year-wise investment as percentage of GDP for the last few years. In FY 2001-02, the rate of total investment was 23.15 percent of GDP in which the shares of public and private sector were 6.37 percent and 16.78 percent respectively. The rate of national investment gradually picked up to 24.65 percent of GDP in FY 2005-06 but in FY 2006-07 it declined to 24.46 percent. In FY 2009-10 the rate of national investment further declined to 24.35 percent. Table-A: Investment as Percent of Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
FY 2001-02 2002-03 2003-04 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10(P) Total Investment 23.15 23.41 24.02 24.53 24.65 24.46 24.21 24.37 24.35 Public Investment 6.37 6.2 6.19 6.21 6 5.45 4.95 4.70 4.62 Private Investment 16.78 17.21 17.83 18.32 18.65 19.02 19.25 19.67 19.74 Particulars Equity through private placement & IPOs (billion Taka) private placement (billion Taka) Public Offering (billion Taka) FY 05 FY 06 FY 07 1.2 0.1 1.1 1.7 0.2 1.5 3.14 0.04 3.1 FY 08 FY 09 5.2 1.5 3.7 5.9 0.9 5.0
Moreover, major source of public investment is public borrowing from domestic and foreign sources which is less sensitive to the lending rates of our domestic commercial banks. Whereas, the primary source of external funds for business entrepreneurs are loans from commercial banks. The amount of industrial term loans disbursed by banks and financial institutions stood at Taka 199.7 billion, many-fold higher than the amount of Taka 5.9 billion raised by new capital issues, Taka 0.9 billion raised through private placements and Taka 5.0 billion through public offerings in FY09 (table-B and table-C). It denotes that banks and financial institutions are still the major sources of investment financing in Bangladesh due to narrow based capital market. As banks and financial institutions play the major role in investment financing in the private sector, lending rates
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5. Estimated Results
Annual percentage growth in private investment (APGPRI) has been regressed on the annual percentage growth in public investment (APGPI) considering the recent 12, 15 and 18 year period based on their real data, which asserts that the relationship between public and private investment is firmly inverse meaning that rather than possessing a complementary relationship, a substitute association is found between them.- The relationship is quite stable for different periods, regression results are close to one another for alternative periods. However, the negative impact of public investment growth on private rises a little, -1.7419 compared to -1.7354, for the recent 12 year period (1999-2010) judged against period of 18 year (1993-2010).
The Cost and Management, September-October, 2010
Finance
Table-D: Regression of Annual percentage change in private investment (APCPRI) on Annual percentage change in public investment (APCPI)
Estimated Model: APCPRI = Period: 1999-2010
APCPRI = 13.255 Se = 3.093 t = 4.285 Period: 1996-2010 APCPRI = 13.515 Se = 2.752 t = 4.911 Period: 1993-2010
1
APCPI
df = 10 F = 54.232 Adjusted R2 = 0.7802 df = 13
If public investment is complementary to private investment, the rate of return to private sector investments will increase, leading private sector investors to undertake more capital investment. But the empirical results show that the relationship between public investment and private investment is inverse, that is, rather than possessing a complementary relationship, there prevails a substitute relationship between public and private investment usually offered in terms of crowding out theory. Public investment may crowd out private investment if they compete for the same resources, and the crowding out may be more significant if public investments are made in state enterprises that produce output that is in direct competition with the goods and services provided by private sector. Moreover, expansion in public investment shrinks private investment opportunity and public investment through borrowing leads to drying up of the sources of finance for private investment. A number of reasons may work together for having such a negative response of private investment towards public investment. Though empirical data shows substitute relationship between public and private investment, but crowding out private investment through capturing investment opportunity by the public sector seems to be unrealistic because of the following factsl Bangladesh frequently faces natural disaster like flood and cyclone, and especially in the year of severe natural calamity there has been increased aid flow for public investment on reconstruction of infrastructure. l In some years, countercyclical measures through increased investment have been taken by the government followed by decline in private investment. l Sectoral composition of public and private investment also draws attention in this regard. Areas of public and private investment are non-conflicting. Most of the public investment takes place in the area of physical infrastructure building and social sector, agriculture and power sector development also gets priority, while private investment mostly concentrates in industry and service sector. This would basically imply a complementary relationship between public and private investment. Apart from these, barriers before the potential investors to access to financing and cost of financing discourage private investment in Bangladesh. Some major constraints are lack of adequate and reliable supply of electricity and gas, poor transportation facilities, poor port facilities, official harassment, collection of illegal protection money, delays and corruption, an inadequate legal system, political instability, etc.
The Cost and Management, September-October, 2010
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CO R
TO O
Man age ou t Acc men t ntan
A Management Accountant can never be silent on the panic situation about the Earthquake in the country. His/Her emphasis should be to undertake specific agenda over the pre and post earthquake position and steps on Study Analysis for Disaster Management.
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Capital Market
shareholders view or stakeholders view in its principle. Many studies are done in this regard but still there is not enough intensive study found regarding Islamic framework of corporate governance. This study is an attempt to develop corporate governance structure from stakeholder viewpoint under Islamic framework.
4. Literature Review
In conventional system, the concern is on how do the suppliers of finance get managers to return some of profit them, how they control
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Capital Market
managers and how do they make sure that managers do not steal the capital they supply or invest in a bad projects (Shleifer and Vishny, 1997). Based on the Coases (1937) theory of firms that exists as a substitute for more costly modes of transaction (Cornell and Shapiro, 1987), Alchian and Demsetz (1972) further refined the idea and viewed the firm through agency cost theory and focused on the cost of monitoring. They considered management of the firm to be a continuing process of negotiation of successive contracts. Jensen and Meckling (1976), developed the notion of the firm as nexus of contracts, and argued that contractual designs emerge to minimize transaction costs between specialized factors of production. Shleifer and Vishny (1997) focused corporate governance from agency perspective and restricted to the ways in which the supplier of finance to corporations assure themselves of getting a return on their investment. There is a great deal of disagreement on how good or bad the existing governance mechanisms are. For example, Easterbrook and Fischel (1991) and Romano (1993) make a very optimistic assessment of the U.S. corporate governance system, whereas Jensen (1989a, 1993) believes that it is deeply flawed and that a major move from the current corporate form to much more highly leveraged organizations, similar to LBOs, is in order. There is also constant talk of replacing the Anglo-Saxon model of corporate governance with those patterned after Germany and Japan (Roe, 1993; Charkham, 1994). But the US, Germany, Japan and UK have some of the best corporate governance system in the world, and the differences between them are probably small relative to their differences from other countries. Italian system of CG is also undeveloped to retard capital outflow from firms. In less developed countries, including some of the transition economies like Russia, CG mechanisms are particularly non-existent. (Barca, 1995; Pagano et. al, 1995; and Boycko et. al, 1995). However, traditional concept of corporate governance that is based on the agency relationship; concerned with the protection of shareholders or investors interests, unjustifiably neglects the right of non-shareholder groups and this profit maximization approach to the firm is too narrow (Iqbal and Mirakhor, 2004). It neglects welfare of management and workers who have invested their human capital as well as off-work related capital (like housing, spouse employment, schools, medication etc) in the employment relationship and on suppliers and customers (Blair, 1995; Turnbull, 1997; Tirole, 1999). According to Sen (1993) the denial of distinction between shareholders and others involved in the firms and the adoption of a more integrated view of enterprise as large family has worked in Japanese industry to develop its cooperative efficiency. The stakeholder model of corporate governance is introduced then which can be defined as a system of structuring, operating and controlling a company with a view to achieve long term strategic goals to satisfy shareholders, creditors, employees, customers and suppliers, and complying with the legal and regulatory requirements, apart from meeting environmental and local community needs, maintain excellent relations with both customers and suppliers (Donaldson and Preston, 1995; Freeman, 1984, Boatright, 2002; Bharat and Kajipet, 2000). The new economists argue for inclusion of these groups with whom the firm has contractual obligations. According to this nexus of contract view, there is nothing unique to corporate governance; it is a complex version of contractual governance (Zingales, 1997).
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The question is now who really qualifies as an actual stakeholder? Why their rights are honored and why the managers have fiduciary duties to those non-investor stakeholders? Why such stakeholders should participate in the management and control of the firm? The Islamic view of the role of stakeholders try to answer these questions by pointing out two fundamental concepts of Islamic economic systems pertaining to property rights and contracts that govern the economic and social behavior of individual, society and state.
Capital Market
lead to violation of the rights of the society and the state (Mirakhor, 1989). Basic conditions concerning property acquisition, possession, usage and disposal are that (a) property should not have been acquired by unlawful means, (b) the acquisition and its continuity should not result in any damage or harm to others, and (c) the acquisition of the property should not invalidate any valid claim nor should establish a non-valid one (Behishti and Bahonar, 1990; Bashir, 1999). Islam places great emphasis on acquiring and maintaining rights to property through lawful means but does not impose any limits on the amount of property owned. 5. 2. Rights and Responsibilities of Property Owners: Islam recognizes two ways in which an individual can obtain rights to property: (a) through his own creative effort and/or (b) through transfer via exchange, contract, grant or inheritance of the property rights from other who has gained title to the property or asset through his own labor. Property acquired through non-permissible or unethical means like gambling, bribing, stealing, cheating, forgery, coercion or illegal trading does not qualify as ownership of the acquirer as shariah forbidden it (Islam, 1999). Moreover, hoarding with the intention to create artificial scarcity and the property acquired through breach of trust, adulteration, non-compliance with weights and measures or unethical means does not satisfy the definition of the property and is not acceptable in Islam. The property owner can not waste, destroy, squander, or use the property for purposes not permitted by shariah. The property owner can not limit or encroach on the rights of others. While the right of use and enjoyment of the property is affirmed by the shariah (Al Quran: 2:188, 25:67, 17:26-27), the exclusive and absolute right of disposition of the property is rejected (Ahmad, 1995).The individual may not make an alteration of his property that may harm even his neighbor. Hence, Even if the property owner proves his inability to use the property properly, he forfeits his ownership right to protect it from misuses by the owner (Bashir, 1999). 5. 3. Property Governance and Wealth Distribution in Islam: Men establish certain relations among themselves and with the nature that is called social system which influence the distribution of wealth produced by the society (Sadr, 1991). They have to take care of their amanah (trusts) in a balanced manner; confirm equality implied by the assumption of universal brotherhood. There may have the possibility of some sort of inequality based on the talent and capitalism (Ahmed, 1987). As Allah is the absolute owner (first axiom of ownership) of the property and resources, it should be recognized that there is right of needy and destitute people on these resources or wealth and even this right encompasses not only the human being, but also other creatures as man is the only trustee of this wealth. For this, compulsory distribution is ensured in shariah by means of zakah and usher on the property of individual and corporation to those who are in poverty and destitution as they are created by mal-distribution and deviation from the desired relationship between the rich (property owner) and the poor (Sadr, 1991). faithful to their stipulations is a characteristic, which distinguishes a Muslim. The concept of justice, faithfulness, reward and punishment are linked with the fulfillment of the contracts and all these are protected by the shariah (Iqbal and Mirakhor, 2004). The contract may be either explicit or implicit. In case of explicit contracts, parties to the contract clearly stipulate expected behavior, duties and responsibilities in response to the terms of the contract. Implicit contracts are not formal and the terms are not clearly defined but the claims and obligations that come with the rights to be a part of the society (Cornell and Shapiro, 1987). Within property right framework, one has contractual obligations to others including the community and the society according to the rules of shariah, and honoring of this obligation is considered a sacred duty. Islamic framework of contract places an equal emphasis on obligations arising from both explicit and implicit contracts. This behavior is expected from individuals, public and private entities and it is obligatory on them to preserve sanctity of implicit contracts by recognizing and protecting property rights of stakeholders, community, society and state. A firm in an Islamic economic system can be viewed as the nexus of contracts whose objective is to minimize transaction cost in order to maximize profit and return to investors subject to constraints that these objectives do not violate property rights of any party whether it interacts with the firm directly or indirectly. In pursuit of these goals, firm honors its obligations to explicit as well as implicit contracts without impairing social order. This concept incorporates stakeholders role in firm and supports recognition and protection of their rights and work as the basis of corporate governance. Rules regarding property rights and contracts in Islam establish clearly who can qualify as stakeholder and whether such stakeholder has influence in the decision making and governance of the firm. An individual or group with whom the firm has any explicit or implicit contractual obligations qualify as stakeholder. A stakeholder is one whose property rights are at stake or at risk due to voluntary or involuntary actions of the firm. In case someones rights are encroached or threatened as a result of a firms operations, that individual, group, community or society becomes a stakeholder (Freeman, 1984; Iqbal and Mirakhar, 2004). Firms responsibility to the stakeholder is established from Islamic viewpoint. But the question is now whether the stakeholders have the right to participate in firms decision making?
Capital Market
ethical commitment expected from a Muslim (Islam, 1999; Iqbal and Mirakhor, 2004). It is the duty of managers to ensure that behavior of the firm conforms to the principles and the rules of shariah. Faithfulness to the terms of contracts and accountability to respect others property rights will lead to elimination of problems due to asymmetric information, moral hazard and adverse selection and thus would guarantee optimal governance (Bashir, 1999). The design of corporate governance in Islamic framework entails implementation of the rule-based incentive system that ensures an efficient governance system to preserve social order and justice among all members of society (Iqbal and Mirakhor, 2001). The observance of rules of behavior guarantees internalization of stakeholders rights (including those of the society at large). However, in order to ensure compliance to the Islamic rules, there is need for institutional arrangements. Islamic economic framework can ensure it incorporating all stakeholders rights into fiduciary duties of managers of the firm on be half of non- investors stakeholders. A shariah board, consisting of fuqah (shariah scholars) can oversee the operation (Grais and Pellegrini, 2006) and code of conduct of the firm in accordance with the rules of shariah. This board will consist of scholars from different disciplines including shariah, economics, finance, and law to ensure that rules are defined and enforced so that the economic agents fully comply with contractual obligations to all stakeholders with morality, ethics and efficiency.
Behishti, M.H. and Bahonar, J ((1990): Philosophy of Islam, Islamic Seminary of Pakistan, Karachi. Bharat, T and Kajipet, O. (2000): Corporate Governance in India: Retrospect and Prospects, Contemporary Issues in Business Finance, (Ed: Kajipet, O.), pp 168-178, Delhi. Blair, M.M. (1995): Corporate Ownership, The Brookings Review, volume 15, number 2, pp 16-19. Bloomestein, H.J. (1998): The New Financial Landscape and Its Impact on Corporate Governance, London. Boycko, M, Shelifer, A. and Vishny, R. W. (1995): Privatizing Russia, M.I.T. press, Cambridge. Charkham, J. (1994): Keeping Good Company: A Study of Corporate Governance in Five Countries, Oxford. Clarkson, M.B.E. (1995): A Stakeholder Framework for Analyzing and evaluating Corporations, The Academy of Management Review. Coase, R. H. (1937): The Nature of the Firm, Economica, volume IV, number16, pp 386-405. Cornell, B. and Shapiro, A. C. (1987): Corporate Stakeholders and Corporate Finance, Financial Management, spring. Donaldson, P. and Preston, L. E. (1995): The Stakeholder Theory of the Corporation: Concepts, Evidence and Implications, Academy of Management Review, volume 20, number 1, pp 65-91. Easterbrook, F. and Fischel, D. (1991): The Economic Structure of Corporate Law, Harvard University Press, Cambridge. Foss, N. J., Henrik, L. and Thomsen, S. (1998): The Theory of Firm, Working Paper of Copenhagen Business School. Freeman, R. E. (1984): Strategic Management: A Stakeholder Approach, Boston. Grais, W. and Pellegrini, M. (2006): Corporate Governance and Shariah Compliance in Institutions Offering Islamic Financial Services, World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 4054, November. Iqbal, Z. and Mirakhor, I.: (2001): Role of Stakeholders in Corporate Governance of Islamic Financial Institutions, Conference proceedings on Governance, Transparency and Risk Management of Islamic Financial Institutions, Beirut, March. Iqbal, Z. and Mirakhor, I.: (2004): Stakeholder Model of Governance in Islamic Economic System, Islamic Economic Studies, volume 11, number, 2, March. Islam, M.W. (1999): The Concept of Property in Islamic Legal Thought, Arab Law Quarterly, pp 361-368. Jensen, M. and Meckling, W.H. (1976): Theory of the Firm: Managerial Behavior. Agency Cost and Ownership Structure, Journal of Financial Economics, October, pp 305360. Jensen, M. (1993): The modern Industrial revolution, Exit and the Failure of Internal Control Systems, Journal of Finance, volume 48, pp 831-880. Kasey, K. S. T. and Wright, M. (1997): Corporate Governance, Economics and Financial Issues, Oxford University Press. Mirakhor, A. (1989): General Characteristics of an Islamic Economic System, in Baquir, H. and Mirakhor, A. (eds.), Essays on Iqtisad: The Islamic Approach to Economic roblems, USA. Mirakhor, A. (1995): Outline of an Islamic Economic System, Zahid Hussain Memorial Lecture Series no. 11, State Bank of Pakistan, Islamabad. ODonovan, G. (2003): A Board Culture of Corporate Governance, Corporate Governance International Journal, volume 6, issue 3. Pagano, M. Penetta, F. and Zingales, L. (1995): Why do Companies go Public? An Empirical Analysis, Manuscript of Graduate Business School, University of Chicago, Cited in Shelifer et. al, (1997)in A Survey of Corporate Governance. Rahman, S.M.H. (2002): Islamic Economic Framework, Islamic Economics- Selected Essays (in Bangla), pp 19-33, Rajshahi. Roe, M. (1993): Some Differences in Corporate Governance Structure in Germany, Japan and the United States, The Yale Law Review, volume 102, pp 1927-2003. Romano, R. (1993): The Genius of American Corporate Law, American Enterprise Institute Press, Washington D.C. Sadr, M. B. (1991): General Edifice of the Islamic Economy, Islamic EconomicsContemporary Ulama Perspective, pp 31-47, Kualalampur. Sen, A. (1993): Money and Value: On the Ethics and Economics of Finance, Economics and Philosophy, volume 9, pp 203-227. Shelifer, A. and Vishny, R. W. (1997): A Survey of Corporate Governance, Journal of Finance, volume 52, number 2, January, pp 737-783. Tam, O. K. (1999): Development of Corporate Governance in China, Cheltenham, UK. Tirole, J. (1999): Corporate Governance, Discussion Paper No. 2086, Centre for Economic Policy Research, London. Turnbull, S. (1997): Stakeholder Corporation, Journal of Cooperative Studies, volume 29. Williamson, O. (1985): The Economic Institutions of Capitalism, New York. Zingales, L. (1997): Corporate Governance, Working Paper No. 6309, National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge.
8. Conclusion
The issue of corporate governance and search for optimal governance structure has recently received considerable attention. The paradigm of stakeholder oriented model of corporate governance views a firm as a nexus of contracts with different stakeholders and it argues that firms objective should be to maximize the welfare of all stakeholders. But in conventional economy, it is not clear about who the appropriate stakeholder is, and what is the firms obligation to non-owner stakeholders due to the absence of ethics, morality and trust. Islamic principles of property rights and contractual obligations to each other make it clear. The property ownership pattern, property rights and contractual obligations of shareholders, investors, managers, employees, suppliers and consumers are clearly depicted under shariah guidelines. Property rights of all contractual parties (individuals, local communities, society or even state) are preserved and protected and the implementation of an incentive system as per shariah guideline will ensure that all economic activities must adhere to the shariah rulings to make the social order harmonious. A strong and sound institutional arrangement can ensure the non-participant stakeholders in decision making under Islamic economic system. r
References: Ahmad, M. (1995): Business Ethics in Islam, International Institute of Islamic Thought, Islamabad. Akhter, B. and Uddin, M.B. (2009): Corporate Governance across Countries: A Literature Review, Bangladesh Accountant, (April-June), pp 119-129. Hmad, S. (1987): Principles of Distribution in Islam, Thoughts on Economics, Volume 8, number 3 & 4, pp 1-11, Dhaka. Alchin, A. and Demstez, H. (1972): Production, Information Costs, and Economic Organization, American Economic Review, December, pp 777-795. Balling, M. E. H. and OBerin R. (1998): Corporate Governance, Financial Markets and Global Convergence, London. Barca, F. (1995): On Corporate Governance in Italy: Issues, Facts, and Agency, Manuscript of Bank of Italy, Rome. Bashir, Abdel H. M. (1999): Property Rights in Islam, Conference Proceedings of the Third Harvard University Forum on Islamic Finance, October, pp 71-82.
18
Economics
The Balanced Scorecard: A Renewable Methodology and Framework of Action Towards Success for Air Line
Prof. Md. Salim Uddin, FCA, MBA, FCMA* M. Takibur Rahman**
Abstract: Among the service industry airlines industry is one of the area that require much emphasize on measurement of performance in order to achieve operational excellence. The main aspects of performance measurement of airlines industry are efficiencies, quality, and timeliness above all operational excellence. Therefore this study primarily concentrated on the development of Balanced Scorecard-a performance measurement tool that guides a strategic map for Airline Company by taking in consideration the only public sector airline company. The main activity of the company is providing transportation services to the passengers. Thus the operational efficiency is the main strategic theme that it should build up in order to operate successfully. In this study it is found that there is a cause and effect relationship among these perspectives both from top to bottom and from bottom to top. Thus to achieve the operational efficiencies company in this study has to ensure sufficient profitable growth and long-term prospects. It is only possible when the market share and revenue increases. This, in turn, will increase the customer and in order to retain the customer it has to be effective in scheduling and on time services that drive the internal business management process. In addition to that, to improve the internal process, the technological competencies should be build and that is only possible by designing an effective training program, increase R & D, improves operating system and techniques. Keywords: Balanced Scorecard, Framework, Methodology, Airline, and industry.
Introduction
The Balanced Scorecard (BSC) is a strategic tool that provides a framework for strategic management by transforming a company's strategic goals into an integrated collection of objectives and performance indicators. As reported by Robert Kaplan and David Norton (2005, p. 172), by the 1980s, many executives were convinced that traditional measure of financial performance didn't let them manage effectively and wanted to replace them with operational measures. Moreover too much reliance on financial measure in a management system was causing organizations to do the wrong things. So the question arises that if the financial measures were causing to do the wrong things then what measure would prompt to do the right things. The answer turned out to be obvious: Measure the strategy. Thus all objectives and measure on a BSC- financial and non financial- should be derived from the organization's vision and strategy (Kaplan & Norton, 1996, p.3). Making strategy work in organizations demands to take advantage of all the competencies within the organization and articulate strategy with several perspectives in mind to ensure that balance is maintained. According to Kaplan and Norton (2005, p.172) there are four perspectives that can guide companies as they translate strategy into actionable terms. However, they do not argue that these perspectives are necessary and sufficient conditions for success. In fact, they recommend these perspectives but suggest that organizations add any perspectives that are more relevant (Kaplan & Norton, 1996, p.3). The four perspectives of the scorecard permit a balance between short-term and long-term objectives, between outcomes desired and the performance drivers of those outcomes, and between hard objectives measures and softer, more subjective measures (Kaplan and Norton,
* Prof. Md Salim Uddin, FCA, FCMA, MBA, Department of Accounting & Information Systems, University of Chittagomng, salimtahia@yahoo.com ** Mr M. Takibur Rahman, Assistant Professor, Patuakahli Science and Technology University, takibctg@yahoo.com
2005, p. 174). These perspectives (Figure-1) framed with an organization's mission, vision, values and strategic theme from the Balanced Scorecard arsenal.
Financial Perspectives
Customer Perspectivee
Figure 1: Balance of Perspective (Source: Nair, 2004, p.21) Kaplan and Norton (2005, p. 174) also stated that BSC shows the way to make strategy actionable. Usually, strategic planning exercises drive for aligning vision, mission, values, and strategy. BCS also discuss items such as competencies, strengths, weaknesses and opportunities, and threats (Nair, 2004, p. 21). This method is often called SWOT analysis, which is a way for organizations to ensure that all elements of the business are incorporated into a strategic plan in the marketplace. Hence, the exercise usually covers the internal and external challenges that a corporation is facing and will face, in an attempt to look ahead and find the next big thing. Meanwhile, the corporation is running along driving to current measures at the operational level, and the challenge comes when the senior management wishes to drive new strategies into the organization. BSC fits this purpose of providing a framework for aligning strategy to the tactics, with corresponding objectives and measures (Kaplan & Norton, 2005, p. 176). A good Balanced Scorecard should have an appropriate mix of outcomes (lagging indicators) and performance drivers (leading indicators) that have been customized to the organization's strategy (Kaplan & Norton, 1996, p.3). However, instead
5
Economics
of replacing or competing with the historic concept of financial controls for current activities, the balanced scorecard embraces the need for financial measures and complements them with strategic and operational measures that are the drivers of future success (Nair, 2004, p. 21). The scorecard provides a framework to communicate mission and strategy by using the measurement to inform about the drivers of current and future success (Kaplan & Norton, 1996, p.3). the organization is at achieving the goal. The balanced Scorecard became the operating system for a new strategic management process.
Mission, core values, and vision are the basis not just for Balanced Scorecard but also for any action that an organization could undertake (Kaplan & Norton, 1996, p. 3). Without the purpose of these From Management to Performance Management statements, the guiding principles of the organization will not exist. In Measurement can be very valuable functions in organizations whose order to design a balanced Scorecard mission statement, strategies people look for accountability. Many organizations have found that a and values of the organization is analyzed to build the vision of the lack of measurement only allows the weak players to exist which company. The mission statement must be translated so that the further demoralizes the strong players who eventually leave the actions of individuals are aligned and supportive of the mission organization (Nair, 2004, p. 32). BSC practitioners declared that the (Kaplan & Norton, 1996, p. 72). The overarching mission of the greatest impediment to projects is the lack of upper management organization provides the starting point; it defines why the support. Upper management prefers strategy but must see the organization exists or how business units fit within a broader relationship between strategy and a strategy framework for the corporate architecture. As mission statement focus on why an entire organization. Before supporting a BSC project, Balanced organization exists, values are focused on how the organization will Scorecard needs performance measurement. The result of a BSC perform to the mission (Nair, 2004, p. 56). Value guides the entire exercise is a set of objectives with owners, measures, targets, and process of objectives settings, goal acquisition, and strategy initiatives (Kaplan & Norton, 1996, p. 3). As a framework for action, BSC deployment. The value statement should be closely linked with the can be updated and creates a renewable methodology and Balanced Scorecard. In fact the key elements of mission, core value and vision drive the entire success of any organization. Vision is the framework. picture of what an organization believes the future can be (Nair, 2004, p. 58). Vision portrays the Clarifying and Translating the vision target the organization strives to achieve. A welland Strategy stated vision statement facilitates the Balanced * Clarifying the vision Scorecard to initiate solution to the problem that * Gaining Consequences Strategic Feedback and Communicating and exists in the organization. Strategy is one step in a learning linking logical continuum that moves an organization * Articulate the shared * Communicating and vision from a high-level mission statement to the work Balanced educating * Supplying the straegic Scorecard performed by frontline and back-office employee * Setting goals feedback * Linking rewards to (Kaplan & Norton, 1996, p. 72). Without strategy, * Facilitating the stralegy performance measures review and learning organization cannot isolate key strategic theme to Planning and Terget Setting pursue. Without strategic theme, organization * Setting targets cannot formulate key perspectives to focus on * Aligning strategic theme. Without the key perspective, Balanced initiatives Scorecard is not a balanced set of perspective and * Allocating resources * Establishing Milestone the model will break down (Kaplan & Norton, 1996, p. 24). The strategy defines the logic of how this vision will be achieved. Vision and strategy are Figure 2: Balance Scorecard as strategy framework for action essentials complements. The Balanced Scorecard provides executives (Source: Kaplan & Norton, 1996, p. 11) with a comprehensive framework that translates a company's vision Companies are using BSC as strategic management system to and strategy into a coherent set of performance measures (Kaplan & manage their strategy (Kaplan & Norton, 2001, p. 10). They are using Norton, 1996, p. 72). Balanced Scorecard is the basis for bringing a the measurement focus on the BSC to accomplish the critical strategic focus to any performance management process. management process as shown on Figure 2 (Kaplan & Norton, 1996, p. 11). The Balanced Scorecard as a Performance Management system Justification of the Study can be used in any organization to align vision and mission with In Bangladesh there are 13 airlines companies among which customer requirements and day-to-day work, manage and ev aluate Bangladesh Biman was the national airlines from 1972 to 2007. business strategy, monitor operation efficiency improvements, build Biman, the national flag carrier of Bangladesh has started its journey organization capacity, and communicate progress to all employees. from scratch virtually with no aircraft, no ancillaries. Bangladesh Building and implementing a Balanced Scorecard is one thing; Biman came into operation immediately after the war of turning the scorecard as meaningful and useful performance independence (Biman Air: Corporate Profile, n.d.). Though the early management tool is something entirely. As mentioned by Robert reputation of Biman is appreciable, it is not happening at present. The Kaplan and David Norton (2005, p. 176) the key to transforming the operational inefficiency due to lack of sufficient expertise, qualified scorecard as performance management tool is just to create a link at personnel and strategic direction, it is now going to ruin. Biman has the right level among strategy, operations and the budget been aiming in achieving the goal of being truly international formulation and the cost reporting process. Performance measures commercially viable airline of the region with its warmth and ties the parts together and give the way to measure how successful
6 The Cost and Management, September-October, 2010
Economics
friendliness, care, safety record, traditional hospitality and comfort of the services it offered (Biman Air: Corporate Profile, n.d.). Though the operational performance of Biman is not appreciable but it can be overcome by building a performance measurement system. Keeping pace with trends and technology of the time along with a perspective plan for the future that embraces all aspects of an international airline and overall improvement, developing a balanced Scorecard is of utmost necessary. The scorecard provides a framework to communicate mission and strategy by using the measurement to inform about the drivers of current and future success. In order to overcome the poor operational performance, the mission and strategies of Biman can be linked to the four key perspective of Balanced Scorecard. As a result, Biman can be better able to execute its strategy. After the Balanced Scorecard is developed action plans are made in order to achieve the strategic objectives and target. There are several methods to implement the scorecard for instance Six sigma, Total Quality Management (TQM), Management by Objectives (MBO), and Activity Based Costing (ABC). Data Analysis: In order to achieve the broad objective data are gathered, analyzed by considering the SWOT analysis, critical success factors, strategy, and target or action plan. Analyzing the data considering all these factors, Balanced Scorecard is being developed. Tables and figure help to visualize the data and information.
Figure 3: The Vision statement, the strategies and SWOT analysis of the company. 7
Economics
Define the Perspectives by the Critical Success which are desired to improve financial performance. The financial perspective of the company is profitable growth, increased market Factors Analysis:
Balanced Scorecard provides a framework for strategic management by transforming a company's strategic goals by integrating them into a collection of objectives and performance indicators. The scorecard describes the multiple indirect linkages required to connect improvements in an organization's intangible assets to the tangible customer and financial outcomes strategy. In the framework, key performance indicators are grouped into five perspectives. share and increased revenue. The critical success factors for achieving the financial perspectives are given on the appended part. Customer Perspectives: This perspective aims at identifying the customer and market segments in which the business will choose to compete. In this perspective the first thing is to determine the core measures that will describe the successful outcomes of a well formulated and implemented strategy. Therefore, it is important to identify the attribute that the customer value and choose the value proposition to deliver the attribute to the targeted customer. The basic theme of customer perspective is customer satisfaction and it will motivate customer and customer retention. The customer perspective that is developed for the company is to increase satisfied customer through on time services.
Financial Perspectives: In the Balanced Scorecard, financial measures play a dual role: they define the financial performance expected from the strategy and they serve as the ultimate targets for the objectives and measures of all other scorecard perspectives. Financial Performance measures indicate whether a company's strategy, implementation, and
Internal Business Management Perspectives: The focus of this perspective is on the customer satisfaction and financial objectives. In this perspectives the internal process were identified that were critical to the company. The critical processes are those that help to deliver superior value to customer and achieve the financial targets. Effective scheduling through reduction of delays is the basic theme of internal business management perspective.
(Symbol I shows the importance of the objectives) Figure 5: The Financial Perspective
execution are contributing to bottom-line improvement. Financial objectives typically relate to profitability measures by operating income, sales growth etc (Kaplan & Norton, 1996, p. 25). After the implementation of BSC, financial performance relies on the identification of key leading indicators (Performance measures),
8
(Symbol I shows the importance of the objectives) Figure 7: Internal Business Management Perspectives
The Cost and Management, September-October, 2010
Economics
Technological Perspectives: Balanced Scorecard should not only consider operations process but also innovation process. By incorporating innovation process measures, the balanced Scorecard provides managers' set of tools that reflect not only the short-term but also gives insight about the longer-term. Technological perspectives play an important role in such case, especially in airlines industry. To achieve the three perspectives mentioned above, the company must strengthen its technological base. In addition to this if the company could purchase technologically competent aircraft then it would be possible for the company to achieve the above-mentioned perspectives. efficiencies, the company has to identify what kind of training, support system, and working condition employees need in the company. Indicators such as employee skill level, training availability, employee satisfaction, research and development power, staff competencies etc are the performance measurement that attempt to measure the learning and growth ability of the company.
(Symbol I shows the importance of the objectives) Figure 8: Technological Perspectives Learning and Growth Perspectives: This perspective can identify the skills and the tools that are needed to improve the internal process. In order to improve the operational
(Symbol I shows the importance of the objectives) Figure 9: Learning and growth Perspectives
The Cost and Management, September-October, 2010
Economics [ The scorecard provides a framework to communicate mission and strategy by using the measurement to inform about the drivers of current and future success. In order to overcome the poor operational performance, the mission and strategies of Biman can be linked to the four key perspective of Balanced Scorecard. As a result, Biman can be better able to execute its strategy. After the Balanced Scorecard is developed action plans are made in order to achieve the strategic objectives and target. There are several methods to implement the scorecard for instance Six sigma, Total Quality Management (TQM), Management by Objectives (MBO), and Activity Based Costing (ABC). ]
technological competencies should be build and that is only possible by designing an effective training program, increase R & D, and improves operating system. From bottom to top it can be seen that an effective training program can enhance employees' skills and competencies by designing an effective training program, enhancing R & D activities, and improving operating system and technology. This will lead the company to secure proprietary technology. Proprietary technology will enhance the schedule effectiveness and maintaining of time, which in turn will drive to increased satisfied customer and ensure increase market share and revenue. Increased revenue and market share will thus ensure the profitable growth of the company. routes. But this action failed to improve the situation of the company rather leads to a greater loss. So, it would possible for the company to revive its performance in attaining the desired goal through the successful implementation of Balanced Scorecard. r Reference
1. Balanced Scorecard Institute (n.d.). Developing meaningful performance measures for Government and industry program. Retrieved July 22, 2007, from http://www.balancedscorecard.org/ training/desc/details/details303.html. 2. Biman Bangladesh Airlines (n.d.). Biman Air: Corporate profile. Retrieved July 7, 2007, from http://www.bimanair.com/aboutus/corporate_profile.asp/ 3. Brimson, j. A. (1996). An overview of activity based management. In Brinker, Barry J. (Ed.), Handbook of cost management (pp. C 1-2). New York: Warren, Gorham & Lamont. 4. Chadwick, L. (1997). The essence of management accounting (2nd ed.). England: Prentice Hall International. 5. Daly, J. L. (2002). Pricing for profitability: Activity based pricing for competitive advantage. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 6. Hobdy, T. B. (1999). Increasing customer and stakeholder satisfaction, and supporting benchmarking and performance measurement with ABM. In Player, S. & Keys, D. (Eds.), Activity based management: Arthur E. Andersen's lessens from the ABM battlefield (2nd Ed., pp. 159). New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 7. Kaplan, R. & Norton, D. (1996). The balanced scorecard. Boston: Harvard Business School press. 8. Kaplan, R. & Norton, D. (2005). The balanced scorecard. Boston: Harvard Business School press 9. Kaplan, R. & Norton, D. (2001). The balanced scorecard. Boston: Harvard Business School press 10. Nair, 2004. Lessons from implementing the balanced scorecard in a small and medium size manufacturing organization: ScienceDirec .com, Volume-26, Issues 5-6, MayJune 2006. 11. Pallister, J. & Isaacs, A. (Eds.). (2002). Oxford Dictionary of Business (3rd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. 12. Player, S. & Keys, D. (1999). Getting off to the right start: Pitfall No. 1 to 10. In Player, S. & Keys, D. (Eds.), Activity Based Management: Arthur E. Andersen's lessens from the ABM battlefield (2nd Ed., pp. 3). New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 13. Robbins, S. & Coulter, M. (2000). Management. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc. 14. Rotch, W. (1996). Activity based costing for service businesses. In Brinker, Barry J. (Ed.), Handbook of cost management (pp. c 2-5). New York: Warren, Gorham & Lamont. 15. Turney, P. B. (1996). Activity Based Costing Implementation Issues. In Brinker, Barry J. (Ed.), Handbook of cost management (pp. B 3-2). New York: Warren, Gorham & Lamont. 16. Zeithaml and Bitnerc, 2003, p. 245) A balanced scorecard for leaders: implications of the Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award criteria. SAM Advaanced Management Journal January,1 2004. 17. Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia (n.d.). Biman Bangladesh Airlines. USA: Free Software Foundation, Inc. Retrieved June 10, 2007, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biman_Bangladesh_Airlines/
Conclusion
To become an outcome-focused company, the Balanced Scorecard (BSC) has been developed for the company to address the need for a broader perspective of enterprise performance. Since its inception the company had encountered many problems. Shortage of technically competent aircraft was one of the prime weaknesses of the company. In addition to this too much debt, high cost of fuel and shortage of adequate fund had also affect adversely the operation of the company. Moreover, currently operated aircraft are somehow technically defective. With this few technically inefficient aircrafts it is not possible for the company to cover the long distance routes. Additionally such aircraft incurred huge cost that can't be manageable by the company. As a result it had curtailed many long
10
Banking The impact of Asset Liability Management on the profitability of Private Commercial Banks of Bangladesh A comparative Analysis between the Conventional PCB'S and Islamic PCBS
Kazi Homaira Nirjhar, BBA, MBA*
Abstract: This study finds out the impact of asset and liability management on the profitability of Bangladeshi private commercial banks. It applied modified Statistical Cost Accounting method which incorporated market structure and macroeconomic factor along with bank assets and liabilities as independent variables. Net operating income is used as measure of bank profitability. The study deals with the twenty seven local commercial banks of Bangladesh which conducted banking business between 1997 to 2007. These banks are segmented into Conventional private commercial and Islamic private commercial banks of Bangladesh to provide a comparative analysis. The study finds that Liability management of Islamic banks is better than conventional commercial banks but they are not better than conventional banks in respect asset management. Keywords: Asset and liability management, Statistical Cost Accounting method, Macroeconomic.
INTRODUCTION
Banking system plays a vital role in the economic life of a nation. The health of the economy is closely related to the soundness of its banking system. And the soundness of banks depends mainly on the constant profitability. And the profitability can be managed with the proper combination of revenue and cost of the banks. Banks receive deposits or liabilities from their customers and invest in assets. Commercial Banks incur costs for their liabilities and earn income from their assets. Thus profitability of banks is directly affected by management of their assets and liabilities. In addition, different market and macroeconomic factors also influence the ability of the banks to make profits (Short, 1979; Molyneux and Thornton, 1992; Athanasoglou et al, 2008). This study examines how asset and liability management together with external variables such as degree of market concentration and inflation rate impact the profitability of twenty seven Local Private commercial banks classified in 21 conventional and 6 Islamic PCBs in Bangladesh. The objective of this study is to compare ALM performance between Conventional PCBs and Islamic PCBs of Bangladesh and to provide suggestions for improving banks profitability through better asset and liability management. Financial intermediation in Islamic framework is based on profit-loss sharing principles (Chapra, 1985) unlike on debtor-creditor relationship (Hassan & Tariq, 1992), where a conventional principle of prefixing profit has been replaced with a variable rate of return based on real economic performance (Mangla & Uppal, 1990). For the operational and conceptual differences between conventional and Islamic financial banks, some indicators or varidables are identified to analyze and differentiate the asset and liability management and its impact on the profitability of the banks. A modified Statistical Cost Accounting (SCA) model is applied to test whether there are differences in return on assets and cost from liabilities between Islamic banks and conventional banks. It also examined that whether conventional banks can manage their assets and liabilities more profitably than the Islamic banks.
- To find the impact of Asset Liability management on the profitability of the Bangladeshi Commercial banks classified into conventional private commercial banks and Islamic private commercial banks. To obtain the broad objective the following specific objective was needed to solve To find out the impact of Asset Liability management on the profitability of the Bangladeshi conventional PCBs. To find out the impact of Asset Liability management on the profitability of the Islamic PCBs. To compare the effect of the specific Asset Liability Factors of both type of the banks.
METHODOLOGY
Statistical Tools and Analysis Panel data (Unstructured) is used for the study and processed through the econometrics software, SPSS 12. T-test & F-test are conducted to examine whether two different sets of banks have significant differences in profitability and their underlying causes. The equation (5) for two different sets of BCBs has been estimated through regression method. Quantitative research is used to quantify relationships between variables (Hopkins, 2000). This study examined the relationship between ALM and profitability. The basic model that is used here is an extended version of statistical cost accounting model (SCA). Profit measures of banks are regressed with a number of assets and liabilities along with one significant macroeconomic variable. Regression analysis for panel (Unstructured) data is used to estimate the equations. The Traditional Model A number of authors (Hester & Zoellner, 1966; Kwast & Rose, 1982; Vasiliou, 1996; Kosmidou et al, 2004; and Asiri, 2007) used the SCA model to study the impact of the ALM on banks profitability. These studies are related with the differences in asset and liability compositions with differences of profitability by regressing operating profit of the banks with their assets and liabilities. SCA model is described by Hester & Zoellner (1966) as a regression method by which rates of return are imputed to earning assets and deposit
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Banking
liabilities (p. 373). The current study adopts the SCA model with some modification proposed by Kwast & Rose (1982). A bank earns revenue from many sources and prominent of these are interest income, service fees and commissions from its assets and income from using liabilities. Thus variations in banks revenue, Rbt can be expressed for bank b and time t in terms of variations of assets and liabilities in the following way: Rbt = r1 + r2iAibt + r3jLjbt + ebt ---(1) Rbt = Operating revenue, Ai = ith asset ,Lj = jth liability, ebt = the stochastic term The coefficients r2 and r3 of this equation are gross rate of returns on ith assets and jth liabilities. The revenues that are not generated from assets or liabilities are represented by r1 . It is used as contact term. These revenues are earning from off-balance-sheet items, underwriting fees and charges from interest rates and currency swaps. On the other hand, costs of banks are also sourced from banks assets and liabilities. Thus, variations in cost can be expressed by the following equation: Cbt = C1 + C2i Aibt + C3j Ljbt + ebt ---(2) While Cbt represents operating costs which include interest expenses on deposits, other liabilities and administrative expenses. c2 and c3 are rates of costs on the assets and liabilities. C is the fixed cost that does not vary with the changes of asset and liability portfolios of the banks.
1
Where, ubt = ebt /Abt Here the stochastic term ubt is normally distributed random errors which are characterized by a zero mean, homoskedasticity and are non autoregressive
Where H = Herfindahl Index of market concentration associated with each bank M = inflation as a binary variable for number of years. The Herfindahl Index is the sum of the squared market shares of the firms in the market. Pasiouras and Kosimidou (2007) found a direct relationship between market concentration and firm profitability. Thus, the inclusion of H in the model helps to assess the influence of local market concentration on bank earnings. Oguzsoy and Guven (1997) found that banks profitability is adversely affected by inflationary situation which make banks vulnerable to default risk, interest rate risk and liability risk. Due to onslaught of so many risks, bank may face a huge amount of loss in a variable inflationary environment. This indicates that banks profitability is also linked with non-inflationary environment. Since inflation is one of the most important macroeconomic variable that impact banks profitability, it is included in the model as a binary variable (M) in equation (5). This study conducts two different regressions for each set of bank by assuming income measure as dependent variable: net operating income (Ybt). This variable was also considered by (Hester & Zoellner (1966) and Kwast & Rose (1982). Net operating income (Ybt) is the portion of total income that is left out after deducting operating costs from the total income. Thus, when this variable provides the income measure in the second regression, the 2i estimates net rates of return on assets. Similarly, the liability coefficients may be interpreted as the marginal cost of a particular liability. The sign of each 3j should, therefore, be negative or zero because operating costs are generally higher than the service charges earned from the deposits. The 1 coefficient reflects net operating income (costs) which are related to off-balance sheet items. Thus the sign of 1 may be positive or negative. Moreover, since 1 reflects a net income variable, it may be interpreted as a measure of economies of scale (Kwast & Rose, 1982). Since any differences between the coefficients of these two regressions are the operating costs, comparisons between the Since any differences between the coefficiets of these two regressions are the operating costs per protfolio item. This study does not use net income tax as a
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The author find the revenue and cost coefficients by running two sets of regressions using equation 1 and equation 2. Now, if any one subtract cost coefficients from revenue coefficients he will get coefficients that represent net rate of return on asset and liability portfolios. We know, Y = R C. Where, Y = Net Operating income before tax, R = Operating revenue, C = Operating costs. By subtracting equation (2) from equation (1) we get the following equation which is known as statistical cost accounting (SCA) model: Ybt = 1 + 2iAibt + 3jLjbt + ebt Where, Ai = ith asset Lj = jth liability 1 = constant term elt = stochastic term ---(3)
Banking
dependent variable. The reason is that the elements that are added and deducted from net operaing income to bring "net income" are not related to a bank's protfolio. The major difference here is income tax and rate of such tax is fixed by the government from time to time. Thus net income after tax is not included in the SCA. compute the average book values. These values are divided by average total asset of the year to express them as ratios for the same period.
LITERATURE REVIEW
All assets and Liabilities not included as independent variables in this Studies of Hester & Zoellner (1966), Hester (1979), Vasiliou (1996) and model. Since balance sheet identity is that total assets are equal to Kosmidou et al (2004) examined the impacts of asset and liability composition as the total liabilities and owner's determinants of bank equity, inclusion of all assets and liabilities would For the operational and conceptual differences between profitability by applying SCA model. These studies create perfect co-linearity within the independent conventional and Islamic financial banks, some frequent did not asses the impacts variables. Hence "Cash" arguments have to be identified to analyze and of market concentration and macro economic and "Fixed assets" on the on the assets side "equity capital" differentiate the asset and liability management and its variables profitability of banks. On on the liabilities side is the other hand, studies excluded from the model. impact on the profitability of the banks. conducted by Bourke The reason for such exclusion is that expected rate of return from cash and fixed assets are zero and that the cost of equity is not considered in the (1989), Angbazo (1997), Kunt and Huizinga (1998), Saunders & computation of net operating income as advocated by Kwast and Schumacher (2000), Naceur & Goaied (2001), Drakos (2002), Goddard et al (2004), Iannotta (2007), Pasiouras & Kosmidou (2007), DePrince & Rose (1982) and Vasiliou (1996). Morris (2007) and Kosmidou (2008) examined the impact of a wide The variables of Modified SCA model range of determinants on bank performance. As mentioned earlier, the modified model is estimated for one Kwast & Rose (1982) proposed an expansion in SCA model to include independent variable which is net operating income (Y). The regional, market structure and macroeconomic variables along with explanatory variables used in the analysis are described in Table-1. the traditional variables representing assets and liabilities of banks. The model Equation (5) is used to estimate different rates of return He applied the model on a sample of large US banks which were on the following main four assets and four main liabilities of the segmented into high earning and low earning banks. balance sheet of the commercial banks in Bangladesh. Asset and liability management (ALM) is an integrated approach, Table 1: Explanatory variables relating to BCBs assets and liabilities which requires simultaneous decisions about the types and amounts of financial assets and liabilities the institutions hold, in other words, Variables Description the asset/liability mix and volume (Gardner and Mills, 1994). Gup and Liabilities Brooks (1993) argue that ALM in banks requires simultaneous L1 Fixed/time deposits planning of all asset and liability positions on the banks balance L2 Saving deposits sheet. As such, the objective of ALM is to maximize banks profits (Tektas et al, 2005). Therefore the core issue of ALM is to find out the L3 Current and other non-interest bearing liabilities optimal combination and composition of banks assets and liabilities L4 Other borrowings and funding that maximize the banks profit, (Asiri, 2007). Assets Mohammad Abu Sayeed has done work on the contribution of ALM toward profitability and project differences between the ALM A1 Loan performances of PCBs & NCB's of Bangladesh. A2 Bill discounted and purchased BANKING SECTOR OF BANGLADESH: AN OVERVIEW A3 Deposit with other banks The financial system of Bangladesh consists of Bangladesh Bank (BB) A4 Government security as the central bank, 4 State Owned Commercial Banks (SCB), 5 In addition, the following explanatory variables are also included in government owned specialized banks, 30 domestic private banks, 9 the model to improve the reliability of the results. foreign banks and 29 non-bank financial institutions. Moreover, Table 2: Non-Balance Sheet variables MRA(Micro finance regulatory Authority) has given license to 298 Micro-credit Organizations. The financial system also embraces Market structure variable insurance companies, stock exchanges and co-operative Banks. H Herfindahl Index of market concentration on Alongside the conventional interest based banking system, each bank Bangladesh entered into an Islamic banking system in 1983. At Macroeconomic variables present, out of 48 banks in Bangladesh, 7 PCBs are operating as fullfledged Islamic banks and 20 branches of 9 conventional banks are M Inflation rate partially involved in Islamic banking. Under this banking system, For asset and liability values, average figures are used in the model. loans and Amanat operations are conducted through giving profit For each year, the beginning and ending book values are used to shares instead of interest.
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Total deposits of the Islamic banks and Islamic banking branches of the four variables have a negative impact on the profitability. It the conventional banks stood at BDT 464.4 billion at end June 2009. means that if there is a change of a single unit liability then the profit This was 26.0 percent of the deposits of all private commercial banks of the banks change negatively. They are efficient in handling the and 17.8 percent of the deposits of the total banking system at the only liability that is savings deposit (L2).But they are very efficient in managing asset end of June 2009. Total specially- Bill Discounted investment of the Islamic This indicates that banks profitability is entwined and Purchased (A2), banks and the Islamic banking branches of the with non-inflationary environment. Since inflation is Deposit with Other banks (A3) and conventional banks stood at BDT 434.4 billion at one of the most important macroeconomic variable Government Security (A4).The most well end June 2009. This was that impact banks profitability, it is included in the managed asset is Bill 29 .3 percent of all private Discounted and banks and 22.4 percent of model as a binary variable (M) in equation (5). Purchased (A2) as it the total banking system increases the profitability of the country. And PCBs deposits in 2008 amounted to BDT 1450.7 billion or 56.6 percent of 2.540 times. And from the t value it is seen that all the liabilities and the total industry deposit against BDT 1150.2 billion or 53.5 percent assets are significant in nature for the profitability of the conventional banks. And the two macroeconomic variables are creating negative in 2007. impact on the profitability of the banks. And from the t value of these ANALYSIS two factors it is seen that only Market Concentration (H) is SCA model as modified was applied to measure the impact of ALM significant for the profitability of the conventional PCBs. on banks profitability. Results obtained after application of Anova F On the other hand the Islamic banks are more efficient in managing Test shows that conventional PCBs use asset and liability portfolio liabilities, specially- Fixed Account (L1), Savings Account (L2) and mix which are different from those used by the Islamic PCBs.The Borrowing from other Banks (L4).All these three variables have a result of regressions was separately run for conventional PCBs and positive impact on the profitability of the Islamic PCBs. But Islamic Islamic PCBs based on net operating income (Y) as dependent banks are not efficient in managing assets as three variables among variables. Table 5.4 shows the regression results for conventional four different types of assets are creating negative impact on the PCBs and Islamic PCBs respectively. profitability of the Islamic PCBs. Among the four variables Loan (A1) Table 3: Regression for conventional and Islamic PCBs
Variables Conventional Coefficient
Constant Fixed Account (L1) Savings Account (L2) Current Account (L3) Borrowing from other Banks (L4) Loan (A1) Bill Discounted and Purchased (A2) Deposit with Other banks (A3) Government Security (A4) Market Concentration (H) Inflation R squared Adjusted R squared F-statistic Probability(F statistic) Durbin Watson statistic .00 -1.110 .209 -.220 -.230
T value
-1.001 -1.164 -1.089
can be well managed by them. Among the two macroeconomic variables only Inflation (M) has positive impact on the profitability. But both of them are insignificant for the profitability of the Islamic PCBs. The table shows that the coefficients of 1/TA are not significantly different between the conventional and Islamic banks and that is zero (0) for both of the banks. Thus both of they are not experiencing any better economies of scale.
RECOMMENDATIONS
With the above findings the author try to find the reasons of such findings and try to suggest measures that will enhance the profitability of both types of banks. As market structure is significant at 5% level of significance, conventional banks should be more aware as it affects the profitability negatively. If they will turn the market concentration with a positive coefficient then they might be able get the power to charge for their service. From the coefficient value of H reflects the market concentration of banks. With the negative value of coefficient of H is the evident of lower market concentration of both of the local commercial banks. This means they dont have monopoly power. Thus both of the banks should price their services with a competitive price. Otherwise they will lose their market position. As Islamic Banks focused on Islamic Shariah, the customers who are interested to maintain their savings with the Islamic concept want to keep their savings all time in the same way. So it can be assumed that the higher return is the result of the loyalty of the customers of Islamic Banks affects profitability positively. So the suggestion goes to the Islamic banks that it will be profitable for them if they concentrate
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.274 -(2.159)* -.227 -.159 -.071 -.058 .044 - .481 1.706 1.737 -.885 -1.160 .969 .962 135.030 .000 1.584
* significant at 5% level As regards to Islamic PCBs, five out of ten independent variables are found to have positive impacts on net operating income (Y) of these banks. From the above table it is seen that conventional banks are not efficient in managing the liability as the three variables among
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Impacts of market structure are found significant for conventional local PCBs and they are negatively affected by rising level of inflation. In general, PCBs are found to charge equitable and competitive price for their services. The Bangladesh Bank and Government of Bangladesh (GOB) should provide regulations so that assets of the banks are adequately protected from impairment and loan loss can be managed at a tolerable limit to ensure reasonable returns on assets of the local PCBs of Bangladesh. In addition, BCBs are to be supported by policy measures which will promote non-inflationary environment.
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CONCLUSION
This is a comparative study on the asset and liability management of Conventional versus Islamic private commercial banks of Bangladesh. It is evident that conventional PCBs are better than Islamic PCBs in terms of Asset management, but they do not have superiority over the Islamic PCBs in terms of Liability management. From the findings it can be told that the two banks are specialized in two different side of the balance sheet. r REFERENCE
Asiri, B. K. (2007). Assets-liabilities management in banks - a case of Kuwait. Indian Journal of Economics and Business, 6(1), 103-115. Athanasoglou, P. P., Brissimis, S. N., & Delis, M. D. (2008). Bank-specific, industry-specific and macroeconomic determinants of bank profitability. Int. Fin. Markets, Inst. and Money 18, 121136. Aydon, K., & Booth, G. G. (1996). Performance characteristics of private and state owned banks: the Turkish case Management Finance, 22(10), 18-39. Bangladesh Bank (2009). Annual Report 2008-2009. Dhaka, viewed on 28/08/2010, http:// www.bangladesh-bank.org/.../annual/anreport/annual.html Bourke, P. (1989). Concentration and other determinants of bank profitability in Europe, North America and Australia. Journal of Banking and Finance 13, 65-79. Chowdhury, A. (2002). Politics, society and financial sector reform in Bangladesh. International Jounal of Social Economics, 29(12), 963-988. Demirgnuc- Kunt, A., & Huizinga, H. (1999). Determinants of commercial bank interest margins and profitability some international evidence. World Bank Economic Review 13, 379-408. Fama, E. F. (1980). Banking in the theory of finance. Journal of Monetary Economics 6, 3957.
END NOTE : ALM - Asset Liabilty Management BCB - Bangladeshi Commercial Bank PCB - Private Commercial Bank SCA - Statistical Cost Accounting Model.
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