ALTERNATIVE OBLIGATIONS

An alternative obligation is one where several prestations are due but the complete performance of one of them is sufficient to extinguish the obligation.

Right to choose prestation The right to choose prestation belongs to the debtor, unless it has been expressly given to the creditor.

Limitations on debtors right to choose 1. The debtor must completely perform the prestation chosen. He cannot compel the creditor to receive part of one and part of another undertaking. 2. He cannot choose those prestations which are impossible, unlawful or which could not have been the object of the obligation.

When obligation ceases to be alternative and becomes a simple obligation. 1. When the debtor has communicated his choice to the creditor. 2. Where among the prestations whereby the debtor is alternatively bound, only one is practicable. 3. When the creditor has communicated his choice to the debtor, if the creditor has been expressly given the right of choice.

Rules in case of loss of things or impossibility of services which are alternatively the object of the obligation. 1. When right of choice is with the debtor. a. If only one or some are lost through a fortuitous event or through the debtors fault, the debtor may deliver any of the remainder or that which remains if only one subsist. b. If all are lost through a fortuitous event, the obligation is extinguished (based on the rule that no person shall be responsible for fortuitous event). c. If all are lost through the debtors fault, the debtor shall pay the value of the last thing that was not lost plus damages.

2. When right of choice is expressly granted to the creditor. a. If only one or more are lost through a fortuitous event, the debtor shall deliver that which the creditor should choose among the remainder, or that which remains if only one subsists. b. If all are lost through a fortuitous event, the obligation shall be extinguished. c. If only one or some are lost through the debtors fault, the creditor may claim any of those subsisting, or the price of those which were lost through the debtors fault plus damages. d. If all are lost through the debtors fault, the creditor may claim the price of any of them plus damages.

JOINT AND SOLIDARY OBLIGATIONS

In a joint or solidary obligation, there is a concurrence of two or more debtors and/or two or more creditors in one and the same obligation. In a joint obligation, each debtor is liable only for a proportionate part of the debt, and each creditor is entitled only to a proportionate part of the credit. In a solidary obligation, each debtor is liable for the whole obligation, and each creditor is entitled to demand payment of the whole obligation.

Kinds of solidary obligation 1. Passive solidarity - this is solidarity on the part of the debtors. 2. Active solidarity this is solidarity on the part of the creditors. 3. Mixed solidarity or solidarity on the part of both debtors and creditors

Other term for solidary obligation 1. Joint and severally 2. Individually and collectively 3. In solidum 4. Mancomunada solidaria 5. Juntos o separadamente

General rule if there is a concurrence of two or more debtors and/or two or more creditors in one and the same obligation. The obligation is presumed to be joint when there is concurrence of two or more debtors and/or two or more creditors in one and the same obligation. There is solidary liability only in the following cases: 1. When the obligation expressly so states. 2. When the law requires solidarity. 3. When the nature of the obligation requires solidarity.

Existence of solidarity despite different periods and conditions. Solidarity exists although the creditors and the debtors may not be bound by the same periods and conditions.

Effect of unauthorized assignment of creditors right

The solidary creditors are bound by mutual trust and confidence. Hence, a solidary creditor cannot assign his right to a third person without the consent of the other solidary creditors because the assignee may not enjoy the trust and confidence of the non-assigning creditors. If the assignment is without the consent of the co-creditors, the assignment is not valid as to them. Accordingly, they can recover their respective shares from the assigning creditor in case the assignee who collected the debt fails to give them their shares.

Defenses available to solidary debtors 1. Those derived from the nature of the obligation (such as prescription of the obligation, illegality of cause). 2. Those personal to the debtor being sued, or those that pertain to his own share (such as incapacity of the debtor or non-fulfillment of a suspensive condition as to his share). 3. Those personal to the other debtors with respect to their own share (such as incapacity of another debtor non-fulfillment of a suspensive condition with respect to the other debtorsshares).

Joint indivisible obligation, concept and characteristics A joint indivisible obligation is an obligation where the debtors or creditors are jointly bound but the prestation or object is indivisible. It has the following characteristics: 1. The creditors must act collectively, meaning, all of them must make the demand unless one is specifically authorized to act for the others. A demand made by one or some but not all of the creditors will not be effective. 2. The demand must be made against all the debtors since compliance is possible only if they act together. 3. The right of the creditors may be prejudiced only by their collective acts. Thus, a renunciation made by a joint creditor extinguishes only his own share. The obligation, however, is converted to an obligation to pay the value of the thing. If all joint creditors make the renunciation, the obligation is extinguished. 4. If one of the debtors does not comply with his undertaking, the obligation is converted into a monetary obligation to pay damages. The debtors who may have been ready to comply shall not contribute to the indemnity beyond the corresponding price of the thing or the value of the service in which the obligation consists. 5. If one of the debtors is insolvent, the others shall not be liable for his share.

Indivisibility and solidarity, concept and distinctions The indivisibility of an obligation refers to the subject matter or object not being susceptible of partial performance. Solidarity, on the other hand, refers to tie between the parties. One therefore, does not imply, or give rise to the other. Thus, there may be the following obligations: 1. Joint divisible obligation

2. Joint indivisible obligation 3. Solidary divisible obligation 4. Solidary indivisible obligation

DIVISIBLE AND INDIVISIBLE OBLIGATIONS

A divisible obligation is one capable of partial performance (such as the obligation to deliver 10 sacks of rice). The following obligations are deemed divisible: 1. When the obligation has for its object the execution of a certain number of days of work (such as an obligation to work for 1 week). 2. When the obligation has for its object the accomplishment of work by metrical units (such as the obligation to construct a pavement which is 10 meters long and 2 meters wide). 3. Analogous things performance. which by their nature are susceptible of partial

An Indivisible obligation is one not capable of partial performance (such as the obligation to deliver a specific car). The following obligations are deemed indivisible: 1. Obligation to give definite things (such as the obligation to give a specific horse). 2. Those not susceptible of partial performance (such as the obligation of a singer to sing 1 song in a program). 3. Those were the object or service is physically divisible but it is indivisible by provision of law (such as where the obligation is to pay a sum of money but the law provides that the sum must be paid in full). 4. Those were the object or service is physically divisible but it is indivisible by the intention of the parties (such as where the obligation is to pay a sum of money but the parties agreed that the sum must be paid in full).

Kinds of indivisibility a. Conventional indivisibility one where the parties agrees to make as indivisible obligations, which by their nature, are divisible.

b. Natural or absolute indivisibility one where the nature of the object or prestation does not admit of division. c. Legal indivisibility one where indivisibility is provided for by law.

Kinds of division a. Quantitative division one where division is based on quantity (such as when A and B who are co-owners of an instant sweepstakes which won P100,000 divided the said prize equally between them). b. Qualitative division one where division is based on quality (such as when you inherit from your father a first class fishpond and your sister inherited a first class ricefield). c. Intellectual or ideal division one where division exists only in the minds of the parties (such as when you and your sister are co-owners of a house and lot. Your share is only in the mind. You are the owner of an ideal of the house and lot and your sister is the owner of the other ideal of the said house and lot).

MODE OF EXTINGUISHMENT OF OBLIGATIONS

Obligations are extinguished: 1. By payment or performance 2. By the loss of the thing due 3. By the condonation or remission of the debt 4. By the confusion or merger of the rights of creditor and debtor 5. By compensation 6. By novation

Causes of extinguishment of obligations 1. Annulment 2. Rescission 3. Fulfillment of resolutory condition 4. Prescription 5. Other causes: a. Death of a party in cases of personal obligations b. Arrival of resolutory period c. Compromises d. Mutual dissent e. Change of civil status in some cases f. Impossibility of fulfilment

PAYMENT OR PERFORMANCE Payment means not only the delivery of money but also the performance, in any other manner of an obligation. Thus, the obligation is to paint a portrait, payment consists in the performance of the service. Or if the obligation is to deliver a certain ring, payment consists in the delivery of the ring.

How must the payment be made 1. There must be delivery of the thing or rendition of the service that was contemplated. a. The debtor of a thing cannot compel the creditor to accept a different one although the latter may be of the same value as, or more valuable than that which is due. b. In obligations to do or not to do, an act or forbearance cannot be substituted by another act or forbearance against the obligees will. c. In obligations to give a generic thing whose quality and circumstances have not been stated, the creditor cannot demand a thing of superior quality. Neither can the debtor deliver a thing of inferior quality. The purpose of the obligation and other circumstances shall be taken into consideration. d. If the obligation is a monetary obligation, the payment must be in legal tender. Legal tender is the money or currency which the debtor may compel his creditor to accept in payment of his debt (whether public or private).

Medium of payment Payment of debts in money must be made in the currency which is legal tender in the Philippines. However, the parties may stipulate that the payment may be made in currency other than Philippine legal tender at the time of payment.

In case an extraordinary inflation of deflation of the currency should supervene, the value of the currency at the time of the establishment of the obligation shall be the basis of payment, unless there is an agreement to the contrary.

2. The payment of performance must be complete. The following are the exceptions: a. If the obligation has been substantially performed in good faith, the obligor may recover as though there had been strict and complete fulfillment, less damages suffered by the oblige. b. When the obligee accepts the performance knowing its incompleteness or irregularity, and without expressing any protest or objection is deemed fully complied with.

When partial payments may be made The creditor cannot be compelled to receive, and the debtor cannot be compelled to make partial payments except: a. When there is an agreement to that effect. However, the payment must still be made in full at some future time in accordance with the agreement, to extinguish the obligation. b. When the debt is in part liquidated (ex. The amount is fixed) and in part unliquidated, the creditor may demand and the debtor may effect the payment of the former without waiting for the liquidation of the latter. The unliquidated part, once it is finally determined, must also be paid to extinguish the obligation.

Who must make the payment Payment must be made by the debtor who must possess the following: 1. The free disposal of the thing due. Free disposal of the thing due means that the property delivered should not be subject to any claim by, or encumbrances in favour of, third persons. Thus, if a property mortgaged is used as payment by the debtor to a creditor other than the mortgagee, the payment is not valid. The said property can be made to answer for the debt secured in case of foreclosure of the mortgage.

2. The capacity to alienate the thing. The debtor not incapable of giving consent.

Effect on payment in obligations to give if debtor does not have free disposaland capacity to alienate. The payment shall not be valid except in cases provide by law. If the payment is made, the guardian of incapacitated person (during the incapacity), or the incapacitated person himself when he regains his capacity, may seek the annulment of the payment. In case the debtor does not have the free disposal of the thing due, the injured party may seek to recover the payment.

Payment made by the debtor after court has ordered him to retain debt Payment made to the creditor by the debtor after the debtor has been judicially ordered to retain the debt shall not be valid. The court order is known as garnishment.

Payment by a third person The creditor not bound to accept payment or performance by a third person except in the following cases: a. When there is a stipulation to that effect. b. When the third person has an interest in the fulfillment of the obligation such as a guarantor or co-debtor.

Rights of a third person who makes the payment a. Payment with knowledge and consent of the debtor. 1. He can recover what he has paid. 2. He is entitled to be subrogated in the rights of the creditor such as those arising from mortgage, guaranty or penalty. b. Payment without the knowledge or against the will of the debtor. He can recover only in so far as the payment has been beneficial to the debtor. He is not entitled to subrogation.

Payment by a third person who does not want to be reimbursed a. The payment shall be deemed to be a donation which requires the debtors consent. b. If the debtor does not consent, the payment shall nevertheless be valid to the creditor who has accepted it. In such a case, the third person can only recover an so far as the payment has been beneficial to the debtor; he is also not entitled to subrogation.

To whom shall payment be made 1. To the creditor (the person in whose favor the obligation has been constituted). 2. To the creditors successors in interest, such as his heirs or assigns. 3. To any person authorized to receive payment.

Payment to an incapacitated creditor The creditor must be capacitated to receive the payment. Payment to an incapacitated creditor is not valid except: a. If has kept the thing delivered. b. In so far the payment has been beneficial to him.

Payment to an unauthorized third person As a general rule, payment to an unauthorized third person is not valid except in the following cases: a. If the payment has redounded to the benefit of the creditor, which benefit need not be proved in the following cases: 1. If after the payment, the third person acquires the creditors rights (such as when the third person becomes the assignee of the instrument evidencing the credit). 2. If the creditor ratifies the payment to the third person. 3. If by the creditors conduct, the debtor has been led to believe that the third person had the authority to receive payment (such as when a water service company gives a collectors uniform to a third person who is not its employee and the debtor gives his payment to such third person believing that he is the authorized collector). b. If the payment is made in good faith to a third person in possession of the credit. In this case, the third person should be both in possession of the instrument and the credit.

Where payment must be made 1. If there is a stipulation, then in the place designated. 2. If there is no stipulation: a. If the obligation is to give a determinate thing, wherever the thing might be at the time the obligation was constituted. b. If the obligation is to give a generic thing or an obligation to do, then at the domicile of the debtor.

Special forms of payment 1. Dation in payment Dation in payment (dacion en pago, adjudicacion en pago or datio en solutum), is a special form of payment where the ownership of property belonging to the debtor is transferred to his creditor to pay a debt in money. It is governed by the law of sales since it partakes in a

sense the nature of sale with the creditor in effect in buying the property of the debtor.

2. Application of payment It is the designation of the debt to which payment shall be applied when the debtor owes several debts in favor of the same creditor.

Requisites of application of payment a. There must be two or more debts. b. The debts must be of the same kind. c. The debts are owed by the same debtor to the same creditor. d. All debts are due, except: 1. When the parties have stipulated that payment may be applied to a debt not yet due, or 2. When the application is made by the party for whose benefit the term has been constituted.

How application is made a. The debtor who is given the preferential right to apply the payment designates the debt to be paid. b. If the debtor does not make the designation, the creditor makes it by indicating the debt being paid in his receipt. If the debtor accepts the receipt from the creditor, the debtor cannot complain unless there is a just cause of invalidating the contract. c. If neither the debtor nor the creditor makes the designation, or application cannot be inferred from the circumstances, payment shall be applied by operation of laws as follows: 1. Payment shall be applied to the debt, among those due, which is the most onerous to the debtor. 2. If the debts are of the same nature and burden, payment shall be applied to all due debts proportionately.

3. Payment by cession

Payment by cession is the abandonment or assignment by the debtor of all his property in favor of his creditors so that the latter may sell them and recover their claims out of the proceeds. The cession or assignment operates only to authorize the creditors to sell the debtors property, hence, ownership is not transferred to them. Unless agreed upon, the cession releases the debtor from his responsibility only to the extent of the net proceeds of the things assigned.

Kinds of payment by cession a. Voluntary or conventional agreed upon by the parties b. Legal cession by operation of law

Requisites of payment by cession a. There must be two or more creditors. b. The debtor is insolvent. c. The debtor abandons all his properties except those which are exempt from execution.

4. Tender of payment and consignation Tender of payment is the act of the debtor of offering to his creditor what is due him. Consignation, on the other hand, is the act of depositing the sum or the thing due with the judicial authorities whenever the creditor refuses without just cause to accept the same, or in the cases when the creditor cannot accept it.

Requisites (steps) for tender of payment and consignation to extinguish the obligation a. There must be a valid tender of payment. Thus, the payment being tendered must be the thing contemplated, in legal tender, complete, among other requisites for a valid payment. b. The creditor refuses without just cause to receive the payment. c. The persons interested in the fulfilment of the obligation must be notified by the debtor of his intention to deposit the sum or thing due with the judicial authorities. The notice will enable the creditor, mortgagees, guarantors, sureties, solidary debtors, among others, to reconsider accepting the payment and avoid litigation. The notice is also required to give the creditor the opportunity to accept the payment because the expenses of consignation will be charged to him for his non-acceptance of payment. d. The sum or thing due is deposited with judicial authorities. e. The persons interested in the fulfilment of the obligation must again be notified by the debtor that the consignation has been made.

Effect of consignation duly made If the consignation has been duly made, the debtor may ask the judge to order the cancellation of the obligation. The obligation shall be extinguished after the creditor has accepted the consignation or the judge has declared that the consignation has been properly made.

Debtors right to withdraw the sum or thing consigned a. Before acceptance by the creditor of the consignation or the declaration by the judge that the consignation has been properly made The debtor may withdraw the sum or thing consigned as a matter of right (the creditors consent is not required). Such withdrawal produces the following effects: 1. The obligation shall remain in force 2. The co-debtors, guarantors, and sureties are not released.

b. After acceptance by the creditor of the consignation or the declaration by the judge that the consignation has been properly made The debtor may withdraw the sum or thing consigned only with the consent of the creditor. Such withdrawal produces the following effects: 1. The obligation shall be revived. 2. The creditor shall lose every preference which he may have over the thing. 3. The guarantors, and sureties are released. If there are several debtors and their obligation is solidary, such obligation will become a joint obligation. Thus, the creditor can no longer proceed against the guarantor or surety if later on the debtor cannot pay. As regard the co-debtors, they are not released from liability they being principal debtors. Their obligation becomes joint if it was previously solidary.

When consignation, without a previous tender of payment, will produce the same effect a. When the creditor is absent or unknown or does not appear at the place of payment. b. When he is incapacitated to receive the payment at the time it is due. c. When, without cause, he refuses to give a receipt. d. When two or more persons claim the same right to collect. e. When the title of the obligation has been lost.

LOSS OF THE THING DUE A thing is considered lost when it perishes, or goes out of commerce, or disappears in such a way that its existence is unknown or cannot be recovered. Loss includes the physical or legal impossibility of the service in which the obligation consists.

Effect of loss on the obligation 1. Loss of a determinate thing

As a general rule, the loss of a determinate thing extinguishes the obligation. The following are the exceptions: a. When the loss is due to the fault of the debtor. Loss of the thing while in the possession of the debtor shall be presumed to be due to his fault, unless proved otherwise. The presumption does not apply in case of earthquake, flood, storm or other natural calamity. b. When the debtor has incurred in delay. c. When so provided by law, as when the debtor has promised to deliver the same thing to two or more persons who do not have the same interest. d. When it is stipulated by the parties. e. When the nature of the obligation requires the assumption of risk. f. When the debt proceeds from a criminal offense unless the person who should receive it refuses to accept it without just cause.

2. Loss of a generic thing The loss or destruction of anything of the same kind does not extinguish the obligation. Exception: In the case of a delimited thing, such as 100 cavans of rice from my harvest this year when such harvest is completely destroyed.

3. Loss in personal obligations (obligation to do) a. When the prestation becomes legally or physically impossible without the fault of the debtor, the obligation is extinguished. b. When the service has become so difficult as to be manifestly beyond the contemplation of the parties, the obligor may also be released in whole or in part.

Effect of partial loss The court shall determine whether under the circumstances, the partial loss of the object of the obligation is so important as to extinguish the obligation.

Creditors right if the loss is caused by a third person If the obligation has been extinguished by the loss of the thing, the creditor shall have all the rights of action which the debtor may have against third person by reason of loss.

CONDONATION OR REMISSION Condonation or remission is the gracious abandonment by the creditor of his right. In plain language, this refers to the forgiveness of an indebtedness. To extinguish the obligation it requires the debtors consent.

Kinds of condonation or remission 1. As to amount or extent a. Total when the total obligation (both principal and accessory obligation) is remitted. b. Partial when only a part of the obligation, or only the accessory obligation is remitted.

2. As to form a. Express one made orally or in writing. b. Implied one inferred from the conduct of the parties, such as when the creditor voluntarily delivers the private document evidencing the credit to the debtor.

Presumption when private document evidencing debt is found in the possession of the debtor The private document is presumed to have been delivered voluntarily by the creditor to the debtor (so as to remit the obligation) unless the contrary is proved.

Presumption when the thing pledged after its delivery to the creditor is found in the possession of the debtor or of a third party who owns the thing The accessory obligation of pledge is presumed remitted but not the principal obligation.

Effect of remission/renunciation of principal obligation on the accessory obligation and vice versa 1. The remission of the principal debt extinguishes the accessory obligation (based on the accessory follows the principal rule). 2. The remission of the accessory obligation does not carry with it that of the principal debt.

CONFUSION OR MERGER Confusion or merger is the meeting in one person of the qualities or the characters of creditor and debtor.

Effect of merger when there is a guarantor 1. Merger which takes place in the principal debtor or creditor benefits the guarantors. Here, both the principal obligation and the guaranty are extinguished. 2. Merger which takes place in the person of the guarantor does not extinguish the obligation. Here, only the guaranty is extinguished.

Merger in a joint obligation

Merger extinguishes only the share of the joint debtor and creditor in whom the characters of the debtor and creditor concur.

Merger in a solidary obligation Merger in one of the solidary debtors or solidary creditors extinguishes the whole obligation. The solidary debtor in whom the characters of debtor and creditor concur can demand reimbursement from his co-debtors. In the case of solidary creditor, he shall be liable to his co-creditors for the share corresponding to each of them.

COMPENSATION Compensation is a mode of extinguishing an obligation when two persons, in their own right, are debtors and creditors of each other.

Kinds of compensation 1. As to amount or extent a. Total when the debts are of the same amount. b. Partial when the debts are of different amounts

2. As to cause or origin a. Legal takes place by operation of law and extinguishes both debts to the concurrent amount even though the debts are payable at different places and the creditors and debtors are not aware of the compensation. b. Voluntary or conventional takes place by agreement of the parties, such as when they agree to the compensation of debts which are not yet due. c. Judicial compensation ordered by the court. If one of the parties to a suit over an obligation has a claim for damages against the other, the former may set it off by proving his right to said damages and the amount thereof. d. Facultative compensation that may be claimed or opposed by one of the parties (such as when not at all the requisites for legal compensation are present).

Compensation when one or both debts are rescissible or voidable When one or both debts are rescissible or voidable, they may be compensated against each other before they are judicially rescinded or avoided.

Compensation when the debts are payable at different places Compensation takes place by operation of law, even though the debts may be payable at different places, but there shall be an indemnity for expenses of exchange or transportation to the place of payment.

Effect of assignment on compensation of debts

1. When the assignment was with the debtors consent, he cannot set up against the assignee the compensation that would pertain to him against the assignor unless he reserved his right to the compensation. 2. If the debtor was notified of the assignment but he did not give his consent thereto, the debtor may set up compensation of debts maturing before the assignment but not of subsequent ones. 3. If the assignment was without knowledge of the debtor, he can set up compensation of all debts maturing before the time he obtains knowledge of the assignment.

NOVATION It is the modification or extinguishment of an obligation by another, either by changing the object or principal condition, substituting the person of the debtor, or subrogating a third person in the rights of the creditor.

Requisites of novation 1. There must be a previous valid obligation. 2. There must be an agreement between the parties to modify or extinguish the obligation, except in the following: a. When the person of the debtor is changed which can be made even if it is against the will of the debtor, or b. When another person is subrogated in the place of the creditor: 1. When the creditor pays another creditor who is preferred, even without the debtors knowledge. 2. When even without the knowledge of the debtor, a person interested in the fulfilment of the obligation, pays without prejudice to the effects of confusion as to the latters share. 3. 4. The extinguishment of the old obligation. The validity of the new obligation.

Kinds of novation 1. According to object or purpose a. Real or objective novation by changing the object or principal condition. b. Personal or subjective novation by change of the parties (debtor or creditor) 1. Substituting the person of the debtor (always with the creditors consent) a. Expromision third person initiates the substitution and assumes the obligation even without the knowledge or against the will of the debtor. b. Delegacion debtor initiates the substitution, which requires the consent of all parties (original debtor, creditor, new debtor) 2. Subrogating a third person in the rights of the creditor. Kinds of subrogation:

a. Conventional subrogation change of creditor by the agreement of the parties (the original parties and the new creditor) b. Legal subrogation subrogation by operation of law. c. Mixed change of object and parties to the obligation

2. According to form a. Express novation declared in unequivocal terms. b. Implied when the old and the new obligation are on every point incompatible with each other.

3. According to extent a. Total or extinctive here, the old obligation is totally extinguished, such as when an obligation to pay a sum of money is replaced with an obligation to give a diamond ring. b. Partial or modificatory here, the old obligation still remains in force except as it has been modified, such as when the place of payment is changed or when there is a variation in the amount of instalment payments.

Effect of novation on accessory obligation When the principal obligation is extinguished in consequence of a novation, accessory obligations shall also be extinguished except with respect to those established for the benefit of third persons who did not give their consent.

Effect if new obligation is void If the new obligation is void, the novation is void. In such a case, the original one shall subsist, unless the parties intended that the former relation will be extinguished in any event.

Effect if the original obligation is voidable The novation is valid provided that annulment may be claimed only by the debtor or when the ratification extinguishes acts which are voidable. The novation here cures whatever defects present on the original obligation.

Effect if original obligation is subject to a suspensive or resolutory condition The new obligation shall be subject to the same condition unless otherwise stipulated by the parties.

Preference to creditor in case of partial payment A creditor, to whom partial payment has been made, may exercise his right for the remainder, and he shall be preferred to the person who has been subrogated in his place in virtue of the partial payment of the same credit.

BUSINESS LAW 1
(OBLIGATIONS AND CONTRACT)

Julie Ann S.D. Ogao M 41 January 21, 2011

ALTERNATIVE OBLIGATIONS JOINT AND SOLIDARY OBLIGATIONS DIVISIBLE AND INDIVISIBLE OBLIGATIONS MODE OF EXTINGUISHMENT OF OBLIGATION