2009-2010

RPVV LAJPAT NAGAR (Krishna market) NEW DELHI-110024

Teacher s name

Mrs. Rita talwar

Submitted by:Name Kuldeep Sharma Class - XI Roll no. - 13 Sec - A

[CELL CYCLE & CELL DIVISION]

Contents
Topic 1. Cell cycle 2. Interphase 3. M phase (cell division by mitosis) 4. Karyokinesis 5. Cytokinesis 6. Significance of mitosis 7. M phase (cell division by meiosis) 8. Meiosis I 9. Karyokinesis 10. Meiosis II 11. Karyokinesis 12. Cytokinesis 13. Significance of meiosis 14. Bibliography page no. 3 3 5 6 7 9 10 11 11 14 14 15 15 16

Signature of teacher

CELL CYCLE
The process, by which new cells are formed from the pre-existing cells, is called cell division. There are mainly two phases of cell division:(i) (ii) INTERPHASE M- PHASE

INTERPHASE

y Interphase represents the phase between two successive M-phases. y Interphase is the most active stage in the cell cycle, when the cell prepares for the division phase. y It consists of three sub-stages: (i) G1 Phase or Gap 1 phase (ii) S Phase or Synthetic phase (iii) G2 Phase or Gap 2 phase

G1 Phase s to the inte v between mitosis and initiation of y It c es re ication of DNA. y It is metabolically active as there is more synthesis of RNAs proteins needed for its growth &DNA replication. y Certain cells which do not divide further enter an inactive stage called quiescent stage or G0 phase.
Cells in quiescent stage remain metabolically active but no longer proliferate unless called on to do so depending on the requirement of the organism.

S Phase
y It is the period during which DNA replication takes place and the amount of nucleic acid doubles. y In animal cells as DNA replication is going on in the nucleus centriole starts its duplication in the cytoplasm.

G2 Phase
y During this phase more RNAs and proteins are synthesized in preparation for mitosis and also for the growth of cells.

M PHASE C ll division by mitosis

ROPHASE

METAPHASE ARYOKINESIS

MITOSIS CYTOKINESIS

ANAPHASE

TELOPHASE

MITOSIS y It is the process in which the chromosomes of a nucleus undergo longitudinal duplication and their split halves migrate to the poles to constitute two daughter nuclei, identical to each oth and also to er the parent nucleus. y It is also known as equational division, as the number of chromosome in the parent cell and the daughter cells is the same.
y The daughter cells are identical between themselves and they are also identical to the parent cell.

KARYOKINESIS y Karyokinesis is the process of division of the nucleus, i.e., the separation of the daughter chromosomes into two nuclei.
y Karyokinesis is further divided into below given four phases:

PROPHASE

y Chromosomal material condenses to form compact mitotic chromosomes. Chromosomes are seen to be composed of two chromatids attached together at the centromere. y Initiation of the assembly of mitotic spindle, the microtubules, the proteinaceous components of the cell cytoplasm help in the process.

METAPHASE
y Spindle fibres attach to kinetochores of chromosomes. y Chromosomes are moved to spindle equator and get aligned along metaphase plate through spindle fibres to both poles.

ANAPHASE y Centromeres split and chromatids separate. y Chromatids move to opposite poles.

TELOPHASE y Chromosomes cluster at opposite spindle poles and their identity is lost as discrete elements. y Nuclear envelope assembles around the chromosomes clusters. y Nucleolus, Golgi complex and ER reform.

CYTOKINESIS y It is the process that accomplishes the division of cytoplasm and thereby the cell into two daughter cells, each enclosing one daughter nucleus formed after Karyokinesis. y The process differs in animal and plant cells.

(i) (ii)

In animal cells In plant cells

In animal cells:y In animal cells, a furrow appears in the cell membrane during late anaphase or early telophase. y The furrow deepens and they join in the centre, the cytoplasm is divided into two compartments. y Each compartment with a daughter nucleus is known as a daughter cell.

In plant cells:y In plant cells, cytokinesis starts with the formation of a precursor called cell plate, which actually represents the middle lamella between the cell walls of the two adjacent cells. y This extends from the centre of the cell towards the lateral walls and cuts the cell into two halves, each with a daughter nucleus. y During cytokinesis, the cell organelles like mitochondria, plastids etc. also get distributed between the daughter cells. y If cytokinesis does not occur following karyokinesis, a multinucleated condition called syncytium arises.

SIGNIFICANCE OF MITOSIS

y y y y y

In multicellular organisms, body growth is by mitotic division of the cells. Replacement of worn out tissues/cells (blood cells, skin cells) and repair of the injured tissue is by mitosis. In unicellular organisms, mitosis is involved in asexual reproduction. In plants, vegetative propagation involves only mitotic division and genetically identical individuals are produced. Uncontrolled cell divisions in certain tissues/organs (cancer) results in tumors.

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M-PHASE Cell division by meiosis

PROPHASE II

METAPHASE II KARYOKINESIS MEIOSIS II

CYTOKINESIS

ANAPHASE II

TELOPHASE II

LEPTOTENE

MEIOSIS

ZYGOTENE

PROPHASE I

PACHYTENE

METAPHASE I KARYOKINESIS MEIOSIS I CYTOKINESIS

TELOPHASE I

DIPLOTENE

ANAPHASE I

DIAKINESIS

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MEIOSIS y Meiosis is a type of cell division where the no. of chromosomes is reduced to half in the daughter cells hence it is known as reduction division. y Meiosis involves two successive cycles of nucleus and cell division, but only a single cycle of DNA replication resulting in the formation of four daughter cells, each with the half no. of chromosomes as the parent cell.

MEIOSIS I KARYOKINESIS y It consists of four main steps, prophase I, metaphase I, anaphase I, and telophase I.

PROPHASE I
y It is a typically longer phase consisting of complex events and is divided into five stages.

leptotene
y Condensation and coiling of chromatin fibres lead to formation of distinct chromosomes. y The chromosomes appear as fine single threads of beads. y As they contract and become thicker, their dual nature is seen.

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zygotene
y The homologous chromosomes start pairing (synapsis). y It is accompanied by the formation of synaptonemal complex. y The chromosomes occur in the form of bivalents.

pachytene
y The chromosomes continue to become shorter and thicker. y The two sister chromatids of each chromosome become visible and the bivalents becomes a tetrad (with four chromatids). y Recombination nodules appear and crossing over starts.

diplotene
y Crossing over is completed. y The two homologous chromosomes start separating from each other except at the site of crossing over. y Chiasmata become visible. y The chromosomes continue to contract.

diakinesis
y The chiasmata move to the tip and may slip off or remain at the tips. y The chromosomes are fully condensed. y The nucleolus and nuclear envelope disappear. y Spindle formation starts.

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y y y y

METAPHASE I The spindle formation is complete. The bivalents are arranged at the equator. The arms of the chromosomes are at right angles to the spindle fibres. The centromeres are aligned in two rows. ANAPHASE I

y The spindle fibres contact and break. y The members of each homologous pair of chromosomes separate from each other and start moving to the opposite poles of the spindle. y Since only one chromosome from each pair is moving towards one pole, the no. of chromosomes in each daughter nucleus becomes half the no. of chromosomes of the parent cell.

TELOPHASE I y The chromosomes have reached the poles. y The spindle has disappeared completely. y A nuclear membrane forms around the chromosomes at each pole.

INTERKINESIS y It
eiosis II. to ort Interphase etween eiosis I and

y There is no replication DNA.

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MEIOSIS II KARYOKINESIS
y It consists of four main steps, prophase II, metaphase II, anaphase II, and telophase II.

PROPHASE II y The sister chromatids of each chromosome start condensing and become shorter. METAPHASE II y A bipolar spindle is completely formed. y The chromosomes become arranged at the equator of the spindle. y The condensation of chromosomes is maximum. ANAPHASE II y The spindle fibres contract and break. y The centromere of each chromosome divides in to two. y The sister chromatids separate and move to the opposite poles as daughter chromosomes.

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TELOPHASE II
y The chromosomes have reached the poles. y They start uncoiling and become thin. y The nuclear membrane and nucleolus start reappearing to form daughter nuclei.

CYTOKINESIS
y The nuclei are separated in to two cells by cytokinesis. y Each daughter cell of meiosis I divide to form two daughter cells and hence at the end of meiosis of a diploid cell, four haploid daughter cells are formed.

SIGNIFICANCE OF MEIOSIS
y This ensures the maintenance of a constant chromosome no., characteristic of a particular species, generation after generation. y The crossing over results in variation of genetic character in the offspring; variations form the raw material for evolution.

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Bibliography
1. Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (www.wikipedia.com) 2. The search engines (www.google.com & www.yahoo.com) 3. Britannica Concise Encyclopedia (www.support.britannica.com) 4. www.Clinicaltools.inc.