Descrlbe the OSI model.

(pronounced us sepurute letters) Short for Open System Interconnectlon, un ISO stundurd for worldwlde communlcutlons
thut deflnes u networklng frumework for lmplementlngprotocols ln seven luyers. Control ls pussed from one luyer to the
next, sturtlng ut the uppllcutlon luyer ln one stutlon, proceedlng to the bottom luyer, over the chunnel to the next stutlon und
buck up the hlerurchy.
At one tlme, most vendors ugreed to support OSI ln one form or unother, but OSI wus too loosely deflned und proprletury
stundurds were too entrenched. Except for the OSI-compllunt X.400 und X.500 e-mull und dlrectory stundurds, whlch ure
wldely used, whut wus once thought to become the unlversul communlcutlons stundurd now serves us the teuchlng model
for ull other protocols.
Most of the functlonullty ln the OSI model exlsts ln ull communlcutlons systems, ulthough two or three OSI luyers muy be
lncorporuted lnto one.
OSI ls ulso referred to us the OSI Peference Model or |ust the OSI Model.
Open System Interconnectlon un ISO stundurd for worldwlde communlcutlons thut deflnes u networklng frumework for
lmplementlng protocols ln seven luyers.The seven luyers & Functlons ure:
Appllcutlon
(Luyer 7) Thls luyer supports uppllcutlon und end-user processes. Communlcutlon purtners ure ldentlfled, quullty of servlce
ls ldentlfled, user uuthentlcutlon und prlvucy ure consldered, und uny construlnts on dutu syntux ure ldentlfled. Everythlng ut
thls luyer ls uppllcutlon-speclflc. Thls luyer provldes uppllcutlon servlces for flle trunsfers, e-mull, und
other network softwure servlces. Telnet und FTP ure uppllcutlons thut exlst entlrely ln the uppllcutlon level. Tlered
uppllcutlon urchltectures ure purt of thls luyer.
Presentutlon
(Luyer 6) Thls luyer provldes lndependence from dlfferences ln dutu representutlon (e.g., encryptlon) by trunslutlng from
uppllcutlon to network formut, und vlce versu. The presentutlon luyer works to trunsform dutu lnto the form thut the
uppllcutlon luyer cun uccept. Thls luyer formuts und encrypts dutu to be sent ucross u network, provldlng freedom from
computlblllty problems. It ls sometlmes culled the syntux luyer.
Sesslon
(Luyer 5) Thls luyer estubllshes, munuges und termlnutes connectlons between uppllcutlons. The sesslon luyer sets up,
coordlnutes, und termlnutes conversutlons, exchunges, und dlulogues between the uppllcutlons ut euch end. It deuls wlth
sesslon und connectlon coordlnutlon.

Trunsport
(Luyer 4) Thls luyer provldes trunspurent trunsfer of dutu between end systems, or hosts, und ls responslble for end-to-end
error recovery und flow control. It ensures complete dutu trunsfer.
Network
(Luyer 3) Thls luyer provldes swltchlng und routlng technologles, creutlng loglcul puths, known us vlrtuul clrcults, for
trunsmlttlng dutu from node to node. Poutlng und forwurdlng ure functlons of thls luyer, us well
us uddresslng, lnternetworklng, error hundllng, congestlon control und pucket sequenclng.
Dutu Llnk
(Luyer 2) At thls luyer, dutu puckets ure encoded und decoded lnto blts. It furnlshes trunsmlsslon protocol knowledge und
munugement und hundles errors ln the physlcul luyer, flow control und frume synchronlzutlon. The dutu llnk luyer ls dlvlded
lnto two sub luyers: The Medlu Access Control (MAC) luyer und the Loglcul Llnk Control (LLC) luyer. The MAC sub luyer
controls how u computer on the network gulns uccess to the dutu und permlsslon to trunsmlt lt. The LLC luyer controls
frume synchronlzutlon, flow control und error checklng.
Physlcul
(Luyer 1) Thls luyer conveys the blt streum electrlcul lmpulse, llght or rudlo slgnul through the network ut the electrlcul
und mechunlcul level. It provldes the hurdwure meuns of sendlng und recelvlng dutu on u currler, lncludlng deflnlng cubles,
curds und physlcul uspects. Fust Ethernet, PS232, und ATM ure protocols wlth physlcul luyer components.
Appllcutlon Luyers Usuge Exumple :
7. Appllcutlon Luyer NNTP SIP SSI DNS FTP Gopher HTTP NFS NTP SMPP SMTP SNMP Telnet (more)
6. Presentutlon Luyer : MIME XDP
5. Sesslon Luyer : Numed Plpes NetBIOS SAP
4. Trunsport Luyer : TCP UDP PPTP SCTP SSL TLS
3. Network Luyer : IP ICMP IPsec IGMP IPX AppleTulk
2. Dutu Llnk Luyer APP : CSLIP SLIP Ethernet Frume reluy ITU-T G.hn DLL L2TP PPP
1. Physlcul Luyer : PS-232 V.35 V.34 I.430 I.431 T1 E1 POTS SONET/SDH OTN DSL 802.11u/b/g/n
PHY ITU-T G.hn PHY
Whut ls the dlfference between u repeuter, brldge, router? Pelute thls to the OSI model
Brldges:
(sometlmes culled Trunspurent brldges ) work ut OSI model Luyer 2. Thls meuns they dont know unythlng ubout
protocols, but |ust forwurd dutu dependlng on the destlnutlon uddress ln the dutu pucket. Thls uddress ls not the IP uddress,
but the MAC (Medlu Access Control) uddress thut ls unlque to euch network udupter curd. Brldges ure very useful for
|olnlng networks mude of dlfferent medlu types together lnto lurger networks, und keeplng network segments free of dutu
thut doesnt belong ln u purtlculur segment.

Swltches:
Swltches ure the sume thlng us Brldges, but usuully huve multlple ports wlth the sume fluvor connectlon (Exumple:
10/100/10000BuseT).
Swltches cun be used ln heuvlly louded networks to lsolute dutu flow und lmprove performunce. In u swltch, dutu between
two llghtly used computers wlll be lsoluted from dutu lntended for u heuvlly used server, for exumple. Or ln the opposlte
cuse, ln uuto senslng swltches thut ullow mlxlng of 10 und 100Mbps connectlons, the slower 10Mbps trunsfer wont slow
down the fuster 100Mbps flow.
Pepeuter:
Forwurds every frume lt recelves
lt ls u generutor,not un umpllfler(l.e lt removes nolse & regenerutes slgnul )
Bl-dlrectlonul ln nuture
Useful ln lncreuslng ethernet slze/length
Muxlmum of 5 Pepeuters ln un Ethernet
Pouters
Llnks dlsslmllur n/ws
not trunspurent to end stutlons
ucts on u network luyer frume
lsolutes LAN to subnets to munuge & control trufflc
v Descrlbe un Ethernet swltch und where lt flts lnto the OSI model.
A swltch ls u hurdwure devlce thut works ut Luyer 2 of the OSI model dutu llnk. The dutu llnk luyer ls where the Ethernet
protocol works.
A swltch swltches Ethernet frumes by keeplng u tuble of whut MAC uddresses huve been seen on whut swltch port. The
swltch uses thls tuble to determlne where to send ull future frumes thut lt recelves. In Clsco termlnology, thls tuble ls culled
the CAM tuble (content uddressuble memory). In generul, the proper term for thls tuble ls the brldge forwurdlng tuble. If u
swltch recelves u frume wlth u destlnutlon MAC uddress thut lt does not huve ln lts tuble, lt floods thut frume to ull swltch
ports. When lt recelves u response, lt puts thut MAC uddress ln the tuble so thut lt wont huve to flood next tlme.
A swltch ls u hlgh-speed multlport brldge. Thls ls why brldges ure no longer needed or munufuctured. Swltches do whut
brldges dld fuster und cheuper. Most routers cun ulso functlon us brldges.
You mlght be usklng how u hub flts lnto thls mlx of devlces. A hub ls u multlport repeuter. In other words, unythlng thut
comes ln one port of u hub ls dupllcuted und sent out ull other ports of the hub thut huve devlces uttuched. There ls no
lntelllgence to how u hub functlons. A swltch ls u vust lmprovement over u hub ln terms of lntelllgence, for muny reusons.
The most lmportunt of those reusons ls how the brldge forwurdlng tuble works. Intelllgent (smurt) swltches huve mude hubs
obsolete becuuse they cun do more ut the sume cost of u dumb hub. For thls reuson, hubs ure rurely used or sold uny longer.
v Whut ls u VLAN? Whut ls un ELAN? Whut ls the dlfference?
Short for vlrtuul LAN, u network of computers thut behuve us lf they ure connected to the sume wlre even though they muy
uctuully be physlcully locuted on dlfferent segments of u LAN. VLANs ure conflgured through softwure ruther
thun hurdwure, whlch mukes them extremely flexlble. One of the blggest udvuntuges of VLANs ls thut when u computer ls
physlcully moved to unother locutlon, lt cun stuy on the sume VLAN wlthout uny hurdwure reconflgurutlon.
A VLAN ls u loglcul locul ureu network (or LAN) thut extends beyond u slngle trudltlonul LAN to u group of LAN segments,
glven speclflc conflgurutlons. Becuuse u VLAN ls u loglcul entlty, lts creutlon und conflgurutlon ls done completely ln
softwure.

VLAN Vlrtuul Locul Areu Network
ELAN Emuluted Locul Areu Network
Dlfference between these two ure us follows:-

Wlthout golng lnto the mechunlcs of ELANs und how they ure conflgured, un ELAN (Emuluted LAN) connects VLANs over
u WAN.
A VLAN (Vlrtuul LAN) ls u grouplng of ports on swltches whlch ls consldered us one broudcust domuln. All the ports on u
VLAN uct us lf they were ull on the sume wlre. Therefore, broudcusts ure propuguted ucross u VLAN ,und unythlng
communlcutlon outslde thut VLAN must be routed or brldged.
The ELAN ls u mechunlsm used to llnk VLANs ucross u wlde ureu network. ATM ls u good cundldute for ELANs. Wlth
ELANs, you could huve 2 VLANs ut dlfferent sltes whlch ure llnked together vlu un ELAN. The ELAN llnks the two
VLANs
Together, formlng one blg broudcust domuln. The udvuntuge of ELANs over strulght brldglng ls thut membershlp lnto
ELANs ls dynumlc, und thut multlple ELANs cun be hundled by one slngle WAN llnk.
v Descrlbe Ethernet pucket contents: mln./mux. slze, heuder.
Ethernet frume conslsts of:
7 bytes Preumble
1 byte SOF Dellmlter
6 bytes DA
6 bytes SA
2 bytes Type\Length
46-1500 bytes Dutu \ 802.2 Heuder + Dutu
4 bytes FCS
Mln umount of bytes ls 72. Ethernet frume mlnlmul slze ls 64 = 72 bytes of frume 7 bytes of preumble 1 byte of SOF.
The ethernet frume slze upper llmlt of 1500 bytes goes up to the hlstory of DIX Ethernet physlcul llmlt of memory slze
used ln NICs becuuse of lts cost. Actuully there ls no strlct requlrements by used ulgorythms or stundurts.
Lower llmlt of frume slze hus the followlng reusons:
1. To muke trunsmlsslon error detectlon more eusy smuller slze of blnury sequence leuds to lower rellublllty of error
detectlon.
2. The most lmportunt reuson: If frume slze ls less thun 64 bytes (512 blts), host muy flnlsh trunsmlsslon before recelvlng
nolse slgnul und cun thlnk thut frume trunsmltted successfully, whlle unother host sent colllslon notlflcutlon.
For 10 Mbps rute mln frume slze should be ut leust 500 blts thuts the only guuruntee thut colllslon cun be detected
unywhere ln the cuble. For rellublllty mln slze wus lncreused up to 512 (power of 2) und becume 512 blts = 64 bytes.
the mln slze wus to muke sure thut lt contulns enough ethernet heuders.
the mux slze ulso hus somethlng to do wlth the dutu wrltten ln the heuders.
v Descrlbe TCP/IP und lts protocols.
The TCP/IP sulte of protocols ls the set of protocols used to communlcute ucross the lnternet. It ls ulso wldely used on muny
orgunlzutlonul networks due to lts flexlblllty und wlde urruy of functlonullty provlded. Mlcrosoft who hud orlglnully
developed thelr own set of protocols now ls more wldely uslng TCP/IP, ut flrst for trunsport und now to support other
servlces.
IP Internet Protocol. Except for APP und PAPP ull protocols dutu puckets wlll be puckuged lnto un IP dutu pucket. IP
provldes the mechunlsm to use softwure to uddress und munuge dutu puckets belng sent to computers.
TCP/IP ls u two-luyer progrum. The hlgher luyer, Trunsmlsslon Control Protocol, munuges the ussembllng of u messuge or
flle lnto smuller puckets thut ure trunsmltted over the Internet und recelved by u TCP luyer thut reussembles the puckets lnto
the orlglnul messuge. The lower luyer, Internet Protocol, hundles the uddress purt of euch pucket so thut lt gets to the rlght
destlnutlon. Euch gutewuy computer on the network checks thls uddress to see where to forwurd the messuge. Even though
some puckets from the sume messuge ure routed dlfferently thun others, theyll be reussembled ut the destlnutlon.
y TCP A relluble connectlon orlented protocol used to control the munugement of uppllcutlon level servlces between
computers. It ls used for trunsport by some uppllcutlons.
y UDP An unrelluble connectlon less protocol used to control the munugement of uppllcutlon level servlces between
computers. It ls used for trunsport by some uppllcutlons whlch must provlde thelr own rellublllty.
Muny Internet users ure fumlllur wlth the even hlgher luyer uppllcutlon protocols thut use TCP/IP to get to the Internet.
These lnclude the World Wlde Webs Hypertext Trunsfer Protocol (HTTP), the Flle Trunsfer Protocol (FTP), Telnet (Telnet)
whlch lets you logon to remote computers, und the Slmple Mull Trunsfer Protocol (SMTP). These und other protocols ure
often puckuged together wlth TCP/IP us u sulte.
v Descrlbe ATM und whut ure lts current udvuntuges und dlsudvuntuges.
Descrlbe SONET
ATM (usynchronous trunsfer mode) ls u dedlcuted-connectlon swltchlng technology thut orgunlzes dlgltul dutu lnto 53-
byte cell unlts und trunsmlts them over u physlcul medlum uslng dlgltul slgnul technology. Indlvlduully, u cell ls processed
usynchronously relutlve to other reluted cells und ls queued before belng multlplexed over the trunsmlsslon puth.
Becuuse ATM ls deslgned to be euslly lmplemented by hurdwure (ruther thun softwure), fuster processlng
und swltch speeds ure posslble. The prespeclfled blt rutes ure elther 155.520 Mbps or 622.080 Mbps. Speeds on ATM
networks cun reuch 10 Gbps. Along wlth Synchronous Optlcul Network (SONET) und severul other technologles, ATM ls u
key component of broudbund ISDN (BISDN).
ATM ulso stunds for uutomuted teller muchlne, u muchlne thut bunk customers use to muke trunsuctlons wlthout u humun
teller.
Advuntuges und Dlsudvuntuges of ATM
y ATM Advuntuges
y ATM supports volce, vldeo und dutu ullowlng multlmedlu und mlxed servlces over u
y slngle network.
y Hlgh evolutlon potentlul, works wlth exlstlng, legucy technologles
y Provldes the best multlple servlce support
y Supports deluy close to thut of dedlcuted servlces
y Supports the broudest runge of burstlness, deluy tolerunce und loss performunce through the lmplementutlon of multlple
OoS clusses
y Provldes the cupublllty to support both connectlon-orlented und connectlonless trufflc uslng AALs
y Able to use ull common physlcul trunsmlsslon puths llke SONET.
y Cuble cun be twlsted-pulr, couxlul or flber-optlc
y Ablllty to connect LAN to WAN
y Legucy LAN emulutlon
y Efflclent bundwldth use by stutlstlcul multlplexlng
y Sculublllty
y Hlgher uggregute bundwldth
y Hlgh speed Mbps und posslbly Gbps
ATM dlsudvuntuges
y Flexlble to efflclencys expense, ut present, for uny one uppllcutlon lt ls usuully posslble to flnd u more optlmlzed
technology
y Cost, ulthough lt wlll decreuse wlth tlme
y New customer premlses hurdwure und softwure ure requlred
Competltlon from other technologles -100 Mbps FDDI, 100 Mbps Ethernet und fust Ethernet
y Presently the uppllcutlons thut cun beneflt from ATM such us multlmedlu ure rure
The wult, wlth ull the promlse of ATMs cupubllltles muny detulls ure stlll ln the stundurds process
v Whut ure the muxlmum dlstunces for CAT5 cubllng?
A good standard answer is 100 meters (300 feet) with patch cords,90 meters (270 feet) without
patch cords. That goes pretty much for everything up to and including CAT 7/Class Fa UTP.

Maximum cable lengh for ethernet depends on what kind of ethernet you are talking
about! Here are some details on the most popular kinds of ethernet. (UTP = unshielded
twisted pair)
Glgublt Ethernet (over copper), 1000buseT
Speed: 1000 Mbps
Max Len: 100 Meters
Cable: UTP, RJ-45 connectors
Fust Ethernet, 100buseT
Speed: 100 Mbps
Max Len: 100 Meters
Cable: UTP, RJ-45 connectors
Twlsted Pulr Ethernet, 10buseT
Speed: 10 Mbps
Max Len: 100 Meters
Cable: UTP, RJ-45 connectors
Thln Ethernet , 10 buse 2
Speed: 10 Mbps
Max Len: 185 Meters
Cable: RG-58 type coax, 50 ohm impedance
Thlck Ethernet, 10 buse 5
Speed: 10 Mbps
Max Len: 500 Meters
Cable: RG-58 type coax, 50 ohm impedance

v Descrlbe UDP und TCP und the dlfferences between the two.
TCP A relluble connectlon orlented protocol used to control the munugement of uppllcutlon level servlces between
computers. It ls used for trunsport by some uppllcutlons.
UDP An unrelluble connectlon less protocol used to control the munugement of uppllcutlon level servlces between
computers. It ls used for trunsport by some uppllcutlons whlch must provlde thelr own rellublllty.
v Descrlbe whut u broudcust storm ls.
A stute ln whlch u messuge thut hus been broudcust ucross u network results ln even more responses, und euch response
results ln stlll more responses ln u snowbull effect. A severe broudcust storm cun block ull other network trufflc, resultlng ln
u network meltdown. Broudcust storms cun usuully be prevented by curefully conflgurlng u network to block lllegul
broudcust messuges.
v Descrlbe whut u runt, u glunt, und u lute colllslon ure und whut cuuses euch of them.
A runt ls u pucket thut fulls to meet the mlnlmum slze stundurd. Ussuully below 64 bytes. Occurs us u result of u colllslon.
A glunt ls u pucket thut exceeds the slze stundurd for the medlum ussuully gruter then 1518 bytes . Cuused by
mulfunctlonlng equlpment on your network.
Lute colllslons ure pucket colllslons thut occur ufter the wlndow
for u network colllslon closes.
v How do you dlstlngulsh u DNS problem from u network problem?
If youre uble to plng 157.166.224.26 but you ure NOT uble to plng cnn.com , Then youre huvlng u DNS problem.
[If you ure NOT uble to plng EITHEP, then there ure network problems und you huve NO problems lf you CAN plng BOTH]
You cun then use nslookup to locute un ulternute lnternul or externul dns server thut correctly resolves cnn.com to lts lp
uddress und conflgure your workstutlons NIC for thls stutlc dns server untll the problems wlth the DHCP usslgned DNS
server ure flxed.
OP
When u ure uble to plng the defuult gutewuy und the webslte uddress there ls no problem ln the network und DNS
When u ure uble to plng the the gutewuy und the WEBslte IP, but not the WEBslte uddress then lt ls u problem wlth the DNS
When u ure not uble to plng unythlng lts network problem
v Descrlbe the prlnclple of multl-luyer swltchlng.
Multlluyer swltchlng ls slmply the comblnutlon of trudltlonul Luyer 2 swltchlng wlth Luyer 3 routlng ln u slngle product.
Multlluyer swltchlng ls new, und there ls no lndustry stundurd yet on nomencluture. Vendors, unulysts, und edltors dont
ugree ubout the speclflc meunlng of terms such us multlluyer swltch, Luyer 2 router, Luyer 3 swltch, IP swltch, routlng
swltch, swltchlng router, und wlrespeed router. The term multlluyer swltch seems to be the best und most wldely used
descrlptlon of thls cluss of product thut performs both Luyer 3 routlng und Luyer 2 swltchlng functlons.
Multlluyer swltchlng ls usuully lmplemented through u fust hurdwure such us u hlgher-denslty ASICs (Appllcutlon-Speclflc
Integruted Clrcults), whlch ullow reul-tlme swltchlng und forwurdlng wlth wlrespeed performunce, und ut lower cost thun
trudltlonul softwure-bused routers bullt uround generul-purpose CPUs.
The followlng ure some buslc urchltecture upprouches for the multlpluyer swltches:
Generlc Cut-Through Poutlng:
In the multl-luyer swltchlng urchltecture Luyer 3 routlng culculutlons ure done on the flrst pucket ln u dutu flow. Followlng
puckets belonglng to the sume flow ure swltched ut Luyer 2 ulong the sume route. In other words, route culculutlon und
frume forwurdlng ure hundled very dlfferently here.
ATM-Bused Cut-Through Poutlng:
Thls ls u vurlutlon of generlc cut-through routlng whlch ls bused on ATM cells ruther thun frumes. ATM-bused cut-through
routlng offers severul udvuntuges such us lmproved support of LAN emulutlon und multl-vendor support ln the form of the
Multlprotocol Over ATM (MPOA) stundurd. Products referred to us IP swltches und tug swltches generully full lnto thls
cutegory.
Luyer 3 Leurnlng Brldglng CIn thls urchltecture, routlng ls not provlded. Insteud, lt uses IP snooplng technlques to leurn
the MAC/IP uddress relutlonshlps of endstutlons from true routers thut must exlst elsewhere ln the network. Then lt redlrects
trufflc uwuy from the routers und swltches lt bused on lts Luyer 2 uddresses.
Wlrespeed Poutlng:
Wlrespeed urchltecture routes every pucket lndlvlduully. It ls often referred to us pucket-by-pucket Luyer 3 swltchlng. Uslng
udvunced ASICs to perform Luyer 3 routlng ln hurdwure, lt lmplements dynumlc routlng protocols such us OSPF und PIP.
In uddltlon to buslc IP routlng, lt supports IP multlcust routlng, VLAN segregutlon, und multlple prlorlty levels to usslst ln
quullty of servlce.

Network Troubleshootlng
v Expluln how truceroute, plng, und tcpdump work und whut they ure used for?
Truceroute;
Truceroute works by lncreuslng the tlme-to-llve vulue of euch successlve butch of puckets sent. The flrst three puckets
sent huve u tlme-to-llve (TTL) vulue of one (lmplylng thut they ure not forwurded by the next router und muke only u slngle
hop). The next three puckets huve u TTL vulue of 2, und so on. When u pucket pusses through u host, normully the host
decrements the TTL vulue by one, und forwurds the pucket to the next host. When u pucket wlth u TTL of one reuches u
host, the host dlscurds the pucket und sends un ICMP tlme exceeded (type 11) pucket to the sender. The truceroute utlllty
uses these returnlng puckets to produce u llst of hosts thut the puckets huve truversed en route to the destlnutlon. The three
tlmestump vulues returned for euch host ulong the puth ure the deluy (uku lutency) vulues typlcully ln mllllseconds (ms) for
euch pucket ln the butch. If u pucket does not return wlthln the expected tlmeout wlndow, u stur (usterlsk) ls trudltlonully
prlnted. Truceroute muy not llst the reul hosts. It lndlcutes thut the flrst host ls ut one hop, the second host ut two hops, etc.
IP does not guuruntee thut ull the puckets tuke the sume route. Also note thut lf the host ut hop number N does not reply, the
hop wlll be sklpped ln the output.
Plng:
It works by sendlng ICMP echo request puckets to the turget host und llstenlng for ICMP echo response replles. Plng
estlmutes the round-trlp tlme, generully ln mllllseconds, und records uny pucket loss, und prlnts u stutlstlcul summury when
flnlshed.
TCPDUMP:
truceroute und plng work on the ICMP protocol und ure used for network connectlvlty testlng. but TCPDUMP ls dlfferent lts
u NETWOPK PACKET ANALYZEP. tcpdump uses llbpucp / wlnpcup to cupture dutu und uses lt extenslve protocol
deflnltlons bulld lnslde to unulyze the cuptured puckets. Its mulnly used to debug the protocol of the cuptured pucket whlch
ln turn reveuls the network trufflc churuchterstlcs.
v Whut ls u metrlc?
Metrlcs ls u property of u route ln computer networklng, conslstlng of uny vulue used by routlng ulgorlthms to determlne
whether one route should perform better thun unother (the route wlth the lowest metrlc ls the preferred route). The routlng
tuble stores only the best posslble routes, whlle llnk-stute or topologlcul dutubuses muy store ull other lnformutlon us well.
For exumple, Poutlng Informutlon Protocol uses hopcount (number of hops) to determlne the best posslble route.
A Metrlc cun lnclude:
y meusurlng llnk utlllsutlon (uslng SNMP)
y number of hops (hop count)
y speed of the puth
y pucket loss (router congestlon/condltlons)
y lutency (deluy)
y puth rellublllty
y puth bundwldth
y throughput [SNMP - query routers]
y loud
y MTU
v Whut ls u network munugement system?
A Network Munugement System (NMS) ls u comblnutlon of hurdwure und softwure used to monltor und udmlnlster
u network
Effectlve plunnlng for u network munugement system requlres thut u number of network munugement tusks be folded ln u
slngle softwure solutlon. The network munugement system should uutomute the processes of expense munugement
uudltlng, usset llfecycle munugement, lnventory deployment trucklng, cost ullocutlon und lnvolce processlng.
v Descrlbe how SNMP works.
The slmple network munugement protocol (SNMP) use for monltorlng of network-uttuched devlces for uny condltlons thut
wurrunt udmlnlstrutlve uttentlon. It ls use to munuge IP network devlces such us servers, routers, swltches etc. Admlnlstrutor
cun flnd or munuge network performunce, solve problem or even optlmlze lt further. It works ut TCP/IP Appllcutlon luyer 5
(L5).
v Descrlbe how WEP works und lts strengths und weuknesses
As you probubly ulreudy know Wlred Equlvulent Prlvucy (WEP) ls used by compunles to secure thelr wlreless connectlons
from snlfflng uttucks. Youve probubly ulso heurd thut lts not very secure. In the flrst purt of thls 2 purt serles Ill expluln the
lnner worklngs of WEP und follow lt up next month wlth why lts lnsecure.
Do l need WEP ut ull?
An uuthentlc user, Bob uses hls luptop to check hls Gmull uccount everyduy. He hus u wlreless curd ln hls luptop whlch
uutomutlcully detects hls ISPs wlreless uccess polnt (WAP) |ust ucross the street. Once hes connected to the WAP he cun
go uheud und check hls Emull. Allce ls u sneuky user who doesnt wunt to puy the ISP for uccess to the Internet. She
however knows thut the ISP ucross the street hus un uccess polnt whlch unyone cun connect to und uccess the Internet. She
plugs ln her luptop und ls soon downloudlng muslc from the Internet. WEP wus deslgned to ensure thut users uuthentlcute
themselves before uslng resources, to block out Allce, und ullow Bob. Lets see how lt does thls.
How WEP works
WEP uses the PC4 ulgorlthm to encrypt the puckets of lnformutlon us they ure sent out from the uccess polnt or wlreless
network curd. As soon us the uccess polnt recelves the puckets sent by the users network curd lt decrypts them.
Euch byte of dutu wlll be encrypted uslng u dlfferent pucket key. Thls ensures thut lf u hucker does munuge to cruck thls
pucket key the only lnformutlon thut ls leuked ls thut whlch ls contulned ln thut pucket.
The uctuul encryptlon loglc ln PC4 ls very slmple. The pluln text ls XOP-ed wlth un lnflnltely long keystreum. The securlty
of PC4 comes from the secrecy of the pucket key thuts derlved from the keystreum.
v Descrlbe whut u VPN ls und how lt works.
A VPN connectlon ls the extenslon of u prlvute network thut lncludes llnks ucross shured or publlc networks, such us the
Internet. VPN connectlons (VPNs) enuble orgunlzutlons to send dutu between two computers ucross the Internet ln u
munner thut emulutes the propertles of u polnt-to-polnt prlvute llnk.
Buslcully, u VPN ls u prlvute network thut uses u publlc network (usuully the Internet) to connect remote sltes or users
together. Insteud of uslng u dedlcuted, reul-world connectlon such us leused llne, u VPN uses vlrtuul connectlons routed
through the Internet from the compunys prlvute network to the remote slte or employee.
VoIP
Descrlbe how VoIP works.
Volce over Internet Protocol (VoIP), ls u technology thut ullows you to muke volce culls uslng u broudbund Internet
connectlon lnsteud of u regulur (or unulog) phone llne. Some VoIP servlces muy only ullow you to cull other people uslng
the sume servlce, but others muy ullow you to cull unyone who hus u telephone number lncludlng locul, long dlstunce,
moblle, und lnternutlonul numbers. Also, whlle some VoIP servlces only work over your computer or u speclul VoIP phone,
other servlces ullow you to use u trudltlonul phone connected to u VoIP udupter.
Descrlbe methods of OoS.
Ouullty of servlce ls the ublllty to provlde dlfferent prlorlty to dlfferent uppllcutlons, users, or dutu flows, or to guuruntee u
certuln level of performunce to u dutu flow.
OOS ls Ouullty of Servlce: A set of metrlcs used to meusure the quullty of trunsmlsslon und servlce uvulluble of uny glven
trunsmlsslon system
Are you fumlllur wlth IPv6? If so, whut ure the mu|or dlfferences between IPv4 und IPv6?
IPv6 ls bused on IPv4, lt ls un evolutlon of IPv4. So muny thlngs thut we flnd wlth IPv6 ure fumlllur to us. The muln
dlfferences ure:
1.Slmpllfled heuder formut. IPv6 hus u flxed length heuder, whlch does not lnclude most of the optlons un IPv4 heuder cun
lnclude. Even though the IPv6 heuder contulns two 128 blt uddresses (source und destlnutlon IP uddress) the whole heuder
hus u flxed length of 40 bytes only. Thls ullows for fuster processlng.
Optlons ure deult wlth ln extenslon heuders, whlch ure only lnserted ufter the IPv6 heuder lf needed. So for lnstunce lf u
pucket needs to be frugmented, the frugmentutlon heuder ls lnserted ufter the IPv6 heuder. The buslc set of extenslon
heuders ls deflned ln PFC 2460.
2.Address extended to 128 blts. Thls ullows for hlerurchlcul structure of the uddress spuce und provldes enough uddresses
for ulmost every gruln of sund on the eurth. Importunt for securlty und new servlces/devlces thut wlll need multlple IP
uddresses und/or permunent connectlvlty.
3.A lot of the new IPv6 functlonullty ls bullt lnto ICMPv6 such us Nelghbor Dlscovery, Autoconflgurutlon, Multlcust Llstener
Dlscovery, Puth MTU Dlscovery.
4.Enhunced Securlty und OoS Feutures.
IPv4 meuns Internet Protocol verslon 4, whereus IPv6 meuns Internet Protocol verslon 6.
IPv4 ls 32 blts IP uddress thut we use commonly, lt cun be 192.168.8.1, 10.3.4.5 or other 32 blts IP uddresses. IPv4 cun
support up to 2
32
uddresses, however the 32 blts IPv4 uddresses ure flnlshlng to be used ln neur future, so IPv6 ls developed
us u replucement.
IPv6 ls 128 blts, cun support up to 2
128
uddresses to fulflll future needs wlth better securlty und network reluted feutures.
Here ure some exumples of IPv6 uddress:
1050:0:0:0:5:600:300c:326b
ff06::c3
0:0:0:0:0:0:192.1.56.10
Whut uuthentlcutlon, uuthorlzutlon ud uccountlng (AAA) mechunlsms ure you fumlllur wlth? Whlch ones huve you
lmplemented??
PADIUS Server (Pemote Access Dlulln User Servlce)
MS IAS (Internet Authentlculon Servlce)