Adam C Abinales

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EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA
EARTHQUAKES are one of natures greatest hazards to life; throughout historic time they have caused the destruction of countless cities and villages on nearly every continent in the world. They are the least understood of the natural hazards and in early days were looked upon as supernatural events. The hazards imposed by earthquakes are unique in many respects, and consequently planning to mitigate earthquake hazards requires unique engineering approach. An important distinction of the earthquake problem is that the hazard to life is associated almost entirely with man-made structures. Except for earthquake triggered landslides, the only earthquake effects that cause extensive loss of life are collapses of bridges, buildings, dams and other works of man. However, it is evident that even a successful prediction cannot eliminate the earthquake hazard; even if all the people are evacuated safely, the structures which largely determine the standard of living of the community remain, and their destruction could be as disastrous loss to the regional economy. This aspect of earthquake hazard can be countered only by the design and construction of earthquake resistant structures, and therefore a completely successful earthquake prediction program could not eliminate the need for effective earthquake engineering.
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EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA
Earthquake hazard poses a unique engineering design problem in that an intense earthquake constitutes the most severe loading to which most civil engineering structures might possibly be subjected, and yet the probability that any given structure will ever be affected by a major earthquake is very low. The optimum engineering approach to this combination of conditions is to design the structure as to avoid collapse in the most severe possible earthquake thus ensuring against loss of life but accepting the possibility of damage, on the basis that it is less expensive to repair or replace the small number of structures which will be hit by a major earthquake than to build all structures strong enough to avoid damage. Clearly this design concept presents the structural engineer with a most challenging problem: to provide an economical design which is susceptible to earthquake damage, but which is essentially proof against collapse in the greatest possible earthquake.

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EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA
Another unique feature of the earthquake excitation provides the key to the solution of this design problem. In contrast to the other loads considered in structural design gravity, wind, hydrodynamic, etc. the intensity of the earthquake loading depends on the properties of the structure. Thus adequate earthquake resistance may be provided either by traditional approach of increasing strength, or by the unique seismic design of reducing stiffness and thereby reducing the forces to be resisted. This additional approach to earthquake design imposes a greater need for understanding of structural behavior in earthquake engineering than in any other field of civil engineering design. Seemingly minor changes in the framing system or in design details may have an overwhelming influence on the seismic performance; and merely adding more materials though it will directly increase costs will not guarantee satisfactory performance.

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EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA
Consequences of Earthquake Damage. Two basic results of earthquakes: earthquakes Loss and impairment of human life; and Destruction and damage of the constructed and natural environment. Both financially and technically it is only possible to reduce these hazards for large earthquakes. The basic design aims are therefore confined to the reduction of loss of life in any earthquake, either through structural collapse or through secondary damage such as falling debris or fire, and to the reduction of damage and loss of use of the constructed environment.

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EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA
Consequences of Earthquake Damage. Cost of Earthquake Resistance During the briefing and budgeting stages of the design, the cost of providing earthquake resistance will have to be considered, at least implicitly, and sometimes explicitly. The cost will depend on such things as the type of the project, site conditions, the form of the structure, the seismic activity of the region, and statutory design requirements. A broader economic study of the cost involved in prevention and cure of earthquake damage may be fruitful. In purely economic terms the cost of an earthquake may be examined under three categories: cost of life; cost of damage; and losses through a facility being out of service.

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EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA
Seismic Activity of a Region Seismic Risk Definition of terms used in seismology. seismology The literature relating to earthquakes is afflicted by the lack of precise definitions of fundamental seismological terms as follows: Intensity is a subjective measure of the effects of an earthquake. It refers to the degree of shaking at a specified place. Over the years, various scales have been devised by different people, notably by Mercalli and also by Rossi and Forel. The most widely adopted is the Modified Mercalli scale (commonly denoted M.M) which has 12 grades denoted by Roman numerals I-XII. Magnitude is a quantitative measure of the size of an earthquake, which is dependent of the place of observation. It is calculated from amplitude measurements on seismograms, and is on a logarithmic scale expressed in ordinary numbers and decimals. The most commonly used magnitude scale is named after Richter and is denoted by M. It is defined as
M = log A log A (1.1) 0 where A is the maximum recorded traced magnitude for a given earthquake at a given distance as written by a standard instrument, and A0 is that for a particular earthquake selected as standard. The greatest magnitude yet recorded is M 8.9.
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EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA
Seismic Activity of a Region Seismic Risk Seismic Measurements. Measurements Mercalli Intensity I II III Magnitude 1 to 2 2 to 3 3 to 4 Witness Observations Not felt except by a very few under exceptionally favorable circumstances. Felt by persons at rest, on upper floors, or favorably placed. Felt indoors; hanging objects swing, vibration similar to passing of light trucks; duration may be estimated; may not be recognized as an earthquake. Hanging objects swing; vibration similar to passing of heavy trucks, or sensation of a jolt similar to a heavy ball striking the walls; standing motor cars rock; windows, dishes, and doors rattle; glasses clink and crockery lashes; in the upper range of IV wooden walls and frames creak.
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IV

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EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA
Seismic Activity of a Region Seismic Risk Seismic Measurements. Measurements Mercalli Intensity V Magnitude 4 to 5 Witness Observations Felt outdoors; direction may be estimated; sleepers wakened; liquids disturbed, some spilled; small unstable objects displaced or upset; doors swing, close or open; shutters and pictures move; pendulum clocks stop, start, or change rate. Felt by all; many frightened and run outdoors; walking unsteady; windows, dishes and glassware broken; knickknacks, books, etc. fall from shelves and pictures from walls; furniture moved or overturned; weak plaster and masonry D cracked; small bells ring (church or school); tress and bushes shaken (visibly, or heard to rustle).

VI

5 to 6

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EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA
Seismic Activity of a Region Seismic Risk Seismic Measurements. Measurements Mercalli Intensity VII Magnitude 6 Witness Observations Difficult to stand; noticed by drivers of motor cars; hanging objects quiver; furniture broken; damage to masonry D, including cracks; weak chimneys broken at roof line; fall of plaster, loose bricks, stones, tiles, cornices (also unbraced parapets and architectural ornaments); some cracks in masonry C; waves on ponds; water turbid with mud; small slides and caving in along sand or gravel banks; large bells ring; concrete irrigation ditches damaged. General panic; masonry D destroyed; masonry C heavily damaged, sometimes with complete collapse; masonry B seriously damaged; general damage to foundations; frame structures if not bolted shifted off foundations; frames racked; serious damage to reservoirs; underground pipes broken; conspicuous cracks in grounds; in alluviated areas sand and mud ejected; Page earthquake fountains and sand craters appear. 9/7
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EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA
Seismic Activity of a Region Seismic Risk Seismic Measurements. Measurements Mercalli Intensity X Magnitude 7 to 8 Witness Observations Most masonry and frame structures destroyed with their foundations; some well-built wooden structures and bridges destroyed; serious damage to dams, dikes and embankments; large landslides; water thrown on banks and canals, rivers, lakes, etc.; sand and mud shifted horizontally on beaches and flat land; rails bend slightly. Damage nearly total. Few, if any, structures standing. Bridges destroyed. Wide cracks in ground. Waves seen on ground. Rails bent greatly, underground pipelines completely out of service. Total damage. Waves seen on ground. Large rock masses displaced; lines of sight and level distorted; objects thrown into the air.
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XI

XII

greater than 8

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EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA
Seismic Activity of a Region Seismic Risk Description of Classification of Masonry Structures. Structures Type A Description Masonry of good workmanship and mortar, reinforced especially laterally, and bound together by using steel, concrete, designed to resist lateral forces. Masonry of good workmanship and mortar, reinforced but not designed in detail to resist lateral forces. Masonry of ordinary workmanship and mortar, no extreme weaknesses like failing to tie in at corners, but neither reinforced nor designed against horizontal forces. Masonry of weak materials such as adobe, poor mortar, low standard of workmanship, weak horizontally.

B C

Seismology may be defined as the science and study of earthquakes, and their causes, effects and related phenomena.

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EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA
Seismic Activity of a Region Seismic Risk Regional Geology. Geology Geological evidence of the seismic activity of a region is a valuable tool in the evaluation of seismic risk. It is helpful in estimating the likely magnitude, locations and frequency of seismic events. Also, by indicating the type of fault movement prevalent on a given fault, some of the characteristics of the ground motions in the fault vicinity may be anticipated. Regional earthquake geology involves a study of tectonic deformations. The term tectonic refers to rock structure resulting from deep-seated crustal and sub-crustal forces in the earth. The object of the study of the tectonic deformations will be to determine their nature, position, age and movement history. The main geological features to be studied are Warping Tilting Faulting Tectonic structure

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EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA
Seismic Activity of a Region Seismic Risk Tilting is helpful in determining the amount and recency of crustal movement in a region, and is measured by the slope of beds which are known to have been originally deposited almost horizontally. Faulting. The three main features of faulting relevant to earthquake engineering are Faulting location, activity and type. Fault Location. In most seismically active areas faulting is the main source of Location information regarding seismic risk. This is partly because faults are relatively easy to describe and sensitive to the measurement of movement, and partly because they provide the focus of energy release in most earthquakes. Faulting Activity. Uppermost in the engineers mind is the question Will this Activity fault move during the lifetime of my project? In some faults there is evidence that continuous creep movement is taking place, and although this may mean that no large earthquake will occur on that particular fault while strainenergy is being greatly released, it is clear that few structures should be built across the fault. In most cases the best answer the geologist may be able to give is to estimate when the most recent significant movements occurred. For faults which have not been known to move in historical times, this is done by dating the youngest soil deposit displaying a fault displacement by examining a section through the fault zone.
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EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA
Seismic Activity of a Region Seismic Risk Faults are sometimes classified as active or inactive for engineering purposes. Some faults may be unarguably called active, where several movements have been recorded in recent times such as on the Valley Fault System traversing from Quezon City (northern side) to Laguna. Types of Fault. It appears that the characteristics of strong ground motion in the Fault general vicinity of the causative fault can be strongly influenced by the type of faulting. The following four types are considered in the study of destructive earthquakes: low-angle, compressive, underthrust faults. These result from tectonic seafaults bed plates spreading apart and thrusting under the adjacent continental plates, a phenomenon common to much of the circum-Pacific earthquake belt;

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EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA
Seismic Activity of a Region Seismic Risk compressive, overthrust faults. Compressive forces cause shearing failure faults forcing the upper portion upwards;

extensional faults. This is the inverse of the previous type, extensional strains faults pulling the upper block down the sloping fault plane; and

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EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA
Seismic Activity of a Region Seismic Risk strike-slip faults. Relative horizontal displacement of the two sides of the fault faults takes place along an essential vertically fault plane.

Tectonic Structures. Further general information about seismicity may be derived Structures from the relationship of the site to tectonic structure. It has been pointed out that the majority of large shallow earthquakes occur in ocean-facing slopes of deepsea trenches, or in local depressions or troughs or ends of depressions. The magnitude and frequency of earthquakes in a given area may be derived in broad terms from the size and strength of the fault blocks. The larger and stronger the block, the larger is the maximum size of earthquake which can be generated along the boundaries of that block. Also the greater the rate of tectonic movement and the less the competency of the tectonic structures, the more rapid is the build up of the stress needed for a fault movement, and the more frequent will be the occurrence of the maximum magnitude of earthquake for that structure. 16/7 Page
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Appendices

Seismic Zone Map of the Philippines (Section 208, NSCP 5th Edition) Distribution of Active Faults in the Philippines (Section 208, NSCP 5th Edition) Active Faults in Northern Philippines (Section 208, NSCP 5th Edition) Active Faults in East Central Philippines (Section 208, NSCP 5th Edition) Active Faults in West Central Philippines (Section 208, NSCP 5th Edition) Active Faults in Southern Philippines (Section 208, NSCP 5th Edition)

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