2141-375 Measurement and Instrumentation

Analog Electrical Devices and Measurements

Analog Devices: Current Measurements

Force on a conductor
I
A conductor is placed in a uniform magnetic field B T, at an angle of . The current flow in the conductor is I A. Force exerted on the conductor can be calculated from

r r r F = IL B
F

F = ILB sin
B

Analog Devices: Current Measurements

Force on a conductor
With no current flowing through the conductor, the spring will be at its outstretched length. As current flows through the conductor, the spring will stretch and developed force required to balance the electromagnetic force.

I B

Fs = kx I

kx = ILB
k = spring constant, x = the total distance moved by the spring and is 90o

F = IBL

I=

k x BL

DArsonval or PMMC Instrument

Important parts of PMMC Instrument Permanent magnet with two softiron poles Moving coil Controlling or restoring spring

Torque Equation and Scale

When a current I flows through a one-turn coil in a magnetic field , a force exerted on each side of the coil

F = IBL F = IBL F = IBL

D
L = the length of coil perpendicular to the paper

Since the force acts on each side of the coil, the total force for a coil of N turns is

F = NIBL

The force on each side acts at a coil diameter D, producing a deflecting torque

TD = NIBLD

Torque Equation and Scale

The controlling torque exerted by the spiral springs is proportional to the angle of deflection of the pointer:

TC = K
Where K = the spring constant. For a given deflection, the controlling and deflecting torques are equal

BLIND = K
Since all quantities except and I are constant for any given instrument, the deflection angle is

= CI
Therefore the pointer deflection is always proportional to the coil current. Consequently, the scale of the instrument is linear.

Galvanometer
Galvanometer is essentially a PMMC instrument designed to be sensitive to extremely current levels. The simplest galvanometer is a very sensitive instrument with the type of center-zero scale, therefore the pointer can be deflected to either right or left of the zero position. The current sensitivity is stated in A/mm

DC Ammeter
An ammeter is always connected in series with a circuit.
PMMC instrument

The internal resistance should be very low The pointer can be deflected by a very small current Extension of ranges of ammeter can be achieved by connecting a very low shunt resistor

Ammeter shunt

Rs Coil resistance Im Is Rm

Vm = Vs
Vm Shunt resistance I

I m Rm = I s Rs I m Rm Rs = I Im

I = I s + Im

Rs

I m Rm Rs = Is

DC Ammeter
Example: An ammeter has a PMMC instrument with a coil resistance of Rm = 99 and FSD current of 0.1 mA. Determine the total current passing through the ammeter at (a) FSD, (b) 0.5 FSD, and (c) 0.25 FSD.

Known: FSD of Im Rm and Rs Solution:

Im (mA) Is (mA) I = Im + Is (mA)

0.1 9.9 10

0.05 4.95 5

0.025 2.475 2.5

DC Ammeter: Multirange
Rm Rs1 Rs2 Rs3 Rs4 D E A C B

C D E

Make-before break switch

Multirange ammeter using switch shunts A make-before-break must be used so that instrument is not left without a shunt in parallel to prevent a large current flow through ammeter.

DC Ammeter: Ayrton shunt

Rm Im Im R1 Is VS R2 R3 C A D B

+
I

Is

R1 + R2 + R3 in parallel with Rm
Rm Im Im R1 Is

An Ayrton shunt used with an ammeter consists of several seriesconnected resistors all connected in parallel with the PMMC instrument. Range change is effected by switch between resistor junctions

VS R2 R3 C

I B A D

+
I

Is

R1 + R2 in parallel with Rm + R3

DC Ammeter
Example: A PMMC instrument has FSD of 100 A and a coil resistance of 1k. Calculate the required shunt resistance value to convert the instrument into an ammeter with (a) FSD = 100 mA and (b) FSD = 1 A.

Known: FSD of Im Rm Solution:

DC Ammeter
Example: A PMMC instrument has a three-resistor Ayrton shunt connected across it to make an ammeter. The resistance values are R1 = 0.05 , R2 = 0.45 , and R3 = 4.5 . The meter has Rm = 1 k and FSD = 50 A. Calculate the three ranges of the ammeter.

Known: FSD of Im Rm R1 R2 and R3 Solution:

DC Voltmeter
PMMC instrument

An ammeter is always connected across or parallel with the points in a circuit at which the voltage is to be measured. The internal resistance should be very high

V = I m Rs + I m Rm
Series resistance or multiplier

Rs = Range Rm Im

V Rm Im

Given V = Range
V

Rs =

Multiplier resistance

Coil resistance

Rs Im

Rm

The reciprocal of full scale current is the voltmeter sensitivity (k/V) The total voltmeter resistance = Sensitivity X Range

DC Voltmeter: Multirange
Multiplier resistors

R1
Meter resistance

Multirange voltmeter using switched multiplier resistors

R2 R3

Rm

V = I m (Rm + R)
Where R can be R1, R2, or R3

Rm

R1

R2

R3

Multirange voltmeter using seriesconnected multiplier resistor

V = I m (Rm + R)
Where R can be R1, R1 + R2, or R1 + R2 + R3
V

DC Ammeter
Example: A PMMC instrument with FSD of 50 A and a coil resistance of 1700 is to be used as a voltmeter with ranges of 10 V, 50 V, and 100 V. Calculate the required values of multiplier resistor for the circuit (a) and (b)

Known: FSD of Im Rm Solution:

Multiplier resistors

R1
Meter resistance

R2 R3

Rm

R1

R2

R3

Rm

(a)

(b)

Ohmmeter: Voltmeter-ammeter method

Pro and con: Simple and theoretical oriented Requires two meter and calculations Subject to error: Voltage drop in ammeter (Fig. (a)) Current in voltmeter (Fig. (b))
+ + VS V V VA A I Rx Vx -

+ V V -

IV

Ix Rx

VS
-

Fig. (a)

Fig. (b) Measured Rx: Rmeas = if Ix>>IV

V V + VA V = Rx + A Measured Rx: Rmeas = = x I I I Rmeas Rx if Vx>>VA

Therefore this circuit is suitable for measure large resistance

Rx V V = = I I x + IV 1 + IV / I x

Rmeas Rx

Therefore this circuit is suitable for measure small resistance

Ohmmeter: Series Connection

Voltmeter-ammeter method is rarely used in practical applications (mostly used in Laboratory) Ohmmeter uses only one meter by keeping one parameter constant Example: series ohmmeter
Resistance to be measured Standard resistance

Nonlinear scale
15k 50
75 5k

Rx
Battery

R1 Rm

k 45
Meter Infinity resistance Meter

25

VS
Rx = Vs R1 Rm I

0 10

A 0

Basic series ohmmeter

Ohmmeter scale

Basic series ohmmeter consisting of a PMMC and a series-connected standard resistor (R1). When the ohmmeter terminals are shorted (Rx = 0) meter full scale defection occurs. At half scale defection Rx = R1 + Rm, and at zero defection the terminals are open-circuited.

Loading Effect: Voltage Measurement

a Linear Circuit

Rth

Vab

Rm

Vth

Vab

Rm

Undisturbed condition: Rm = Measured condition: Rm General equation: Measurement error:

Vab = Vu = Vth
Vab = Vm = Vm = Rm Vth Rm + Rth

1 Vu 1 + Rth / Rm Vm Vu 100 Vu Rth 1 = 100% = 100% 1 + Rm / Rth Rm + Rth

error =

Therefore, in practice, to get the acceptable results, we must have Rm 10 Rth (error ~ 9%)

Loading Effect
R1
100k

5V 10 V

100k

6.7 V

10 V R2
100k

5V

100k

3.3 V V
Vmeas =

100k

100 // 100 10 V = 3.3 V 100 + 100 // 100

Circuit before measurement

Circuit under measurement

100k

6V 10 V

100k

5.2 V

10 V
100k

4V

200k

100k

4.8 V V

1000k

Vmeas =

200 // 100 10 V = 4.0 V 100 + 200 // 100

Vmeas =

1000 // 100 10 V = 4.8 V 100 + 1000 // 100

Loading Effect
Example Find the voltage reading and % error of each reading obtained with a voltmeter on (i) 5 V range, (ii) 10 V range and (iii) 30 V range, if the instrument has a 20 k/V sensitivity, an accuracy 1% of full scale deflection and the meter is connected across Rb SOLUTION The voltage drop across Rb with out the voltmeter connection

Vb =

Rb 5k V= 50 = 5 V 45 k + 5 k Ra + Rb

Ra
45k

On the 5 V range 45 V

Rm = S range = 20 k 5 V = 100 k
Req = Rm Rb 100 k 5 k = = 4.76 k Rm + Rb 100 k + 5 k
Req Ra + Req V= 4.76 k 50 = 4.782 V 45 k + 4.76 k

50 V Rb
5k

5V

The voltmeter reading is

Vb =

Loading Effect
Error of the measurement is the combination of the loading effect and the meter error The loading error = 4.782 - 5 = -0. 218 V The meter error = 5 x 1 = 0.05 V 100 % of error on the 5 V range:

0.218 V 0.05 V 100 = 5.36% 5V

Range (V) 5 10 30

Vb . (V) 4.78 4.88 4.95

Loading error (V) -0.22 -0.12 -0.05

Meter error (V) 0.05 0.1 0.3

Total error (V) 0.27 0.22 0.35

% error 5.36 4.40 6.10

Loading Effect: Current Measurement

a Linear Circuit I

Rth

Vab

Rm

Vth

Vab

Rm

Undisturbed condition: Rm = 0 Measured condition: Rm 0 General equation: Measurement error:

I = I u = Vth / Rth

I = I m = Vth / (Rth + Rm )
I m = I u / (1 + Rm / Rth )

error =

Im Iu 100 Iu Rm 1 = 100% = 100% Rm + Rth 1 + Rth / Rm

Therefore, in practice, to get the acceptable results, we must have Rm Rth /10 (error ~ 9%)

AC Voltmeter: PMMC Based

Waveform Amplitude Average 0 RMS

A A A A A A
D W

A 2 A 2 A 2 A 3
A

2A

0 0

D A D +W

D A D +W

AC Voltmeter: PMMC Based

Basic PMMC instrument is polarized, therefore its terminals must be identified as + and -. PMMC instrument can not response quite well with the frequency 50 Hz or higher, So the pointer will settle at the average value of the current flowing through the moving coil: average-responding meter.

Full-wave Rectifier Voltmeter

Multiplier resistors

Using 4 diodes On positive cycle, D1 and D4 are forward-biased, while D2 and D3 are reverse-biased On negative cycle, D2 and D3 are forward-biased, while D1 and D4 are reverse-biased The scale is calibrated for pure sine with the scale factor of 1.11 (A/2 / 2A/)

Rs

D1

D3

Rm Vrms Vav

Vp

D2

D4

AC Voltmeter: PMMC Based

Example: A PMMC instrument has FSD of 100 A and a coil resistance of 1k is to be employed as an ac voltmeter with FSD = 100 V (rms). Silicon diodes are used in the full-bridge rectifier circuit (a) calculate the multiplier resistance value required, (b) the position of the pointer when the rms input is 75 V and (c) the sensitivity fo the voltmeter

Known: FSD of Im Rm Solution:

AC Voltmeter: PMMC Based

Half-wave Rectifier Voltmeter
Rs D1 Rm D2 RSH Vp Vrms Vav

On positive cycle, D1 is forward-biased, while D2 is reverse-biased On negative cycle, D2 is forward-biased, while D1 is reverse-biased The shunt resistor RSH is connected to be able to measure the relative large current. The scale is calibrated for pure sine with the scale factor of 2.22 (A/2 / A/)