2.

Minimum IAQ Performance

This Core Performance requirement recognizes the need for a coherent and workable management system to ensure that safe indoor environmental quality is achieved and maintained during construction and operation of each Advanced Building. The presence and use of these plans substantially reduces potential liabilities related to IAQ issues. DESCRIPTION Occupied buildings must be ventilated to remove carbon dioxide from breathing, odors, and other pollutants and gases that can build up in the indoor environment (i.e., volatile organic compounds or VOCs). The national consensus standard for outside air ventilation is ASHRAE Standard 62. The simplest interpretation of Standard 62 is to provide a minimum rate of outside air for each occupant in the space. The average rate is around 15 cfm/person, but the recommended rate is higher for some occupancy categories such as pharmacies and health clubs and lower for other occupancy categories such as auditorium seating and courtrooms. OUTDOOR AIR CONTROL TECHNIQUE Ventilation that meets ASHRAE Standard 62.1-2001 minimums is required for all spaces when they are normally occupied. For constant air volume systems, such as those that use small packaged rooftop units, compliance with ventilation requirements is straightforward. However, providing code-minimum ventilation throughout the range of operation for variable air volume (VAV) systems is more difficult. The subsequent Design Details section provides guidance on VAV system designs that dynamically adjust outdoor airflow. For spaces with highly variable occupancy, the appropriate control technique might include use of CO2 sensors to adjust the ventilation rate. IAQ MANAGEMENT PLAN DURING CONSTRUCTION Properly managing the construction of a building can be key to preventing IAQ problems later. A welldeveloped and implemented IAQ management plan will address construction IAQ management while portions of the building are occupied. Develop and implement a construction IAQ management plan that follows the guidance of SMACNAs IAQ Guideline for Occupied Buildings Under Construction. Also, see State of Colorado Construction Management Plan Guidelines. The National Institute for Building Sciences (www.nibs.org) manages the Whole Building Design Guide (www.wbdg.org), a web-based portal providing government and industry practitioners with one-stop access to up-to-date information on a wide range of building-related guidance, criteria and technology from a whole buildings perspective. Currently, WBDG is organized into three major categories Design Guidance, Project Management and Operations & Maintenance. It is a mix of guidance, advice and requirements for federal facilities that can be transferred as needed to all commercial buildings. For IAQ issues, see the Federal Green Construction Guide for Specifiers. BUILDING FLUSH BEFORE OCCUPANCY Flushing a building with 100% outdoor air prior to occupancy can reduce indoor contaminant levels and improve IAQ. The flush-out period is important because emission rates from materials and finishes are typically highest during the first few days following installation. Provide as much outdoor air as possible while maintaining space temperatures near design indoor conditions (6578F). Flush the building continuously for two weeks prior to occupancy. It is acceptable for punch-list and commissioning activities to occur in the building during this time, but the majority of construction should be complete. In some locations the climate will affect the ability to flush the building with 100% outdoor air due to limits of heating or cooling equipment capacity. In cases when initial building occupancy is planned for a time when extreme outdoor temperature may occur, then the system should be designed to allow temporary operation at reduced airflow and 100% outdoor air. If such operation is not practical, then a longer flush out period while operating in mixed air mode is recommended.

IAQ MANAGEMENT PLAN DURING OPERATIONS During building operation, an IAQ management plan will help prevent and resolve any IAQ issues that might arise. Develop and implement an IAQ Management Plan that follows the recommendations of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agencys (EPAs) Indoor Air Divisions document Building Air Quality (see References / Additional Resources). At a minimum, this plan should include the following: Periodic inspections of filters, coils, and outdoor air intakes to check for dirt, mold or other contaminants Periodic measurement and verification of outdoor air ventilation rates Procedures for handling and storing chemicals Procedures for cleaning interior surfaces.

APPLICABILITY Building Type: All

Climate: All

Project Phase(s): Design, Construction, Operation

APPLICABLE CODES Local building codes, local mechanical codes, and local energy codes all have requirements on outside air ventilation. Most reference or include information from Standard 62. INTEGRATED DESIGN IMPLICATIONS If outside air is provided through natural ventilation, then all spaces within the room should be within 25 ft of a window, door, or other ventilation opening, and the total area of ventilation openings should be greater than 4% of the floor area being ventilated. The 25 ft rule also requires that ventilation openings be provided on two sides of large rooms (more than 50 ft wide). Otherwise some portions of the space would be further than 25 ft from a window. It is important to check ventilation requirements in local codes to see if they address the use of natural ventilation. The number of occupants is highly variable in some spaces such as conference rooms, auditoriums, and multi-purpose rooms. In such spaces, it is good practice to vary the quantity of outside air ventilation based on the number of occupants. One technique for doing this is to install carbon dioxide (CO2) sensors that measure CO2 concentrations and vary the volume of outside air accordingly. If an auditorium fills up for a performance, CO2 concentrations will increase, the mechanical system will be signaled, and outside air volumes will be increased accordingly. This type of control can both save energy and significantly improve IAQ. It is already required by energy efficiency codes in California and some other states. The location of ventilation air intakes and exhausts is a critical aspect of building design and sometimes difficult to coordinate or optimize. Outside air intake louvers must be carefully located to avoid pollution from sources such as parking lots, loading docks, adjacent roadways, adjacent building exhaust grilles, sewer vents, or boiler exhaust fumes. Patterns of air movement around buildings can be complex and dynamic. Designers are advised to consult ASHRAE HandbookFundamentals Chapter 15 airflow analysis models for exhaust stack reentrainment modeling. If major sources of industrial pollution exist nearby, more sophisticated models are often used for predicting downwind concentrations of pollutants. In the extreme case of urban settings with multiple building heights, designers should consider building scale models for testing in wind tunnels. IAQ is also affected by the selection of interior finishes and materials, as well as cleaning products. Some materials emit VOCs such as formaldehyde, benzene, etc. Test procedures and protocols are beginning to emerge where samples of materials are chamber-tested to accurately measure chemical emissions.1 If the rate of emissions is known along with the rate of outside air ventilation, then a simple calculation can

One such procedure is referred to as Section 01350 and has been used in several major facilities in California. Other programs include Green Guard and Green Label.

be made to determine if VOCs known to be harmful to humans exceed known reference exposure levels. Cleaning materials can cause hazardous fumes and pose a storage hazard. The design of air distribution ducts and fan systems can also have a significant effect on IAQ. Exposed fiberglass and other porous or flaking materials should never be used on the interior of ducts, unless they are encapsulated with a surface finish that is robust, will not break down from atmospheric ozone exposure (smog), and can be cleaned with a mechanical brush without releasing particles. Open plenum systems (vs. closed ducts) affect IAQ as well; open plenums are susceptible to particles from ceiling tiles, insulation, maintenance procedures, etc. Another issue related to the design of mechanical systems is ventilation effectiveness. When the ventilation effectiveness is poor, then more outside air needs to be brought into the building. Well designed overhead ventilation systems have a ventilation effectiveness of 1.0, while some systems such as thermal displacement and under-floor air distribution systems have an effectiveness that exceeds 1.0. COSTS Designing a mechanical system with a minimum outdoor air control approach that works will increase project costs over standard approaches that do not work. Implementing an IAQ management plan during construction and operations will require the work of the contractor and facilities staff and building management. Flushing the building before occupancy typically delays handing over the building to the owner, and it thus delays occupancy.

Costs

L M H L M H

Benefits

BENEFITS IAQ is a strong factor in determining the health and well being of building occupants. Industry standards that establish minimum requirements for healthy environments will be met by following this guideline. DESIGN TOOLS Methods described in ASHRAE Standard 62 provide guidance to the engineer in selecting ventilation rates. Simulation software can be used to estimate the energy cost impact of varying ventilation rates and determine the potential benefits to controlling ventilation rate based on demand. DESIGN DETAILS This guideline presents several methods used to dynamically control the minimum outdoor air in VAV systems. These methods are summarized in Table 2.3-1 and described in detail below.

Table 2.3-1: Summary of Minimum Outdoor Air Control Strategies for VAV Systems Method Dedicated minimum ventilation damper with pressure control Injection fan with dedicated minimum ventilation damper Airflow measurement of the entire outdoor air inlet Figure 2.3-1 2.3-2 Description This successful approach is the recommended method of control. This approach works, but is expensive and may require additional space. This method may or may not work depending on the airflow measurement technology. Most airflow sensors will not be accurate to a 515% turndown (the normal commercial ventilation range). This method does not comply with Standard 62 or most ventilation requirements; the airflow at a fixed minimum damper position will vary with the pressure in the mixed air plenum. This method is not accurate over the entire range of airflow rates and when there are wind or stack effect pressure fluctuations. This method does not work for two reasons: 1) inherent inaccuracy of the mixed air temperature sensor, and 2) the denominator of the calculation amplifies sensor inaccuracy as the return air temperature approaches the outdoor air temperature. This approach does not work because the cumulative error of the two airflow measurements can be large, particularly at low supply/return airflow rates.

2.3-3

Fixed minimum damper setpoint Dual minimum damper setpoint at maximum and minimum supply air rates

2.3-4

n/a

Energy balance method

2.3-5

Return fan tracking

2.3-6

Source: Advanced Variable Air Volume System Design Guide, CEC 2003

SEPARATE MINIMUM VENTILATION DAMPER An inexpensive but effective design uses a minimum ventilation damper with differential pressure control (Figure 2.3-1). In this method, the economizer damper is broken into two pieces: a small two-position damper controlled for minimum ventilation air and a larger, modulating, maximum outdoor air damper that is used in economizer mode. A differential pressure transducer is placed across the economizer damper section measuring the pressure in the mixing plenum with the outside as a reference. During start-up, the air balancer opens the minimum outdoor air damper and return air damper, closes the economizer outdoor air damper, runs the supply fan at design airflow, measures the outdoor airflow (using a handheld velometer) and adjusts the minimum outdoor air damper position until the outdoor airflow equals the design minimum outdoor airflow. The linkages on the minimum outdoor air damper are then adjusted so that the current position is the full open actuator position. At this point the differential pressure across the minimum outdoor air damper is measured. This value becomes the differential pressure setpoint. The principle used here is that airflow is constant across a fixed orifice (the open damper) at fixed differential pressure. As the supply fan modulates when the economizer is off, the return air damper is controlled to maintain the design pressure differential pressure setpoint across the minimum ventilation damper. (Refer to ASHRAE Guideline 16 for damper type and sizing in this scheme.) The main downside to this method is the complexity of controls and the potential that the initial control settings will get changed at some point. A control sequence for this scheme follows. Minimum outdoor air control Open minimum outdoor air damper when the supply air fan is proven on and the system is not in warm-up, cool-down, setup, or setback mode. Damper shall be closed otherwise. The minimum differential pressure (MinDP) setpoint across the mixed air plenum is determined by the air balancer as required to maintain the design minimum outdoor airflow rate across the minimum outdoor air damper with the supply air fan at design airflow. See below for return air damper control of mixed air plenum pressure.

Return air dampers: When the economizer is locked out from the economizer high limit control, the return air damper signal is modulated to maintain differential pressure across the outdoor air damper at the MinDP setpoint determined above. (For systems with relief or return fans, see ASHRAE Guideline 16 for recommendations regarding coordination of fan and damper control loops.) When the economizer is in control, the return air damper is sequenced with the outdoor air economizer damper.

Figure 2.3-1: Minimum Outdoor Air Damper with Pressure Control

INJECTION FAN The injection fan method (Figure 2.3-2) uses a separate outdoor air inlet and fan sized for the minimum ventilation airflow. This inlet contains an airflow monitoring station, and a fan with capacity control (e.g., discharge damper, variable frequency drive), which is modulated as required to achieve the desired ventilation rate. The discharge damper is recommended since a damper must be provided anyway to shut off the intake when the air-handling unit is off, and also to prevent excess outdoor air intake when the mixed air plenum is very negative under peak conditions. (The fan is operating against a negative differential pressure and thus cannot stop flow just by slowing or stopping the fan.) The Benchmark recommends this method, but the cost is high and often requires additional space for the injection fan assembly.

Injection Fan w/ Discharge Damper

Outdoor Air Intake

Return Air Signal from SAT Controller

Figure 2.3-2: Injection Fan with Dedicated Minimum Outdoor Air Damper

OUTSIDE AIRFLOW MONITORING STATION Controlling the outdoor air damper by direct measurement with an airflow monitoring station (see Figure 2.3-3) can be an unreliable method. Its success relies on the turndown accuracy of the airflow monitoring station. Depending on the loads in a building, the ventilation airflow can be 515% of the design airflow. If the outdoor airflow sensor is sized for the design flow for the airside economizer, this method has to have an airflow monitoring station that can turn down to the minimum ventilation flow (515%). Of the different types available, only a hot-wire anemometer array is likely to have this low-flow accuracy while traditional pitot arrays will not. (Refer to Section 3.5.3 of PECIs Control System Design Guide for a comparison of airflow measurement technologies.) One advantage of this approach is that it provides outdoor airflow readings under all operating conditions, not just when on minimum outdoor air.

Figure 2.3-3: Airflow Measurement of 100% Outdoor Air

FIXED MINIMUM DAMPER POSITION The figure below depicts a typical VAV system. In standard practice, the testing and balancing contractor sets the minimum position setting for the outdoor air damper during construction. It is set under the conditions of design airflow for the system, and remains in the same position throughout the full range of system operation. However, this does not comply with ASHRAE Standard 62-2001. As the system airflow drops, so will the pressure in the mixed air plenum. A fixed position on the minimum outdoor air damper will produce a varying outdoor airflow. As depicted in Figure 2.3-4, this effect will be approximately linear (in other words, outdoor air airflow will drop directly in proportion to the supply airflow).

Figure 2.3-4: VAV Reheat System with a Fixed Minimum Outdoor Air Damper Setpoint

DUAL MINIMUM DAMPER POSITION An inexpensive enhancement to the fixed damper setpoint design is the dual minimum setpoint design, commonly used on some packaged air conditioning units. The minimum damper position is set proportionally based on fan speed or airflow between a setpoint determined when the fan is at full speed (or airflow) and minimum speed (or airflow). This method complies with the letter of ASHRAE Standard 62 but is not accurate over the entire range of airflow rates and when there are wind or stack effect pressure fluctuations. But with direct digital control, this design has very low costs. The accuracy of this approach will vary depending on wind conditions, stack effect, and other factors. ENERGY BALANCE The energy balance method (see Figure 2.3-5) uses temperature sensors in the outside, as well as return and mixed air plenums to determine the percentage of outdoor air in the supply air stream. The outdoor airflow is then calculated using the equations shown in Figure 2.3-5). This method requires an airflow monitoring station on the supply fan. This approach is not recommended, as, in general, it does not work. There are several reasons for this: The accuracy of the mixed air temperature sensor is critical to the calculation but is very difficult to perform with any precision in real applications. Even with an averaging type bulb, most mixing plenums have some stratification or horizontal separation between the outside and mixed airstreams.2 Even with the best installation, high accuracy sensors, and field calibration of the sensors, the equation for percent outdoor air will become inaccurate as the return air temperature approaches the outdoor air temperature. When they are equal, this equation predicts an infinite percentage outdoor air. The accuracy of the airflow monitoring station at low supply airflows is likely to be low.

Figure 2.3-5: Energy Balance Method of Controlling Minimum Outdoor Air

RETURN FAN TRACKING Return fan tracking (Figure 2.3-6) uses airflow monitoring stations on both the supply and return fans. The theory behind this is that the difference between the supply and return fans has to be made up by outdoor air, and controlling the flow of return air forces more ventilation into the building. Several problems occur

This was the subject of ASHRAE Research Project 1045-RP, Verifying Mixed Air Damper Temperature and Air Mixing Characteristics. Unless the return is over the outdoor air there are significant problems with stratification or air stream separation in mixing plenums.

with this method: 1) the relative accuracy of airflow monitoring stations is poor, particularly at low airflows; 2) the cost of airflow monitoring stations is high; and 3) it will cause building pressurization problems unless the ventilation air is equal to the desired building exfiltration plus the building exhaust. ASHRAE research has also demonstrated that in some cases this arrangement can cause outdoor air to be drawn into the system through the exhaust dampers due to negative pressures at the return fan discharge. This approach is not recommended.

Figure 2.3-6: Return Fan Tracking

DOCUMENTATION Document selected minimum outdoor air control technique with plans, specifications, and a narrative. Provide evidence of IAQ management plans during construction and operations. Describe the building flush procedure and have the mechanical contractor certify that it was implemented as planned. See Chapter 2 for design and construction certification requirements. OPERATION & MAINTENANCE ISSUES The IAQ management plan to be implemented during building operations will affect operations and maintenance of building equipment and complaint response procedures. EXAMPLES Alder Creek Elementary School in Truckee, California, designed their high-performance school with air quality in mind. Design considerations to keep air quality high includes operable windows in all the classrooms, ventilation design that provides for 15 cfm outside air, strict requirements for low-emitting building and finishing materials, and general IAQ measures including walk-off mats and a 30-day flush out prior to occupancy. Lionakis Beaumont Design Group (architects) and the California Integrated Waste Management Board both have more information on Alder Creek Elementary school: www.lbdg.com and www.ciwmb.ca.gov. COMMISSIONING Verification of ventilation air rates over the full range of conditions is an important part of the commissioning process. REFERENCES / ADDITIONAL INFORMATION American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE). Standard 622001. Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Building Air Quality. Indoor Air Division. www.epa.gov/iaq

(click on IAQ Publications for detailed materials) EPA, A Green Indoor Environments Program, www.epa.gov/iaq/greenbuilding/index.html (click on IAQ Publications for detailed materials) Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors National Association (SMACNA). IAQ Guideline for Occupied Buildings Under Construction LEED, Indoor Environmental Quality Portland Energy Conservation Inc. (PECI). Control System Design Guide. Section 3.5.3 American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE). Guideline 162003Selecting Outdoor, Return, and Relief Dampers for Air-Side Economizer Systems New Buildings Institute (NBI), Advanced VAV System Design Guide