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Transportation Research Part A, Policy and Practice
Editor: P.B. Goodwin
Transport Policy
Editor: M. BenAkiva
R
LAND USE AND TRANSPORT
European Research Towards Integrated Policies
Edited by
STEPHEN MARSHALL
Bartlett School of Planning,
University College London,
London, UK
DAVID BANISTER
Transport Studies Unit,
Oxford University Centre for the Environment,
Oxford, UK
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ISBN: 9780080448916
Contributors vii
Biographies ix
1 Introduction 1
Stephen Marshall and David Banister
Part I Context 5
Index 387
Contributors
DAVID BANISTER Transport Studies Unit, Oxford University Centre for the
Environment, Oxford, OX1 3QY
DAVID BLACKLEDGE Transport and Travel Research Ltd (TTR), Minster House,
Minster Pool Walk, Lichfield, Staffordshire, WS13 6QT, UK
HUGUES DUCHÂTEAU STRATEC s.a. Avenue A. Lacomblé, 69–71 B1030 Brussels,
Belgium
JUDITH DE GROOT University of Groningen, Experimental and Work Psychology,
Grote Kruisstraat 2/1, 9712 TS Groningen, The Netherlands
SONJA FORWARD Swedish Road and Transport Research Institute, 581 95
Linköping, Sweden
PHILINE GAFFRON Hamburg University of Technology, AB 110 Transportation and
Logistics, Schwarzenbergstr. 95, 21071 Hamburg, Germany
SYLVIE GAYDA STRATEC s.a. Avenue Adolphe Lacomblé, 69–71 B1030
Brussels, Belgium
ANN JOPSON Institute for Transport Studies, University of Leeds, Leeds,
LS2 9JT
CLEMENS KAUFMANN FACTUM OHG, Danhausergasse 6/4, A1040 Wien, Austria
SANDER KOOIJMAN BUITEN Consultancy, Economy & Environment, Achter
St. Pieter 160, 3512 HT Utrecht, The Netherlands
KARI LAUTSO WSP LT Consultants, Heikkiläntie 7, 00210 Helsinki, Finland
STEPHEN MARSHALL Bartlett School of Planning, University College London, Wates
House, 22 Gordon Street, London WC1H 0QB, UK
LUCIA MARTINCIGH DiPSADipartimento di Progettazione e Studio dell’Architettura,
Facoltà di Architettura Università degli Studi Roma Tre,
P.zza della Repubblica, 10 00185 Roma, Italy
BRYAN MATTHEWS Institute for Transport Studies, University of Leeds, 38 University
Road, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK
ANTHONY D MAY Institute for Transport Studies, University of Leeds, Leeds
LS2 9JT, UK
ERIC MONAMI STRATEC s.a. Avenue A. Lacomblé, 69–71, box 8 B1030
Brussels, Belgium
EMANUELE NEGRENTI ENEA – ENE – TEC, C. R. CASACCIA , Via Anguillarese 301,
S. Maria di Galeria 00060, Rome, Italy
KARI RAUHALA Asematie 14 B 9, FIN02700 Kauniainen, Finland
RALF RISSER FACTUM OHG, Danhausergasse 6/4, A1040 Wien, Austria
KAREL SCHMEIDLER Head of Social and Human Aspects of Transport Section,
Transport Research Centre – CDV, Vinohrady 10,
Brno CZ – 639 00, Czech Republic
UWE SCHUBERT Institute for Regional Development and Environment,
Department for Social Sciences, Vienna University of Economics
and Business Administration, Nordbergstrasse 15, B/4 A1090,
Vienna
viii Contributors
CARLO SESSA Institute of Studies for the Integration of Systems, Via Flaminia
21, 00196 Rome, Italy
FRANZ SKALA Institute for Regional Development and Environment, Vienna
University of Economics and Business Administration,
Nordbergstrasse 15, B/4 A–1090, Vienna
LINDA STEG University of Groningen, Department of Psychology, Grote
Kruisstraat 2/I, 9712 TS Groningen, The Netherlands
ÅSE SVENSSON Department of Technology and Society, Lund University,
Box 118, SE22100 LUND, Sweden
LUCA URBANI IBV – Willi Hüsler Ag, Olgastrasse 4, CH8001 Zurich,
Switzerland
PASCAL J.W. VAN DEN Velo Mondial, KleineGartmanplantsoen 20, 1017 RR
NOORT Amsterdam, The Netherlands
TINA WAGNER Hamburg University of Technology, AB 110 Transportation and
Logistics, Schwarzenbergstr. 95, 21071 Hamburg, Germany
MICHAEL WEGENER Spiekermann & Wegener, Urban and Regional Research (S&W),
Lindemannstrasse 10, 44137 Dortmund, Germany
Biographies
David Banister is Professor of Transport Studies at the Oxford University Centre for the
Environment. Until recently he was Professor of Transport Planning at University College
London. He has also been Research Fellow at the Warren Centre in the University of
Sydney (2001–2002) on the Sustainable Transport for a Sustainable City project and
was Visiting VSB Professor at the Tinbergen Institute in Amsterdam (1994–1997). He
will be a visiting Professor at the University of Bodenkultur in Vienna in 2007. He is
a Trustee of the Civic Trust and Chair of their Policy Committee (2005–2009). Prof.
Banister has authored and edited 18 books that summarise his own research and some
of the international projects that he has been involved with. He has also authored (or
coauthored) more than 100 papers in international refereed journals, together with a
similar number of other papers in journals or as contributions to books.
David Blackledge is Corporate Director of Transport & Travel Research Ltd, UK. He is
a transport economist with more than 30 years experience in public transport planning
and economics. He has worked with many local authorities in UK, providing advice
and managing projects involving strategic planning, concessionary fares, alternative
fuels, advanced vehicle technologies, personal security, and passenger information. He
has directed a number of projects for the UK Department for Transport including
research into information systems, Accessible Coaches and Kneeling Buses. He has
also directed a number of collaborative research and demonstration projects involving
cities across Europe, including CATCH (transport and environment), EDICT (evaluation
and demonstration of Personal Rapid Transit) and PLUME (landuse and transport
planning).
Sonja Forward is a Director of Research at The Swedish National Road and Transport
Research Institute. She is Deputy Chairperson at the Swedish pedestrian association and
a member of TRB’s Pedestrian committee. Her main research interest includes the use
x Biographies
of psychological models to predict modal choice and traffic violations but also how to
modify deviant behaviours.
Sylvie Gayda is Senior Project Manager in the consultancy company STRATEC based
in Brussels, specialised in transport planning and urban/regional development. She has
more than 15 years experience in the field of trip demand modelling and demand
management policies. She has developed a thorough expertise in two fields: first, stated
preference surveys and discrete choice models ; secondly, landuse/transport modelling
and planning. In relation with stated preference, she led among others several studies on
traffic forecasts for new High Speed Lines in France, the mode choice modelling for the
future Seine North Europe canal and the demand forecast study for the future Charles de
Gaulle Express (dedicated rail service between the CDG airport and Paris – Gare de l’Est).
On the other hand, she took part in many European research projects, among other
projects in relation with landuse/transport (ESTEEM, TRACE, PROPOLIS, SCATTER).
In particular, she was coordinator of the SCATTER project.
Dr Ann Jopson is a Research Fellow at the Institute for Transport Studies, University
of Leeds. Her research interests are in travel behaviour psychology, transport market
ing, planning and policy (including landuse transport interactions), with emphasis on
attitudinal and behavioural measures, and social aspects of transport. Specifically, her
expertise are in the role of social psychology in enhancing our understanding of human
reactions to landuse and transport policies, and appraisal of qualitative policy objec
tives, with regard to improving effectiveness of sustainability measures. She has worked
on European and UK research projects for the European Commission, UK Department
for Transport and research councils.
Clemens Kaufmann studied Sociology at the University of Vienna. From 1998 to 1999,
he was a freelancer at FACTUM, and since 1999, he is an employee of FACTUM. He is
involved in several national and international projects (e.g. communication strategies for
increased motorcyclist safety, alternative public transport in Austria, Assess implementa
tion in the frame of Cities of Tomorrow, implementation work in Vienna, etc.), specialist
on qualitative survey techniques like indepth interviews, behaviour observation (Wiener
Fahrprobe) and workshops. He is secretary of the International Cooperation on Theo
ries and Concepts in Traffic Safety.
Biographies xi
Sander Kooijman, after his study of Spatial Planning at Nijmegen University, joined
Buck Consultants International (BCI), a Dutch consultancy in the fields of economy,
freight transport and regional development in 1989. In 1994, Sander took the position of
Senior Consultant Economics, Spatial Planning, Transport and Infrastructure at BCI. He
conducted and coordinated numerous studies in the field of freight transport, both at
a national and international level. From 2004 to 2005, Sander acted as chairman of the
ELITEnetwork, a professional network of renowned European consultancies in the fields
of logistics, infrastructure and transport. At the end of 2005, Sander became partner and
(co) managing director in BUITEN Consultancy for Economy & Environment, Utrecht,
The Netherlands, where he is responsible for project management and coordination,
product development and general management tasks.
Kari Lautso is an urban and transport research and planning specialist with extensive
experience of transportrelated research and planning on international, national and
local levels. At WSP LTConsultants Ltd. he is Member of Board and Deputy CEO
in charge of international operations of the company’s research activities. In addition
to consulting, Mr. Lautso has been employed by Helsinki University of Technology
as laboratory engineer, leader of postgraduate courses and associate professor (traffic
and transport planning). He has worked on several national and international projects
involving integrated landuse and transport planning research, including the EC projects
SPARTACUS and PROPOLIS that he coordinated. Other EC projects include SCAT
TER, CITY FREIGHT and PLUME. In Finland, he has worked for Rail and Road
Administrations and the Helsinki Metropolitan area Council in several strategic trans
port research and planning projects. Mr. Lautso has published about 70 conference
papers in national and international conferences.
Stephen Marshall is Senior Lecturer at the Bartlett School of Planning, University College
London, UK. Dr Marshall has 15 years’ experience in transport and planning fields. He
has worked on several UK and international projects involving integrated land use and
transport planning research, including the EC projects TRANSLAND, TRANSPLUS,
ARTISTS and PLUME; and the UK project SOLUTIONS (Sustainability Of Land Use
and Transport In Outer Neighbourhoods). He has several publications encompassing
urban design, planning and transport fields, and has authored or contributed to seven
books, including Encouraging Transport Alternatives and Streets and Patterns.
Bryan Matthews is a Senior Research Fellow at the Institute for Transport Studies at the
University of Leeds, UK. He has 10 years research and consultancy experience focused
xii Biographies
on transport economics. Much of his work has been on international research projects,
including the EC projects PROSPECTS, ASTRAL and PLUME; and the international
Knowledgebase on Sustainable LandUse and Transport (KonSULT). He has several
publications encompassing transport economics and planning, and served as contributor
and coeditor (with Chris Nash) for volume 14 of the Research in Transport Economics
series on “Measuring the Marginal Social Cost of Transport” (2005).
Tony May has over 35 years’ experience in transport planning and traffic engineering.
His principal research interests at Leeds have focused on urban transport and sustain
ability. He has served as Director of ITS, Dean of the Faculty of Engineering and Pro
Vice Chancellor for Research. He was elected to Fellowship of the Royal Academy of
Engineering in 1995 and awarded the OBE for services to transport engineering in 2004.
Between 1985 and 2001, he maintained a link between research and teaching at Leeds
and practical experience in consultancy with MVA Ltd, of which he was a director.
Eric Monami, during his 15 years as researcher, consultant and ministerial advisor in
transport and environment, he has contributed to or coordinated several projects for
the European Commission, the American Transportation Research Board and a number
of ministries and businesses in Belgium. His work has centred mainly on contracting
mechanisms and service quality and environmental impacts assessments in both freight
and passenger transports. Dr Monami has been an advisor to the Belgian Minister of
Mobility and Transport, the Walloon Minister of Transport and the Brussels Minister
for the Environment. He is the author of several articles on European railway reforms.
Emanuele Negrenti is Project Manager at ENEA, the Italian Agency for Energy, Environ
ment and Innovative Technologies. Dr Negrenti has 14 experiences in transport impacts
and planning fields. He has worked on several Italian and international projects involv
ing transport planning, transport impacts, pollutant emissions modelling, evaluation of
transport and transport telematic systems. The European experience is based on FP3
QUARTET and KITE Projects, THERMIE JUPITER Project, COST319 and COST 346
Actions, FP4 COMMUTE, ESTEEM, CAPITALS and CAPITALS PLUS Projects, FP5
ISHTAR (Coordinator), HEARTS, INTEGAIRE, ASTRAL and PLUME Projects. He
has several international publications on transport impacts fields.
Kari Rauhala is architect, lately Senior Research Scientist at VTT (Technical Research
Centre of Finland) Building and Transport. Kari Rauhala worked at VTT from 1974 until
his retirement in summer 2005. His specialities have been urban planning economics,
urban energy consumption, climate and housing, urban quality, environmental impacts,
urban shape and transport, pedestrian environment as well as design methods and
principles. He has participated in several EC projects, the latest being PROMPT (New
Means to Promote Pedestrian Traffic in Cities) and ECOCITY (Urban development
towards Appropriate Structures for Sustainable Transport). He was the coordinator of
the PROMPT project. He has written several publications and articles as well as papers
on national and international conferences.
Ralf Risser is an Assistant Professor and Lecturer at the University of Vienna and at the
Technical University of Vienna. He is visiting professor at the Institute of Technology
Biographies xiii
Karel Schmeidler is Senior Researcher and Head of the S15 Department at CDV – Trans
port Research Centre and Associated Professor for Urban Design and Planning at the
Faculty of Architecture, Technical University Brno, Czech Republic. Dr Schmeidler has
30 years’ experience in transport and planning fields. He has worked on several national
and international research projects involving architecture, design, urban planning, inte
grated landuse and transport planning research, including the EC projects SIZE, ASI,
ADVISORS, COST 616 CITIAIR, COST 349, COST 352 and COST 355 projects,
Central European University Fellowships (Soros Foundation Projects) and HUMANIST
Centre of Excellence and many important national CZ projects funded by the Czech
Grant Agency and some Czech ministries and universities. He has dozens of publications
encompassing architecture, urban design, urban sociology, planning and transport fields,
and has authored or contributed to several books, including Sociologie v architektonicke
a urbanisticke tvorbe (Brno 1997 and reprinted 2001).
Uwe Schubert studied law and economics in Vienna and San Diego, California. Until
2006, he was chairman of the Institute of Economic Geography, Regional Development
and the Environment at the Vienna University of Economics and Business Administra
tion. He held the chair in Environmental Economics and Management. His main research
fields are urban development and environmental economics and policy. Since 1975, he
has been active in comparative development research. He served as coordinator of sev
eral national as well as European projects (e.g. ENVINNO, EASYECO, ECOCITY).
Now he is Professor Emeritus.
Carlo Sessa was in charge of the coordination of the European research project
TRANSPLUS – Transport Planning Land Use and Sustainability. He is president of ISIS –
Institute of Studies for the Integration of Systems of Rome. Before joining ISIS in 1983,
he has conducted research at NYU, where he worked with Nobel Prize winner Wassily
Leontieff. He was project coordinator or partner in several EU research projects, includ
ing ACTVILL and ESTEEM for DGXII, and recently the RAISE Citezens Conference
on EU research for the City of Tomorrow and Cultural Heritage.
Franz Skala studied civil engineering at the Technical University Vienna (not com
pleted); he is coauthor of publications in the field of transport and environment – for
example, Flexibility in Public Transportation (Flexibler Oeffentlicher Verkehr, VCOE
Verkehrsclub Oesterreich 1996), cooperated in projects (e.g. Study for a pilot project for
integrated transport in rural areas for the region Waidhofen an der Thaya) and initiated
the multidisciplinary association “Institute of Ecological Urban Development”. For the
xiv Biographies
Åse Svensson is Senior Lecturer at the Department of Technology and Society, Lund
University, Sweden. Dr Svensson’s main background is in the area of traffic safety
research, validation of the Swedish Traffic Conflicts Technique and further development
of the concept towards general severity rating of interactive behaviour. She was co
ordinator of EC project ARTISTS and is now project leader of a doctoral student project
with the aim of adapting and developing ARTISTS concepts to Swedish conditions. She
is also heading a doctoral student project in the area of developing and utilising cognitive
vision for studies and analysis of road user behaviour.
Luca Urbani is expert in the field of transport planning, transport infrastructures and
traffic safety, now by IBV – Ingenieurbüro für Verkehrplannung – Zurich. Luca Urbani
has almost 10 years of research experience in the field of traffic safety with particular
regard to behavioural patterns and vulnerable road users. He has worked in several
Italian and international research projects, including the EC founded PROMISING –
Promoting of Measures for vulnerable road users (1997), PROMPT – New means to
PROMote Pedestrian Traffic in cities (2003) and ASI – Assessing Implementation (2005)
as external senior researcher within the Department of Design and Study of Architecture,
Faculty of Architecture, University Roma Tre. On these and other topics. Dr Urbani has
several publications presented at international conferences.
Pascal J.W. van den Noort is Executive Director of Master Plan BV and of Velo Mondial
and Velo.Info. He has vast experience in founding (inter)national and global organiza
tions, projects, conferences and events. He was the founder and Executive Director of
the Dutch Aids Foundation and of the Global Network of People Living with HIV/AIDS
(GNP+). For Master Plan BV, he is involved in the setting up of research projects that
promote sustainable urban development and specializes in making information for sus
tainability better available. For Velo Mondial and Velo.Info, he initiates, promotes and
organizes innovative developments with passion.
projects involving sustainable land use and transportation (e.g. ECOCITY), integration
of transport infrastructure into urban environments, air traffic and commercial and
goods traffic.
Michael Wegener was until 2003, Director of the Institute of Spatial Planning and
Professor at the Faculty of Spatial Planning of the University of Dortmund, Germany.
Since 2003, he is a partner in Spiekermann & Wegener, Urban and Regional Research
in Dortmund. His main research fields are planning theory, urban and regional develop
ment, European urban systems and transEuropean networks. His specialisation is urban
and regional modelling, in particular of the landuse transport interface in cities and
regions and of the regional impacts of European large transport infrastructure projects.
The Projects and Initiatives Featured in This Book
Individual Projects
ARTISTS Arterial Streets Towards Sustainability
(http://www.tft.lth.se/Artists)
ASI Assess Implementations in the frame of the Cities of
Tomorrow Programme
(www.factum.at/asi)
CITYFREIGHT Inter and Intra CityFreight Distribution Networks
(http://www.cityfreight.eu/)
ECOCITY Urban Development Towards Appropriate Structures for
Sustainable Transport
(http://www.ecocityprojects.net)
ISHTAR Integrated Software for Health, Transport Efficiency and
Artistic Heritage Recovery
(http://www.ishtarfp5eu.com/)
PROMPT New Means to Promote Pedestrian Traffic in Cities
(http://prompt.vtt.fi)
PROPOLIS Planning and Research for Land Use and Transport for
Increasing Urban Sustainability
(http://www.ltcon.fi/propolis)
PROSPECTS Procedures for Recommending Optimal Sustainable Planning
of European City Transport Systems
(http://wwwivv.tuwien.ac.at/projects/prospects.html)
SCATTER Sprawling Cities and Transport: from Evaluation to
Recommendations
(http://scatter.stratec.be)
SUTRA Sustainable Urban Transportation
(http://www.ess.co.at/SUTRA)
TRANSPLUS Transport Planning, Land Use and Sustainability
(http://www.transplus.net/)
VELOINFO The European Network for Cycling Expertise
(http://www.velo.info/)
Land Use and Transport
S. Marshall & D. Banister (Editors)
Copyright © 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Chapter 1
Introduction
Stephen Marshall and David Banister
The distribution of different land uses in different locations stimulates the demand for
transport, and the supply of transport enables the distribution of different land uses
in different locations. In this simple statement are bound up the logic of transport
geography, accessibility, land management and property markets, an implied division
of labour and associated economic geography; and hence the professional concerns of
various kinds of urban and spatial planner, transport planner and highway engineer,
public transport and logistics operator, employer, retailer and developer; and ultimately
the travel and location decisions made by every citizen.
Despite the inherent logical complementarity of land use and transport – the inter
connectedness of their causes and effects – each has tended to be pursued within different
spheres of professional attention: in particular, land use planning and transport planning.
These disciplines have not always been as well integrated as they might be. From the point
of view of knowledge, there is not always a clear understanding of land use and transport
relationships and the complex effects of policies on outcomes. From the point of view of
action, there is not necessarily a clear consensus of how best to link the different kinds of
land use and transport policy instruments, institutions and infrastructures; how to link
incentives to ‘more sustainable’ outcomes with disincentives to ‘less sustainable’ ones;
or what are the potential benefits of the different combinations of possible measures.
The challenge of how to link land use and transport policy has existed for many years,
but has remained unsolved, in part due to the interprofessional divide between land
use planning and transport planning and in part due to inadequate channels of commu
nication between researchers, planning officials and policymakers. This can result in
frustrated causes: stateoftheart projects based on outofdate research, novel research
addressing old problems, new data feeding old models and generally ‘left hands’ not
knowing what ‘right hands’ are doing.
It is against this backdrop that there has been a recognition of the need to undertake
research that fills gaps and forges new links between land use planning and transport
1
2 S. Marshall and D. Banister
planning, while also disentangling and hence clarifying the complex web of issues that
is currently known to bind different aspects of land use and transport planning. This
book offers a collection of results from a recent programme of research into integrated
land use and transport issues to contribute to this fundamental and ongoing debate. The
intention is to be able to contribute to better understanding and ultimately to better land
use and transport integration.
The book draws from the Land Use and Transport Research (LUTR) cluster of the
European Union (EU) ‘Cities of Tomorrow’ programme. In total, there are 12 individual
projects in the LUTR programme, in addition a 13th initiative – a network known
as PLUME (PLanning and Urban Mobility in Europe) which has served to synthesise
results across different research themes and to engage with enduser cities, in order to
inform the policymaking process (for more details, see Box page in Prelims; Table 2.3,
Chapter 2).
The 12 LUTR projects comprise the work of dozens of partners, featuring dozens of
cities across almost every European Commission (EC) country, taking place largely over
a 6year period (2000–2005). This book does not attempt to provide a comprehensive
summary of findings from this programme, since these are already available elsewhere.
Each project has its own web site and set of reports detailing the project research,
methods and findings. Additionally, PLUME provides a series of ‘synthesis reports’ on
specialised themes that cut across the subject matter of the individual LUTR projects
(for more details, see Chapter 3).
Rather, the intention of this book is to provide an introduction to this body of research,
in two principal ways. First, the book provides a general overview of the main issues and
implications of the research, which draws primarily from the LUTR projects themselves
and also integrates this with wider knowledge of land use and transport planning in
the European context. Secondly, the book provides more detailed insights into specific
issues drawn from individual projects. It is hoped that both of these approaches offer
useful points of entry to the larger body of research from which they are drawn.
The remainder of this book is arranged in five parts: with Parts I and V dealing with
the more general issues referred to above, and Parts II, III and IV focusing on specific
LUTR projects.
Part I provides an introduction to the context of the topic of land use and transport, and
the LUTR research programme (Chapter 2), together with a presentation of the main
issues and findings from the research (Chapter 3).
Part III then shifts to the assessment of policies. Chapters 8 and 9 present the results of
modellingbased studies evaluating the results of testing different policy combinations,
the former for urban areas in general (PROPOLIS), the latter focusing on urban
sprawl and public transport (SCATTER). The second two chapters in this section then
address some aspects that are sometimes underrepresented in integrated land use trans
port research: Chapter 10 addresses the assessment of ‘Quality of Life’ issues (ASI),
while Chapter 11 addresses the assessment of urban freight distribution initiatives
(CITYFREIGHT).
We then move to look at some specific tools and methods that have been developed
within the LUTR projects. Chapter 12 discusses approaches appropriate for the man
agement of arterial streets (ARTISTS), while Chapter 13 discusses a particular approach
to generating solutions to problems, dealing with pedestrians from a human perspective
(PROMPT). Chapter 14 reports on an integrative software tool devised to support land
use and transport planning (ISHTAR), while Chapter 15 reports on means of improv
ing decisionmaking for sustainable urban transport, culminating in the development of
guidebooks for decisionmakers (PROSPECTS).
Finally, Part V provides some final reflections on the LUTR research programme: first,
providing lessons for policy (Chapter 16) and finally providing suggestions for a future
LUTR agenda (Chapter 17).
Part I provides a general introduction to the rest of the book, while Part V leads out
from the book to address further policy and research spheres. The chapters in Parts II–IV
may be read selectively and not necessarily in the order presented. Chapter 3 provides
a convenient reference point relating all of the individual projects reported in the other
chapters.
The LUTR projects, although having the common theme of integrating land use and
transport planning issues, and although covering a breadth of issues across this common
theme (Chapter 3), necessarily deal with different aspects with different emphases and
levels of detail. As research projects are commissioned to address outstanding research
gaps, these are in effect complementary to existing knowledge, and therefore are to some
extent a selective collection of topics.
Accordingly, the book does not cover to any great extent the economic, fiscal, financial
and land value levers available – that are associated with either the transport or land use
issues in isolation – although many of these measures (particularly pricing) are embedded
in the quantitative and qualitative approaches used in each of the chapters. Nor does the
book address the technological futures covered by alternative fuels, new vehicle design
and materials and the Information and Communications Technologies (ICT). All these
can obviously contribute strongly to the City of Tomorrow; however, the main focus
here is on policies integrating land use and transport planning.
Just as the LUTR projects themselves are selectively focused, the issues addressed in
individual chapters in Parts II–IV are also in turn selective and are reflections on and
complementary to the projects’ formal outputs. Of those chapters addressing a specific
4 S. Marshall and D. Banister
LUTR project, each has been prepared by the project coordinator and its topic selected
to give the most useful focus to serve the purpose of the book, whether by summarising
key findings or by focusing on details of particular interest.
The editors are thankful to all those who contributed to realising this book, not least the
27 contributing authors, and Chris Pringle, Philip Tite and Zoë La Roche at Elsevier, and
Sumi Poduri of Integra Software Services Pvt Ltd. We should also like to thank Michael
Wegener for providing constructive comments on the draft manuscript. Together, we
are all thankful to our colleagues from the 12 projects and over 50 cities who have
provided the original material from which the research in the book draws, including all
the participants in surveys and workshops whose contribution have also benefited the
book. We would also like to acknowledge the funding support for this research provided
by the EC FP5 Cities of Tomorrow programme, and in particular the coordinating role
and personal support of Eric Ponthieu. Fuller details of the research programme and
projects are given in Table 2.3, Chapter 2.
Part I
Context
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Land Use and Transport
S. Marshall & D. Banister (Editors)
Copyright © 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Chapter 2
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Across Europe, cities face common challenges relating to air quality, noise, urban sprawl,
traffic congestion, waste and security, while promoting wealth creation and social
inclusion and maintaining the built environment, cultural heritage and a deteriorating
infrastructure. The challenge is to improve the quality of life in urban communities,
maintaining economic viability while promoting sustainable development. This involves
developing competitive cities that benefit from the economic advantages brought about
by globalisation, increasing GDP and higher levels of personal income. But it is also
equally important to address social issues relating to the distribution of wealth and
opportunity and to ensure that all people are ‘engaged’ in the inclusive city.
Land use and transport issues intersect with these challenges – whether as part of the
problem or as part of the solution. Central here is the fundamental question of how
to improve land use and urban planning and to strengthen the links with sustainable
urban transport. The principle barriers are institutional, legislative, financial, social and
cultural (Banister and Marshall, 2000; ECMT, 2002). The new question is how to inte
grate these distinct barriers at the policy level and operationally, given the different actors
involved. It is against this backdrop that this book offers a dedicated analysis of integrated
land use and transport issues to contribute to this fundamental and ongoing debate.
During the Industrial Revolution over 200 years ago, there was a mass exodus of people
from the countryside seeking work, new opportunities and greater wealth in the cities.
The social structure of these new and growing cities was not able to meet the needs
for shelter, for public services (like water and waste disposal), or for the treatment of
7
8 D. Banister et al.
health. The public health requirements formed the original focus for action in the cities.
For example, as a result of the cholera epidemics which swept Britain in 1832, 1848 and
1866, and the high infant mortality rates that followed, a series of Public Health Acts
(1848 and 1875) set up the administrative and financial arrangements, which together
with the Local Government Acts of 1888 and 1894, formed the statutory basis for
planning in Britain (Hall, 2002).
Since that time, urban planning has continuously struggled for its own identity as it
has interfaces with so many aspects of society. Early in the century, it was grappling
with market forces that were transforming the city into a more complex entity. This
was replaced later with the decline of the central city and the decentralisation of people
and activities to the suburbs. Various problems such as housing and the homeless, the
unemployed and the underclass, and the construction of new infrastructure and urban
renewal have repeatedly been central to the concerns of planning, but often in different
guises. In the USA, urban planning has evolved from city planning and social science,
but in continental Europe, the tradition is based more on physical design, while in the
UK there is a mixed approach (Alonso, 1966). The nature of planning is also different to
many other disciplines as the methods and processes are eclectic, often being borrowed
from other disciplines. Similarly, there is a strong desire for action, not just knowledge.
More recently, the environment has become a new focus for land use and urban plan
ning. This is not the slum environment of the nineteenth century which sought to provide
housing, clean water and sewerage for the burgeoning industrial cities, but a new con
cern over the quality of the built and natural environment. People and business are
now leaving the city as the perceived quality of life has deteriorated, and as modern
lifestyles and activities no longer require such close proximity of homes, workplaces and
other activities. Transport, particularly suburban rail and above all the car, has had an
instrumental role in this decentralisation process.
The city is thus a source of concern. From the viewpoint of urban economists, the city
is involved in a permanent struggle between economies of scale and scope (localisation
advantages, economies of density, etc.) and agglomeration diseconomies (congestion,
pollution, criminality, etc.). Urban land use is reflecting this structural conflict of interest
through the patterns of residential and locational ramifications (Fujita, 1989). As a
result, the city is faced with a dynamic movement where compact ways of living and
working on the one hand and deconcentrated patterns of living and working on the other
hand (e.g. urban sprawl, the edge city) are in turn advocated. This has also provoked
new debates on optimal city size (AbdelRahman and Fujita, 1990; Anas, 1990; Arnott
et al., 1998; Gordon and Richardson, 1997). This new urban economic discussion on
the optimal pattern and size of urban activities is directly and indirectly playing a major
role in the current debate on sustainable cities.
This debate has been most active with respect to the crucial role that transport has
in achieving sustainable development. The catalyst for the debate was the study of 32
major world cities (Newman and Kenworthy, 1991) which claimed to demonstrate clear
links between transport and urban form, at least at the city level. It was suggested that
economic factors, such as petrol prices and income levels, were less important than
Land Use and Transport: The Context 9
direct interventions from planners through location strategies and investment in public
transport. The reaction from the USA was strong, both on criticising the quality of
the empirical analysis and on questioning the implications for urban policy. The basic
disagreement is whether the promotion of compact cities is an appropriate planning
goal (Ewing, 1997; Gordon and Richardson, 1997). On the one hand, there are those
(principally Gordon and Richardson) who are strongly in favour of market forces for
the allocation of land for development, for the decisions on residential densities, for the
achievement of energy resource savings, for the promotion of city centre development,
for the maintenance of competition between cities, for the examination of the equity
implications of compactness and for the balancing of the impacts of suburbanisation.
On the other hand, there are those (Banister, 1997; Cervero and Landis, 1997; Ewing,
1997) who take a less extreme position and focus on the means to reduce trip lengths,
encourage moderate concentration, the provision of local facilities and mixed land uses.
The empirical evidence is complex and causality is difficult to demonstrate. There does
seem to be some limited impact on land markets from joint developments at rail transit
stations (Cervero, 1994), mainly in the form of slightly higher rents and lower vacancy
rates. But in the most comprehensive study over 20 years of the Bay Area Rapid Transit
(BART) in San Francisco, Cervero and Landis (1997) have not found compact, orderly
growth with a multicentred settlement pattern. Even in the longer term, the land use
changes associated with BART have been localised and limited to downtown San Fran
cisco and Oakland, together with a few suburban stations. Most of the growth in the
region has been linked to the freeway system, not the rail system. At the city level in
the UK, the links between travel patterns, energy use and urban form in terms of its
physical, economic and social structure have been examined (Banister et al., 1997). It is
the physical characteristics that link most closely with energy use in transport through
density, size and amount of open space. Yet even here data limitations make comparison
difficult, and this is further complicated by the social and economic structures of cities
which are so different.
The sustainable city needs to be examined within its region, to encompass its labour mar
ket area and its wider sphere of influence. This is what Breheny and Rookwood (1993) call
the social city region, which in turn is an adaptation of the terminology used by Ebenezer
Howard, one of the early generation of great planning thinkers. Howard (1898) published
his seminal text To-morrow: A Peaceful Path to Real Reform, in which he advocated
a polycentric social city linked by public transport (Howard et al., 2003). It has taken
a century to come full circle. There is no single solution to the sustainable city, but there
must be a range of policies linked to the different current situations found in the diver
sity of the cities around the world – a ‘MultipliCity’ approach to sustainability (Steele,
2004). To the extent that European cities face similar challenges, research and practice
in different countries can learn from each other, converting knowledge into action.
To explore the means to integrate land use and transport, it is necessary to break with
the tradition that sees them as essentially separate activities with some limited overlap
10 D. Banister et al.
and move towards a richer and more varied set of perspectives on common issues
that help understand the range and complexity of the interfaces between land use and
transport. Table 2.1 identifies a set of seven perspectives on land use and transport. These
perspectives cut across and interlink with each other, and they should not be looked at in
isolation. The table can assist in understanding the similarities and oppositions between
land use and transport issues within and across the seven perspectives, and each of them
is now discussed in more detail.
on the town’, ‘going shopping’ or ‘going on holiday’ – where the ‘going’ is substantially
part of the ‘doing’.
In this sense, travel seen as a human activity or purpose is very similar to many other
urban activities, and from this perspective, there is no intrinsic conflict, or fundamental
difference in kind, between land use and transport – no intrinsic conflict between ‘going’
and other forms of ‘doing’ – but rather a spectrum of activities with different immediate
and ultimate purposes.
Conventionally, the direct benefit component of travel for its own sake is often not
accounted for in cost–benefit calculations. As a result, an asymmetry is created, where
transport and travel are seen ideally to be minimised relative to other land uses or activi
ties. Hence, the land use as benefit and transport as cost assumption are approximations
which place land use and transport conceptually in opposition to one another.
From this perspective, the land use and transport components are quite distinct, although
parts of the same ‘model’. Operationally, the land uses are regarded as trip genera
tors – that is, they give rise to the demand for travel in the first place. The links and
nodes represent the supply side that provide the essential connections between the zones
representing the origins and destinations.
This ‘network model’ perspective of land use and transport is integrated in the sense that
both land use and transport components are represented, and may be used successfully
to predict travel movements on the network, given certain land uses �LU→T�. However,
this does not necessarily embody the full set of interactions feeding back from transport
to land use �T→LU� – nor for that matter, land use–land use interactions (LU→LU).
buildings on it, and on the adjacent land and buildings. Land value is also supported
and stimulated by the web of accessibility created by transport.
Note that in this perspective, transport although having an influence on land use is
external to the land market per se, echoing the way that in the network perspective,
land uses although represented as influencing transport are not part of the network
proper. In both cases, the core focus of concern (the land market or transport network)
could be analysed of itself, without necessarily considering the external mechanisms
(transportgenerated accessibility or land usegenerated trips).
In this sense, transport is like any other land use, and in principle may be treated in an
integrated manner with other land uses. On the other hand, transport is also a special
land use in that it forms a contiguous area, the essential connective tissue of the urban
fabric: the single ‘land use’ through which all other land uses are linked (Marshall,
2005). This gives transport a unique pivotal role in the spatial organisation of urban
areas – which is what gives the ‘network model’ perspective its significance.
Although the ultimate objectives and societal values may be shared between the profes
sions, their working methods, conceptual paradigms and institutional practices are often
quite distinct and sometimes in conflict. Professional barriers need to be overcome to
achieve the integration of land use and transport planning.
It is true that conflicts may arise where there is competition for use of scarce urban land,
for municipal resources, or conflict between incompatible activities – but these conflicts
can occur within either the transport or land use policy sphere (e.g. noise or pollution
concern impacting from one land use to another, or from one transport mode to another)
and are not intrinsically a function of transport versus land use policy. Clearly, policy
links back to human activities and purposes, since policy acts to serve those activities
and purposes, for the benefit of individuals and society as a whole.
‘City of Tomorrow and Cultural Heritage’ was the title of a key action of the European
Commission’s Fifth Research Framework Programme, and this forms the background to
the research used in this book. The aim of this programme was to obtain practical results
for cities and to include all stakeholders, and the main output consisted of were practical
tools for use by cities. Four interrelated themes were covered by this programme
including
More than 140 research, development and dissemination programmes were funded,
and about E170 million was committed during the period 1998–2002. Among the key
features of these key actions were
Within the Sustainable Transport theme, the PLUME initiative was a thematic network
building on the work of various individual projects, which address issues of LUTR
14 D. Banister et al.
(Land Use and Transport Research) together with outputs from a wide range of other
national and international projects. The specific objective of PLUME was
To facilitate the transfer of innovation in the field of planning and urban mobility
from the research community to end users in the cities of Europe in order to improve
urban quality of life.
PLUME brought together researchers and endusers operating in the field of LUTR, and
the PLUME EndUser Group comprised a range of cities from across Europe supported
by city networks with a far wider range of members (Table 2.2).
The individual ‘LUTR’ projects, which are reported in Parts II–IV in this book, were
linked to these cities through case studies, bringing together a wide range of experience.
The principal information source for PLUME has been the land use and transport cluster
of research projects commissioned by DG Research within FP5. The research activities of
this cluster focused on land transport, and its interaction with land use. The projects were
all undertaken and completed between January 2000 and December 2004. In addition,
we have drawn on other international and European research as appropriate. For exam
ple, ASTRAL (Matthews, 2003) identified a large number of national projects and inter
national networks, which were potentially relevant to PLUME. Another source has been
KonSULT, a webbased knowledgebase maintained by ITS Leeds. It is regularly updated
and covers a broad range of transportrelated topics and forms an important information
source for PLUME, as well as a means of disseminating PLUME outputs, as new material
identified through PLUME can be used to keep KonSULT up to date (see Chapter 15).
Land Use and Transport: The Context 15
The objectives of the LUTR projects were to develop strategic approaches and method
ologies in urban planning that contribute to the promotion of sustainable urban devel
opment. These included issues of transport demand and related land use planning, the
design and provision of efficient and innovative transport services including alternative
means of transport, and the minimisation of negative environmental and socioeconomic
impacts. The cluster includes 12 research projects and covers a wide range of different
topics. Short summaries of the objectives of these projects are presented in Table 2.3.
The PLUME thematic network drew its findings from a wide range of case stud
ies and research projects in Europe and worldwide. Cities can learn much from the
detailed literature which is available via the gateway of the LUTR projects’ website
(http://www.lutr.net/). Some of the general conclusions of PLUME are particularly rele
vant to cities. A key point is that it remains important to increase the understanding of
(Continued)
16 D. Banister et al.
PROSPECTS Procedures To provide cities with guidance to generate optimal land use and
for Recommending transport strategies to meet the challenge of sustainability in their
Optimal Sustainable particular circumstances
Planning of European City
Transport Systems)
SCATTER (Sprawling To study the causes and consequences of urban sprawl in order to
Cities and Transport: design and to assess the efficiency of measures aiming to prevent,
from Evaluation to mitigate or control this trend that threatens most European cities
Recommendations)
SUTRA (Sustainable To develop a consistent and comprehensive approach and planning
Urban Transportation) methodology for the analysis of urban transportation problems that
helps to design strategies for sustainable cities
TRANSPLUS (Transport To identify best practice in the organisation of land use and
Planning, LandUse and transport measures in order to reduce car dependency in European
Sustainability) cities and regions and promote economic, social and environmental
improvement
VELOINFO (The To support local authorities and sustainable urban planning experts
European Network for by establishing a webbased expertise centre on bicycle planning
Cycling Expertise) policies and bicycle use. European cities and transport planners
represent supply/demand for expertise; VeloInfo is sustained by
these users, ensuring optimal distribution of expertise
the public, politicians and the media about LUTR activities by directly involving them
in future research programmes. EndUser regions and cities should be involved in the
process from the beginning in order to achieve a more integrated approach between land
use and mobility planning. Demonstration projects are an important way of achieving
this. The EndUser cities participating in PLUME agreed that the network was of benefit
and that European cooperation, networking and benchmarking are positive aspects for
improving knowledge and key to the success of achieving integrated policies. While the
LUTR programme has substantially increased our understanding of the requirements for
sustainable urban land use and transport strategies, the barriers to implementing them
and the potential benefits from doing so, several research needs remain. It is to be hoped
that new cities will be interested to participate directly in the ongoing research through
the provision of case studies, so that all cities can learn from each other, and through
successful examples overcome the barriers to implementation.
REFERENCES
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Arnott, R., Anas, A. and Small, K. (1998). Urban spatial structure. Journal of Economic
Literature 36 (3), 1426–1464.
Banister, D. (1997). Reducing the need to travel. Environment and Planning B 24 (3),
437–449.
Banister, D. and Marshall, S. (2000). Encouraging Transport Alternatives. Good Practice in
Reducing Travel. London: The Stationery Office.
Banister, D., Watson, S. and Wood, C. (1997). Sustainable cities: Transport, energy and
urban form. Environment and Planning B 24 (1), 125–143.
Breheny, M. and Rookwood, R. (1993). Planning in a sustainable city region. In A. Blowers
(Ed.), Planning for a Sustainable Environment (pp. 150–189). London: Earthscan.
Cervero, R. (1994). Rail transit and joint development: Land market impacts in Washington
DC and Atlanta. Journal of the American Planning Association 60 (1), 95–106.
Cervero, R. and Landis, J. (1997). Twenty years of the Bay area rapid transit system: Land
use and development impacts. Transportation Research 31A (4), 309–333.
European Conference of Ministers of Transport (ECMT/OECD) (2002). Implementing Sus
tainable Urban Travel Policies, ECMT/OECD: Paris.
Ewing, R. (1997). Is Los Angeles style sprawl desirable? Journal of the American Planning
Association 63 (1), 107–126.
Fujita, M. (1989). Urban Economic Theory. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Gordon, P. and Richardson, H. (1997). Are compact cities a desirable planning goal? Journal
of the American Planning Association 63 (1), 95–106.
Hall, P. (2002). Urban and Regional Planning. 4th edition. London: Routledge.
Hebbert, M. (2005). Engineering, urbanism and the struggle for street design. Journal of
Urban Design 10(1), 39–59.
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Sonnenschein.
Howard, E., Hall, P., Hardy, D. and Ward, C. (2003). To-morrow: A Peaceful Path to Real
Reform. London: Routledge.
Marshall, S. (2005). Streets and Patterns. London: Spon Press.
Matthews, B. (2003). Cooperation with International, National and Regional Projects.
ASTRAL Deliverable 2. Available at http://www.lutr.net/astral.asp.
Newman, P. and Kenworthy, J. (1991). Transport and urban form in 32 of the world’s
principal cities. Transport Reviews 11 (3), 249–272.
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Land Use and Transport
S. Marshall & D. Banister (Editors)
Copyright © 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Chapter 3
3.1 INTRODUCTION
After the presentation of the problems of urban land use–transport interaction and
the research framework of the Land Use and Transport Research (LUTR) cluster in
the previous chapter, this chapter gives an overview about the themes addressed in the
12 projects and how they are related to urbanchange processes and the problems of
land use–transport interaction. This chapter draws from ‘stateoftheart’ knowledge
assembled within the PLUME network, which includes reference to research outside as
well as originating within the 12 LUTR projects.
3.2 THEMES
The cooperation between the 12 projects of the LUTR cluster was organised around 23
themes structured hierarchically into three main groups, Problems, Policies and Processes
which reflect typical domains of decisionmaking in cities in practice:
A) Problems are deviations between existing and desirable states of the urban system
that may give rise to planning interventions. In today’s cities, three major problem
fields can be distinguished:
1. Environmental problems
2. Social problems
3. Economic problems.
B) Policies are measures, policies or strategies to solve problems, that is, to reduce
the gap between existing and desired states of the urban system. In today’s cities,
the following major groups of policies are available:
1. Land use planning measures
2. Infrastructure provision
3. Infrastructure management
4. Public transport
19
20 M. Wegener
Tables 3.1–3.3 indicate which themes are addressed in the 12 LUTR projects. In the
tables, the themes are further subdivided into subthemes. An inspection of the tables
shows that the 12 projects cover the field of urban land use, transport and environment
quite thoroughly, although there are different levels of emphasis.
A) Problems
Table 3.1 shows which problems were addressed in the 12 projects. It also shows that
environmental, social and economic problems are not evenly covered by the 12 projects:
CITYFREIGHT
TRANSPLUS
PROSPECTS
VELOINFO
PROPOLIS
SCATTER
ECOCITY
ARTISTS
PROMPT
ISHTAR
SUTRA
ASI
Theme/sub-theme...
Air pollution ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●
Noise ● ● ○ ○ ● ● ● ●
Environmental
Land ● ● ● ● ● ○
Greenhouse gases ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●
Visual impact ● ● ●
Cultural heritage ○ ○ ○
Health ● ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
Access ● ○ ○ ○ ● ● ● ● ● ○
Problems
Social exclusion ○ ● ● ○
Social
Mobility handicaps ○
Equity ○ ○ ● ● ● ○
Health ● ○ ○ ○ ● ○ ○
Congestion ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ○
Accidents ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ○ ○
Economic
Financial barriers ○ ○
Economic activity ○ ○ ● ●
External costs ○ ○ ○
Equity ● ● ● ○
Health ● ○ ○○ ○ ○
● Major theme ○ Minor theme.
3. Economic problems. Traffic congestion and traffic accidents are the most fre
quently addressed economic problems in the 12 projects. The impacts of land
use and transport policies on economic activity in the whole metropolitan area
or parts of it are addressed in PROPOLIS and SCATTER. Economic problems in
general have a strong social or distributional (equity) component. In many cases,
solutions to economic problems are in conflict with the achievement of social
and environmental objectives. However, economic equity aspects are considered
only in PROPOLIS, PROSPECTS and SCATTER. Health aspects are referred to
in many projects but explicitly considered only in ASI.
B) Policies
Table 3.2 shows which policies were addressed in the 12 projects. It can be seen that
each of the projects addresses a certain group of policies:
1. Land use planning measures. Land use measures are addressed mainly
in CITYFREIGHT, ECOCITY, PROPOLIS, PROSPECTS, SCATTER and
22 M. Wegener
CITYFREIGHT
TRANSPLUS
PROSPECTS
VELOINFO
PROPOLIS
SCATTER
ECOCITY
ARTISTS
PROMPT
ISHTAR
SUTRA
ASI
Theme/sub-theme...
Settlement planning ● ●○ ●
Settlement size/containment ● ●● ●
Land use planning
Concentration/densification ● ●● ○ ●
Urban structure ○ ● ●● ●
Location by accessibility ● ○ ●● ○ ●
PT-oriented development ● ●● ○ ●
Car-free development ● ○●
Urban design ● ● ● ○○
Infrastructure provision
Motorways ○ ●
● ○
Local roads ● ○ ●
● ○
Walkways ○ ● ● ○ ●
Cycling lanes ○ ● ● ○ ○ ● ●
Public transport ● ● ● ○ ● ●
Freight infrastructure ● ○
Parking ● ● ○ ● ○
Better public transport ○ ● ○ ● ○
Infrastructure
management
Better service
Public
Fares ● ○ ○ ○
Travel information ○ ○
Mixed-mode travel ○ ○ ○ ●
Marketing ○ ○ ○ ●
Company travel plans ○ ○
Travel demand
management
Ride sharing ○ ○ ○
Car sharing ○ ○ ○
Flexible work hours ○ ○ ○
Teleworking ● ○
Teleshopping ○
Radio/TV-based services ● ○ ●
Information
Internet-based services ● ○ ○ ●
PT passenger information ○
Navigation systems ● ○
Mobility centres ● ● ● ●
● Major theme ○ Minor theme
(Continued)
Themes and Relationships 23
CITYFREIGHT
TRANSPLUS
PROSPECTS
VELOINFO
PROPOLIS
SCATTER
ECOCITY
ARTISTS
PROMPT
ISHTAR
SUTRA
ASI
Theme/sub-theme...
Fuel taxes ● ○ ○ ○
Car taxes ○ ○
Road pricing, motorways ● ○
Pricing
Pedestrianisation
cycling
Safe crossings ○ ○
Cycling lanes ● ○ ○ ○ ●
Bicycle service stations ● ●
Access constraints ● ○ ○
Urban freight
● ●
transport
Loading zones
Freight terminals ● ○
City logistics ● ● ○
Policies
Cleaner cars
More energy-efficient cars ○ ● ○ ○
Safer cars
Hybrid cars
Natural gas vehicles
Alternative fuels
Personal rapid transit
modes
TRANSPLUS. It is recognised that land use measures strongly interact with the
provision of transport infrastructure, such as roads or public transport routes as
well as with travel demand management policies.
2. Infrastructure provision. Infrastructure provision measures are dealt with in
ARTISTS, CITYFREIGHT, ECOCITY, PROMPT, PROPOLIS, PROSPECTS,
SUTRA, TRANSPLUS and VELOINFO. With respect to transport policies,
PROSPECTS and TRANSPLUS are similarly comprehensive. VELOINFO, not
surprisingly, focuses on measures related to cycling. All projects emphasised the
need to coordinate infrastructure provision with appropriate land use planning
measures and also refers to travel demand management, transport pricing and
urban freight measures as necessary accompanying measures.
3. Infrastructure management. Issues of road and public transport infrastruc
ture management were considered in ARTISTS, CITYFREIGHT, ECOCITY,
PROPOLIS, PROSPECTS, SCATTER and TRANSPLUS. ARTISTS focused on
road space management, whereas the other projects addressed management mea
sures, including public transport service provision, walking and cycling facilities
and travel demand management.
4. Public transport. Public transport was addressed in virtually all projects. How
ever, public transport strategies are explicitly addressed in PROMPT, PROPOLIS,
PROSPECTS, SCATTER and TRANSPLUS. Improving public transport is one
of the main policy fields of sustainable urban planning and is to become even
more important with the prospect of rising energy prices and increasing car costs.
Such measures are closely linked to infrastructure provision, pricing and travel
demand management.
5. Travel demand management – attitudinal and behavioural measures. Only a few
projects looked into the potential of attitudinal and behavioural transport measures.
PROPOLIS, PROSPECTS and TRANSPLUS are the most comprehensive in this
respect; VELOINFO suggests marketing as a means to promote cycling. It is stressed
that successful travel demand management depends on a nottoodispersed land use
system and needs to be accompanied by appropriate transport pricing policies and
a welldeveloped network of public transport, walkways and cycling lanes.
6. Information measures. Information measures, such as traffic or public trans
port information systems were treated in ARTISTS, CITYFREIGHT, ECOCITY,
ISHTAR, PROSPECTS, TRANSPLUS and VELOINFO. Providing relevant and
timely information on travel opportunities to travellers before starting a trip
and en route is important for mitigating road congestion and attracting new
passengers to public transport.
7. Pricing measures. Only PROPOLIS, PROSPECTS, SCATTER, SUTRA and
TRANSPLUS looked into the impacts of pricing policies, such as fuel or car
taxes, different schemes of road pricing, parking charges or changing public
transport fares, impacts on mobility and environment and in some cases, impacts
on land use and the spatial distribution of population and economic activities.
This is surprising as these policies have been found to be by far the most effective
in reducing car travel and the related environmental impacts. More than other
policies, pricing measures depend on supporting measures in the field of land
use planning, infrastructure provision, travel demand, walking and cycling and
urban freight.
Themes and Relationships 25
8. Walking and cycling measures. Walking and cycling were dealt with in infrastruc
ture provision and in this separate group of policies. Measures promoting walk
ing were considered in ARTISTS, ECOCITY, PROSPECTS and TRANSPLUS.
Cycling was dealt with in ECOCITY, PROPOLIS, PROSPECTS, TRANSPLUS
and of course in VELOINFO. Successful promotion of the slow modes, walking
and cycling, cannot be done in isolation but requires a highdensity mixedused
land use system, supporting travel demand measures, taxation of car travel and
a welldeveloped network of walkways and cycling lanes.
9. Urban freight measures. Only four projects explicitly dealt with urban freight
transport. CITYFREIGHT dealt exclusively with urban freight transport. In
ARTISTS, loading and unloading was considered as a function to be accommo
dated in the street space. ECOCITY considered city logistics, and PROSPECTS
discussed various freightrelated policies. Sustainable urban freight transport
is connected to land use planning, as well as infrastructure provision and
management.
10. Vehicle technology measures. ECOCITY, PROPOLIS, SUTRA and TRANSPLUS
considered the impact of cleaner cars on air quality or of more energyefficient
cars on greenhouse gas emissions and air quality. However, as these developments
cannot be influenced by local government decisions, they were not generally con
sidered in the projects. More energyefficient cars become economically feasible
only if fuel becomes more expensive.
11. Innovative modes. Innovative modes were not explicitly addressed in any of
the 12 LUTR projects but were addressed in NETMOBIL, a sister research
cluster. The EDICT, CYBERCARS, CYBERMOVE and STARDUST projects of
NETMOBIL were devoted to these themes, although they addressed some of the
issues of interaction of new modes and land use planning. New ways of using
and combining travel modes are becoming more and more important to achieve
synergies between modes and to maintain quality of access in lowdensity areas.
12. Integrated strategies. Only a few projects studied integrated land use and trans
port policies: CITYFREIGHT, ECOCITY, PROPOLIS, PROSPECTS and SCAT
TER. However, in PROPOLIS and PROSPECTS, integrated strategies were a
major concern.
C) Processes
Table 3.3 shows which processes were addressed in the 12 projects. This table reveals
the distinction between ‘What’ projects and ‘How’ projects. ‘What’ projects are mainly
interested in finding solutions to problems, that is, to find out what should be done.
‘How’ projects, on the other hand, are predominantly interested in how policies can be
implemented.
CITYFREIGHT
TRANSPLUS
PROSPECTS
VELOINFO
PROPOLIS
SCATTER
ECOCITY
ARTISTS
PROMPT
ISHTAR
SUTRA
ASI
Theme/sub-theme...
Defining objectives
Setting
targets
Defining indicators
Soliciting preferences
Updating targets
Decision-making
development
Public participation
Strategy
Specification of objectives
Defining indicators
Understanding barriers
Combining policies
Theoretical foundations
Strategy impact
forecasting
Forecasting techniques
Scenario building
Simulation
Policy optimisation
Definition of sustainability
appraisal
Strategy
Equity
Presentation of strategies
implementation
Barriers to implementation
Strategy
Overcoming barriers
Implementation
Monitoring
Stages of participation
participation
Levels of participation
Public
Organisational aspects
Participants
Current practice
Cost analysis
Financing
Sources of funding
Financing techniques
Overcoming barriers
Levels of government
Institutional
Vertical co-operation
issues
Horizontal co-operation
Public–private partnerships
Privatisation
● Major theme ○ Minor theme.
Themes and Relationships 27
In summary, the projects of the LUTR cluster addressed an impressive range of themes
related to land use and transport planning. The coverage of planning problems was quite
comprehensive. Among the policies, conventional engineering, regulatory and manage
ment policies, such as infrastructure and pricing, received more attention than attitudinal
28 M. Wegener
Policymakers are interested in knowing which policies or measures are most effective for
achieving the objectives of land use and transport planning, that is, to provide attractive
living conditions and high accessibility to all groups of society, to enhance the competi
tiveness of urban economies and to protect the natural environment. However, in order
to forecast which policies are most effective, one needs to have a clear understanding
of how urban systems work, that is, about the manifold interactions and feedbacks
occurring in urban systems. Understanding these interactions and feedbacks is necessary
to assess the secondary and indirect effects of policy measures, which in some cases
reinforce the effect expected from a policy measure but sometimes also act as negative,
undesirable side effects. This section therefore summarises the main interactions between
urban change processes found in the projects.
Table 3.4 visualises the interactions between urban change processes that need to be
taken into account when longrange impacts of planning policies are considered. In
the table, rows and columns contain the most important change processes occurring in
urban systems over time, where the rows represent causes and the columns effects – each
process can be both cause and effect. The processes are ordered by speed of change:
(i) Transport networks are the most permanent element of cities; they change
only very slowly and have a lifetime of decades or centuries (although policy
instruments applied to influence the way networks are used can have more
immediate impacts).
(ii) Buildings are the second most permanent element of cities; their lifetime can
be hundreds of years, but they can be adapted to changing user needs through
refurbishment.
(iii) Agents, such as firms, households and individuals have life cycles counted in
decades, but their needs change through events, such as growth or decline or
birth, marriage or death.
(iv) Location decisions of the firms, workers and households occur more frequently,
such as very few years.
(v) Transport decisions are much faster; they are made from every few years
(vehicles) to daily (trips).
(vi) Environmental impacts are the most rapid, but some have longterm irreversible
consequences.
Each entry in the table represents an impact (from row to column) based on a cause–
effect relationship. To keep the table simple, only direct impacts are indicated. However,
Themes and Relationships 29
Net- Environ-
Buildings Agents Location Transport
work ment
Household lifecycles
Industrial buildings
Industrial location
Housing mobility
Person lifecycles
Freight transport
Office buildings
Labour mobility
Public transport
Retail buildings
Firm lifecycles
Office location
Retail location
Road network
Energy, CO2
Air quality
Vehicles
Housing
Travel
Noise
Land
Change of...
Road network
work
Net-
Public transport
Industrial buildings
Buildings
Retail buildings
Office buildings
Housing
Firm lifecycles
Agents
Household lifecycles
Person lifecycles
Industrial location
Retail location
Location
Office location
Labour mobility
Housing mobility
Transport
Vehicles
Freight transport
Travel
Energy, CO2
Environ-
Air quality
ment
Noise
Land
secondary and indirect impacts can be deduced by following the circular structure of the
table, as every effect (column) is also a potential cause (row):
• Transport supply represented by the road and public transport networks affects
location and travel decisions and also the environment.
• Buildings, that is, the existing building stock, affect location decisions about new
development and are the origins of environmental impacts.
• Agents, such as firms and households, affect each other and generate the need for
vehicles, goods transport and travel.
30 M. Wegener
• Location decisions affect the location of buildings, work places and households
and influence other location decisions.
• Transport decisions about vehicles, freight transport and travel affect each other
and the environment and also have impacts on transport supply in the form of
congestion.
• Environmental impacts affect location decisions of firms and households but have
little impact on freight transport and travel decisions.
The secondary or indirect effects implied by the table are sometimes more important
than the direct effects shown. For instance, extensions of the road network permitting
faster access to the countryside may initially lead only to more car trips into the city from
rural locations at the expense of rail or bus. In the medium and long term, however,
they will make the countryside more accessible and attractive for households as a place
to live and so accelerate suburban housing development and urban sprawl and lead to
more energy consumption, greenhouse gas emissions and loss of open space. This will
attract new retail developments on suburban greenfield sites at the expense of innercity
locations, which will in turn generate more traffic, mostly by car.
Table 3.5 shows the relevance of particular policies for particular problems. Problems
and policies are subdivided as in Tables 3.1 and 3.2, respectively. The symbols indicate a
strong or weak impact of a policy on a problem. It would have been desirable to indicate
also the direction of impact, that is, whether the impact is positive or negative with
respect to urban sustainability. That would have required an even finer differentiation
of policies. For instance building new roads relieves congestion and also induces more
traffic and so in the long run increases congestion. However, because of the selection
of policies in the list, it can be assumed that in most cases the impact is positive with
respect to urban sustainability.
As in Table 3.4, only direct impacts are indicated in Table 3.5. To include also indirect
impacts would imply impacts in almost all cells of the matrix, as in a sense all elements
of the urban system are connected. However, this would be of little value. Therefore,
when using Table 3.5, the interactions between urban processes shown in Table 3.4
should be considered. If a policy has an impact on one problem in Table 3.5, it can be
expected that it will produce indirect desirable or undesirable side effects as indicated in
Table 3.4.
The first impression from Table 3.5 is that land use planning, infrastructure provision
and management, pricing, vehicle technology and integrated strategies stand out as the
most efficient measures to improve urban sustainability (policies are numbered as in
Section 3.2).
1. Land use planning. Land use planning, in general, affects all three dimensions
of urban sustainability, that is, addresses environmental, social and economic
problems, such as atmospheric pollution, noise, land capture, greenhouse gas
Themes and Relationships 31
Mobility handicaps
Economic activity
Greenhouse gases
Financial barriers
Cultural heritage
Social exclusion
Health impacts
Health impacts
External costs
Visual impact
Air pollution
Congestion
Accidents
Access
Health
Equity
Equity
Noise
Land
Policies/measures...
Settlement planning
Settlement size/containment
Land use planning
Concentration/densification
Urban structure
Location by accessibility
PT-oriented development
Car-free development
Urban design
Infrastructure provision
Motorways
Local roads
Walkways
Cycling lanes
Public transport
Freight infrastructure
Parking
Better public transport
Infrastructure
management
Better service
Public
Fares
Travel information
Mixed-mode travel
Marketing
Company travel plans
Travel demand
management
Ride sharing
Car sharing
Flexible work hours
Teleworking
Teleshopping
Radio/TV-based services
Information
Internet-based services
PT passenger information
Navigation systems
Mobility centres
Mobility handicaps
Economic activity
Greenhouse gases
Financial barriers
Cultural heritage
Social exclusion
External costs
Visual impact
Air pollution
Congestion
Accidents
Access
Health
Equity
Health
Equity
Health
Noise
Land
Policies/measures ...
Fuel taxes
Car taxes
Road pricing, motorways
Pricing
Pedestrianisation
cycling
Safe crossings
Cycling lanes
Bicycle service stations
Access constraints
Urban freight
transport
Loading zones
Freight terminals
City logistics
Parcel delivery points
Cleaner cars
More energy-efficient cars
technology
Vehicle
Safer cars
Hybrid cars
Natural gas vehicles
Alternative fuels
Personal rapid transit
Innovative
modes
emissions, equal access to all groups of society and congestion. Specific land
use policies, such as allocating development at locations with high accessibility,
at commuter rail stations, or carfree residential areas, have much less impact
but are efficient with respect to noise protection and providing equal access.
Neighbourhoodscale urban design can be important for a pleasant and safe
urban environment as well as for the mobility of physically impaired people.
2. Infrastructure provision. Infrastructure provision has in many cases ambiguous
effects. To build new roads may relieve congestion but may also induce more
traffic and so in the long run increases congestion, pollution and noise. Building
new public transport routes may attract riders, but many of these may be former
pedestrians and cyclists. Also new radial public transport lines tend to accelerate
decentralisation of residences and jobs, and so promote urban sprawl. Building
walkways and cycling lanes have no negative side effects but will do only little to
reduce car traffic unless supporting push measures make car driving less attractive
(see integrated strategies).
3. Infrastructure management. Better public transport, parkandride schemes,
innercity parking management and efficient traffic control systems reduce inner
city and motorway congestion. Better roadspace management serves other objec
tives by making innercity streets usable by pedestrians.
4. Public transport. The policies addressing public transport have close links with
those of infrastructure provision and infrastructure management. Like these, pub
lic transport policies in general have positive effects on environmental indicators,
accessibility, equity and accidents. However, public transport infrastructure, in
particular rail infrastructure, reduces and fragments open space and can con
tribute to further suburbanisation.
5. Travel demand management. Travel demand management measures have become
more popular in recent years as a way to make urban transport more sustainable.
Marketing efforts, company travel plans, ride sharing (also known as car pools,
or car sharing in some countries) and car clubs (confusingly referred to as car
sharing in some countries) have been shown to contribute to at least slowing the
increase of car travel. Flexible work hours contribute to decreasing peakhour
congestion but not to vehiclekilometre travelled overall. There is recent evidence
that teleworking, due to its interaction with residential location choice and other
trip purposes, contributes only little to reducing vehiclekilometre travelled per
person per day, but on a weekly basis, teleworkers do travel less than non
teleworkers. The effects of teleshopping (ecommerce) on urban sustainability
are as yet less certain.
6. Information. Radio, TV or Internetbased traffic information systems or on
board navigation systems enable drivers to avoid congested areas, however it has
yet to be ascertained whether the high expectations put into these technologies
are justified. Public transport passenger information systems and mobility centres
serve a different goal, to improve access to public transport also for people
without local knowledge or mobility handicaps.
7. Pricing. Making car travel more expensive, either by fuel taxes or taxes on car
purchases, is the most effective way of reducing car travel and so congestion, road
accidents, pollution, noise and greenhouse gas emissions. Road pricing on all or
selected roads is equally effective but suffers from the risk of displacing rather
34 M. Wegener
In summary, the projects of the LUTR cluster have revealed a wide range of land use
and transport policies that can be applied to achieve sustainable urban development. In
general, transport policies have been shown to be more effective in the short to medium
term; however, land use policies are essential for achieving a settlement structure that is
not too dispersed as a prerequisite for less cardependent cities.
Part II
Policy Perspectives
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Land Use and Transport
S. Marshall & D. Banister (Editors)
Copyright © 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Chapter 4
4.1 INTRODUCTION
As stated in the general introduction, “the intentional integration of transport and land
use planning may achieve synergies between policies and their outcomes, and this in turn
may optimise operational performance, efficiency and sustainability”. Finding empir
ical evidence concerning the planning and implementation of intentionally integrated
land use and transport strategies, the barriers to effective integration in different cities
and regions across Europe as well as best practices and their impacts on sustainable
urban development was the aim of comparative research undertaken by the project
TRANSPLUS – TRANSport Planning, Land Use and Sustainability. The mission of
TRANSPLUS was indeed to identify best practices in the organisation of land use and
transport policies in order to reduce car dependency in European cities and regions and
promote economic, social and environmental improvement.
The findings are based on comparative research and analysis of a number of case studies
of cities and regions in Europe: Vienna in Austria; the Brussels Capital and “Flemish
Diamond” regions in Belgium; Aalborg in Denmark; Helsinki in Finland; Nantes and
Orléans in France; Cologne, Dresden, Münster and Tübingen in Germany; Brescia and
Rome in Italy; La Valletta (Malta); Warsaw and “Tricity” in Poland; Evora and Lisbon
in Portugal, Bucharest and Ploiesti in Romania; Barcelona and Bilbao in Spain; Bratislava
in Slovakia; Amsterdam and Groningen in the Netherlands; Bristol, Merseyside and
Croydon in the United Kingdom. The chapter will present a qualitative description of
integrated land use and transport strategies and policies, based on the TRANSPLUS
findings.
37
38 C. Sessa
Besides the transit village, which in the European context is better named “Public Trans
port Oriented Development,” TRANSPLUS considered other two urban development
perspectives, related respectively to walking and cycling – the “ShortDistance Struc
ture Development” – and to regulation of space and infrastructure for car circulation
and parking – the “Car Restriction Oriented Development.” These “perspectives” may
be seen as ways to seek integration of Land Use and Transport (LUT) policies taking
respectively Public Transport (PT), walking & cycling, and regulation of space for car
use as pivotal elements.
Orléans new tram service: In Orléans, public transport development and the redesign of
the bus network are used as a stimulation for the conurbation’s planning policy in an
existing settlement (Figure 4.1).
Land Use and Transport vision: The public transport network was based on bus services
organised radially from the town centre. The number of journeys per inhabitant and per
kilometre travelled was decreasing. Consequential the town’s various neighbourhoods
were developed without any tram or light rail connections between them. The context
to develop mobility policies has changed with the obligation to develop an Urban
Mobility Master Plan (UMMP) for conurbations with over 100 000 inhabitants with
40 C. Sessa
the compulsory objectives to reduce car traffic and improve public transport. Also the
French state provided two billion French Francs in 2001 in support of actions to develop
public transport. In Orléans, a polycentric structure of “support centres” to provide
everyday services has been created, and this has become the main issue of the mobility
policy. The urban development plan intends to establish a tram service as the main
means of transport between each of the support centres and Orléans’ city centre.
Connection of main urban areas: The provision of a tram service to the “La Source
University” campus, which is 10 km from the centre, is just one of the aims. The
connection of the ring boulevards to the Aubrais railway station, which will be a future
highspeed train (TGV) station, and the construction of university amenities, housing
and sites for economic development are further objectives. A redesign for the Fleurylès
Aubrais is also involved in the future plans.
Larry mixed housing development: The initial project comprised only of a housing
development unit. The tramway routing has made it possible to go back over the layout
plan and organise an area with a few small collective buildings, individual dwellings
and amenities. Installations will be organised around the tramline, with a wedge of open
space, public areas, etc.
Timescale and financing: The new decision for the North–South tramline was made in
1995. At the end of 2000, the new tram was opened to the public. About 20% of the
costs were financed by state subsidies, the remainder entirely by the Urban Community.
Two different approaches for sub-centre developments in Vienna: The strategy in Vienna
is to reach a polycentric development. The basic principles for the cities future outlook
were defined in the Urban Development Plan, which is prepared simultaneously with
the Traffic Concept. As various locations seek for different strategies, two different
approaches can be described in Vienna. One is the development of an existing area,
while the other is a new development on a former industrial site.
The situation of Donaustadt before the Master Programme: Donaustadt, the 22nd dis
trict of Vienna, is the largest district of the town. Until now, the majority of the popu
lation is living in the west of Donaustadt while the east is predominantly rural. Hence,
Eastern Donaustadt is now an urban extension area, where it is planned to develop
settlement axes together with polycentric structure.
An axial development along existing public transport lines: The “Gasometer City” is
one initial part of a project that aims at a revitalisation of a former industrial area,
the “Erdberger Mais.” The “old” and the “new” are brought together on the historic
ground of the Gasometers which are 102 years old and 70 m high.
The “Gasometer City” offers a functional mix of housing, working, shopping, culture
and entertainment. The complex consists of 615 new apartments, a dormitory for 230
42 C. Sessa
students, a day care facility, the Vienna National Archive, office space, a shopping mall,
an event hall and a cinema. The whole area has attracted approximately 1500 residents
and 3500 jobs.
Most of the population lives and works in Gasometer City and in the neighbouring
offices of the immediate vicinity (Figure 4.3).
Figure 4.3: The extension and reconstruction of railway and the Gasometer
Town in Vienna
Accessibility: The Gasometer City can be reached by all means of transport. Since
December 2000, Gasometer City has its own subway station on the U3 line, that is, it
takes only 8 min from the city centre (Stephansplatz). For motorised traffic, there are
Achieving Sustainable Cities with Integrated Land Use and Transport Strategies 43
1200 parking spaces in underground garages with a direct access to the motorway A23.
With such a good car accessibility, city planners missed currently the opportunity to set
an example for a sustainable development. A close connection for nonmotorised traffic
to the nature area of the Prater is provided by the “Gaswerksteg,” a reconstructed bridge
for pedestrians and cyclists.
Evaluation: The “Gasometer City” concept as a whole was assessed by a survey among
residents and visitors. The good accessibility in terms of traffic and transportation
connections and the combination of multifunctionality were regarded positively. So far
no specific evaluation has been made to illustrate the impact of the public transport
accessibility for residents and visitors. However, the use of public transport is yearly
investigated by the Viennese public transport company (Wiener Linien).
With these facilities located around a station, the area gains more attractiveness and
vitality for inhabitants of the adjacent neighbourhoods. Furthermore, the development
of cheap housing may contribute to better mobility of people with lower incomes who
are often dependent on good PT accessibility. In addition, a reduction of parking require
ments in building regulations, or the introduction of maximum rather than minimum
parking standards, related to the quality of PT supply can contribute to a higher degree of
public transport utilisation. Another innovative accompanying strategy might be organ
isational measures such as the inclusion of a public transport pass within the price for
new housing in the vicinity of the station (Figure 4.4).
Removal of the station to the centre: In order to achieve adequate accessibility and an
appropriate design and equipment of the station, the reconstruction has to be removed
44 C. Sessa
to another place near the centre of Mecklenbeck. Being abandoned already in the 1960s,
the station of Mecklenbeck is not going to be reactivated before the completion of
development in 2005 because extensive measures for infrastructure are delaying the
process.
1000 new flats near to the railway station: In the ward of Mecklenbeck, which is
accommodating around 80 000 inhabitants, approximately 1000 new flats – onethird
realised as detached houses to supply housing for young families, the rest as multi
storey housing, including a share for low income dwellers – are going to be built
on two new development sites in direct vicinity to the railway line to Coesfeld and
Recklinghausen.
Projection from the 1970s, completion in 2005: With the emerging need for housing
development in the beginning of the 1990s, plans for a new urban development dating
back to the 1970s were taken into consideration again. With the preparatory land
acquisition of most of the plots, the new development of the area could be processed
according to the ideas of the city council without too much debit for the council’s
treasury. These plots, still privately owned, have been included in the planning process
by concluding an urban development contract in public–private partnership. The first
building phases are realised meanwhile, the completion of the project was in 2005.
Achieving Sustainable Cities with Integrated Land Use and Transport Strategies 45
Removing a main road to smooth traffic organisation: Apart from this, new retail and
community facilities will further improve the service quality within the ward. With the
purpose of facilitating a smooth organisation of traffic, an important main road is going
to be removed. All measures taken for transport improvement are subsidised by the
federal state government of North RhineWestphalia.
Preparatory acquisition of land slowing down the increasing land prices, in particular in
public transport oriented sub-centres: A basic condition for the implementation of hous
ing projects within the designated development areas was the preparatory acquisition of
land from the city council of Münster. The real estate city administration was able in
many cases to buy ground at moderate price, before the prices rise because of planning
provisions. Because of this preparatory acquisition of land, the city was then able to
offer sites at moderate prices and to develop them according to the demand and to the
integrated land use and transport strategy. The results are clear: In the last year, the city
was able to double its share of the sales of land. Over 50% of currently developable
sites are in the ownership of the city. Thus it was possible to slow down the increasing
land prices within “right locations.” The gains from the disposals are used to finance
necessary infrastructure – like kindergartens, etc. – and purchase new sites linked with
sustainable development priorities.
In Münster as a whole, the distance from planned housing estates to local railway
stations was therefore investigated. About 75% of the planned housing areas are within
1500 m of the next railway station, and, in addition, 75% of the new residential areas
are within a radius of 800 metres around a subcentre.
and cycling. Empirical evidence shows that in some of the large European cities bicycles
are the fastest mode of transport for distances up to 3 km (doortodoor travel). In
existing districts, density can be increased by building up top floors for dwellings and
offices, filling up empty sites with new buildings, shopping areas, leisure facilities, and
so on. However, this kind of option must mainly take place in cities with a continuously
growing population. Additionally, highdensity mixeduse structures can lead to positive
social conditions as they are in most cases used throughout the whole day, reducing
feelings of insecurity for people using nonmotorised modes.
Aalborg – compact city structure for the future development: The Master Plan is the
core document of the land use planning process in Aalborg and indicates the main
structures for the future development (1998–2009). In this document, activity centres
and selfmaintained living areas up to a certain level are described as main elements to
build a “compact” city, which contributes also to promote nonmotorised modes.
Activity centres and increasing density in inner city areas: The Master Plan for Aalborg
gives a definition of a clear typology of the activity centres in Aalborg and the whole
surrounding region. The main goal of this is to obtain a good match between the
functions of each area and the services located there in order to reduce the need for
trips in the region. For each type of centre therefore a list is made containing services
that should be present (e.g. schools, retail areas, industry, offices, etc.). This typology of
activity centres acts as a backbone to planning new housing and to see if such areas can
accommodate extra housing. As it is planned to increase the accessibility of sustainable
modes and find a balance between placing new residential and working areas together
to reduce the need to travel, new houses can only be constructed in the actual residential
areas. The total number of residents is strictly defined up to 2009 in order to avoid
the sprawling of houses, and the number of households should go together with the
typology of the centres. New residential areas should be developed in areas accessible
by bike or in walking distance to train stations.
The public transport structure has a clear link to the development of the city as new
residential areas, shopping centres and working zones are to be designed and located
with easy access to public transport in mind. There have also been physical infrastructure
improvements at nodal points on the new public transport network including bike and
ride facilities.
extension of the space available for pedestrians as well as the establishment of a high
quality urban environment. Since the Traffic Circulation Plan for the city centre had
already been approved when the Østerågade reconstruction project was started, many
issues regarding the project had already been debated and settled. Therefore, the debate
did not focus on the principles of how the traffic in the city centre should be organised,
but on the future design. Thus, topics featured in the debate were cycle safety, access to
shops in the area, blind and visually impaired persons’ requirements. and so on. Finally,
it was decided to start out with minimal restrictions for private car traffic and to tighten
them if the results were not satisfactory. The reconstruction works were finished in
1998. Compared to old Østerågade the most significant changes are a major reduction
in the width of the traffic lanes, which have been converted to wider pavements and
the use of highquality granite surface materials. The whole Østerågade area is signed
as a 30 km/h zone with limited access for private cars and distribution vehicles. The
attractive pedestrian area is now completed and well used.
Evaluation: The reconstruction of Østerågade is now completed and the area is attractive
and well used. Concerning the aim to reach a compact urban structure, activity centres
with the required mix were implemented. Unfortunately, no information is available on
whether the objectives mentioned before have been achieved.
Step by step implementation: The redevelopment did not start at once in the whole Süd
stadt, but areas within the district are fixed to be redeveloped gradually according to the
timetable. At the moment, the area “Stuttgarter Straße/Französisches Viertel” is coming
into being and sites are offered to interested citizens. This step by step implementation
ensures easily comprehensible development.
Priority to pedestrians and implementation of mixed use: In the framework plan for the
redevelopment of the area “Französisches Viertel/Stuttgarter Straße” various objectives
are established of which a main aim is to provide short distances by implementing mixed
use. A balanced ratio of working places and accommodation units is established in this
plan offering the possibility to work and live in the same district. In the Südstadt, short
distances for trips in the leisure time are offered as cultural and sports facilities, attractive
open space, and others, are integrated in the vicinity of houses. Altogether, the aim is
to create a living district and to include also social aspects such as the integration of
minorities. Further, the public space is devoted to pedestrians while motorised individual
traffic is restricted. Pedestrians are given priority and the needs of disabled persons
are considered. It is aimed that as many daily trips as possible be undertaken by non
motorised modes and therefore a corresponding walking and cycling infrastructure is
provided (Figure 4.6).
Figure 4.6: Varied architecture and mixed use in buildings in Tübingen Südstadt
Further, to finance the infrastructure, the municipality purchases the sites at the value
attached to the sites before the development. Afterwards, the sites are disposed at the
current market value which is fixed by an expert committee and include increases in
value due to the development. The development and infrastructure are mainly financed
by these proceeds. Additionally, the project is also supported by the state (redevelopment
programme).
By the end of 1999, ca. 3000 persons got or created living space in the development
area on their own. Additionally, about 40 000 m2 space for trade and social/cultural
facilities were opened and users are still interested in getting suitable sites in the Südstadt.
A variety of housing forms as well as narrow mixed use have already been realised,
although the project is not finished yet. According to subjective assessment of the local
department of urban redevelopment, there are less cars in the Südstadt than in other
parts of Tübingen while nonmotorised modes are represented more often than in other
districts.
50 C. Sessa
Bristol “Legible City”: In Bristol, walking is promoted providing clearer way finding
and information by means of the project “Bristol Legible City,” which is an important
element of the Local Transport Plan. Indeed, Bristol Legible City is one of the main
priorities of the city council and its partners over the next 10 years. It is a unique concept
that seeks to integrate a comprehensive programme of transportation, information,
identity and arts projects to improve people’s understanding, experience and enjoyment
of the city. The initiative is based on the relation between urban design and movement.
A new sign and information system should provide a unified identity for the city being
userfriendly to all, including those who are disabled. It targets linking together diverse
parts of the city with a flow of consistently designed information. Further aims are to
provide a cleaner greener environment and to encourage people to walk, cycle or to take
the bus.
Future developments: In the future, the scheme will be extended to other areas of the
city, including bus stops, information booths, telephone kiosks and markers at transport
interchanges. It is anticipated to extend the signage system to cater for the needs of
cyclists too. The interactive information points will be upgraded to provide a journey
planning facility which is already available in some other cities. In addition, a public
arts programme will integrate artists’ work into the community, creating areas with
their own identities using sculpture, architecture and street furniture to provide easily
recognisable navigation points.
Management of Bristol Legible City: The initiative Legible City Bristol is developed by
the City Council in partnership with a wide range of local business organisations and
national government initiatives. The initiative is backed by the major partners in Bristol’s
regeneration strategy: the South West Regional Development Agency, Bristol Chamber
of Commerce and Initiative, Broadmead Board (representing the interests of the central
shopping area), the Harbourside Sponsors Group and Bristol Tourism and Conference
Bureau. The current partnership involves therefore both the public and the private sector
and is facilitated by the City Council. The initiative is coordinated by a consultancy,
City ID, on behalf of Bristol City Council. Staff from the city council, who have been
involved in the initiative, come mainly from within the department of environment,
transport and leisure. These include officers involved in urban design, planning, trans
port engineering and arts development. However, because the initiative is crosscutting
different sectors, staff from other departments have also been involved (such as the
department for neighbourhood and housing services). Furthermore, since the initiative
is a partnership, it also involves collaboration with a number of external agencies, such
as public transport operators, bus shelter manufacturers, car park operators/managers
and tourism organisations.
Evaluation: Evaluation was limited but the initiative coordinators recognised that this
needs to be done. It is, however, difficult to quantify many of the benefits of the
individual elements of such an initiative and identify how much of an impact they had for
changes in, for example, walking and cycling. In the Local Transport Plan (July, 2000),
a prospective monitoring programme was outlined. Accordingly, 30 new Automatic
Traffic Count sites had to be installed and the size of the Automatic Cycle Counter
network increased. Cycling data will be collected at a number of key workplaces three
times per year. The citywide programme of journey time surveys undertaken in 1993
and 1996/1997 will become biennial. Further, a programme of household interview
surveys was starting and three study areas will be surveyed in a rolling programme,
covering one area per year.
Merseyside cycling strategy: Over the past 20 years the economy of Merseyside in the
UK has undergone a period of structural decline in high employment industries which
has contributed to a persistent negative image of the area. Due to the high rate of
unemployment, a lot of people do not own a car and are dependent on lowcost modes
of transport.
Linking main residential areas and main employment sites by a cycle network: It is
mainly planned to extend the cycle network of main routes to areas in the outskirts to
52 C. Sessa
improve the accessibility to industrial and residential areas by nonmotorised modes and
to increase the share of cycling on working trips. There are also going to be District
Cycling Strategies for each of the five districts of Merseyside. The implementation of a
cycle network across Merseyside by 2012 is a target of the Local Transport Plan which
aims to create a fully integrated and sustainable transport network for Merseyside. The
core cycle network connects the residential areas to the main employment sites, and it
was completed by the end of the first period (2001–2006), the remainder of the network
by 2012.
The measure aims to link the Special Investment Areas, which are the new focal points
for employment initiatives, to the Pathway Areas being areas of social need. The network
is dependent partly on funding through the Objective 1 Programme and is supported by
the Single Programming Document. The Merseyside’s Objective 1 Programme contains a
wide range of initiatives which aim to create 56 500 additional jobs over the Programme
period (2000–2006). A main aim of the Local Transport Plan, therefore, is to ensure that
transport provision is of the highest quality to serve these areas, and the cycle strategy
will consequently focus on linking the Pathways and the Investment Areas.
Evaluation: As the implementation has not been finished yet, there are no results by now.
The target is to quadruple the modal share of cycling by 2012 which means an increase
of the share to 4% by 2006 and to 8% by 2012. Concerning the monitoring of the modal
share, currently, the baseline is taken from the countywide survey which is carried out
every 5 years. This is thought to be too small a base (around a 1000 households), and
there is a real problem in getting a monitoring framework and a baseline. The last results
available showed that the levels of cycling were very small and had fallen, but this figure
was not thought to be statistically accurate. Difficulties also occur due to insufficient
resources. So far, a lack of personnel and financial resources has caused late delivery of
the strategy and also a scaling down of the original cycle network. As money is allocated
to other modes, cycling receives a very low proportion of the available resources.
Taking into account the findings of the TRANSPLUS case studies, two main approaches
related to car restriction oriented development can be distinguished: projects related to
new urban developments and projects dealing with reallocation of existing urban space.
Car restriction measure: The project was conceived as a carfree settlement. The usual
erection of garage buildings was left out. Where the usual relation of car boxes per flat is
a ratio of 1:1, in the project, it is only 1:10. These car boxes are installed exclusively for
the use of cars of the carsharing company that is linked to the project. The inhabitants
can only use these cars. The settlement is clearly addressed to inhabitants who prefer to
54 C. Sessa
live without a car. Therefore, inhabitants must sign a binding declaration not to own a
car while living in Floridsdorf. This declaration includes all members of a household.
Evaluation: The left out garages led to possibilities of alternative land use. The freed up
space is used for installing more facilities for leisure and for common use, which goes far
beyond the average amount. First, a large green area could be realised, not only because
there was more space for it but also because leaving out garages saved financial resources
that could be invested in another way. Second, the planning was orientated towards
bicycles and public transport. An optimal connection with the cycleroutenetwork and
the PTnetwork were the basic conditions concerning traffic planning.
PT is available and car accessibility is good, parking space can be reduced to a limited
extent (Blocations). Finally, PT is almost absent and car dependency is at a maximum
for Clocations.
The policy works both ways. It tries to allocate companies that are looking for a new
place of business to locations with matching accessibility profiles. At the same time
the policy tries to improve the accessibility of locations according to the mobility pro
files of the present companies. In general, the parking policy is included in the spatial
plans, but the ABCparking norms are rarely fully implemented. At the local level, the
parking policy isn’t as rigorously implemented as subscribed by the national author
ity. Municipalities fear that a stringent parking policy will prevent companies from
establishing themselves in the territory of the municipality and move to other locations
in the neighbourhood with a less restricted policy. However, not all experiences are
negative. The movement of Dutch Ministry of Housing, Physical Planning and the Envi
ronment to an Alocation very close to the central station of The Hague was successful.
While before the removal, about 40% of the employees used their car to commute,
after the removal this percentage was only 28%, a decrease of 12%. The use of public
transport grew from 30% to 65%. In total, around 70% of the employees changed
their mode.
Reallocation of existing urban public space includes several measures, such as private
car accessibility regulation, parking policy or reallocation of road space.
Tübingen – Traffic policy for the historical city centre: In 1977, the council set up
a framework plan concerning the redevelopment of the historical city centre. Among
other things, this plan includes a new traffic policy for the city centre. An aim was that
traffic disappears from the centre and is kept at the edge of it. Around the city centre,
a circle of offstreet parking facilities was planned which should catch car flows. The
concept has been realised in a long period, completed by a Parking Space Management
System. Although the plan was set up in 1977, the realisation was just finished in
the 1990s.
The city centre was planned as a pedestrian area with improved cycle facilities. Now
the historical centre is divided in parts that are purely pedestrian zones and parts that
are traffic restricted. The access for private cars is only possible in the early morning.
Parking places are offered to a limited extent only. The offstreet parking facilities have
been realised in the form of an underground car park. An evaluation carried out in the
1990s has shown that the Parking Space Management System led to a reduction of 11%
of cars entering the city centre. The Parking Space Management System covers the entire
city centre, including the adjoining districts to avoid pushasideeffects within parking
56 C. Sessa
behaviour. The concept includes shorttime parking lots (between 15 min and 2 h) and
long time parking as well, at appropriate areas.
The main objectives concerning car restriction are reducing motorised individual traffic
by reducing longterm parking by nonresidents, as well as enhancing the appeal for PT
use by giving it priority over individual motor traffic. Another important objective is to
Achieving Sustainable Cities with Integrated Land Use and Transport Strategies 57
improve traffic safety for pedestrians by reducing illegal parking and opening additional
public space for pedestrians and cyclists.
Bristol – Road Hierarchy Review – “Scope Route”: The basis of Bristol’s plans for
reallocating road space is the Road Hierarchy Review, which proposes two among five
road categories to be featured as arteries for public transport, walking and cycling –
rather than private vehicular traffic, especially through traffic – and the consequent
reallocation of road space. The two categories are the roads within “Environmental
Cells” and the socalled “Transport Greenways” for nonmotorised modes. Based on
that Bristol is promoting the idea of “environmental cells” combined with “home zones.”
The idea of environmental cells is that main roads would form a strategic network and
the spaces in between these routes would be termed environmental areas, where priority
is given to pedestrian and nontransport urban functions. Home zones are residential
streets in which the road space is shared between drivers of motor vehicles and other
road users, including pedestrians and cyclists (Figure 4.9).
An example of the reprioritisation of part of the road network is seen in the case of
the historic “Centre” area which is surrounded by the City Centre Loop – the “Scope
Route” – which diverts traffic around the city centre. This is an example of the positive
outcome of the Road Hierarchy Review.
Six months after the opening of Bristol’s remodelled centre, a survey showed collectively
a 15% fall in the traffic passing through. Further work will be required to ascertain
whether traffic has really “evaporated” or whether all or most of it has diverted onto
the City Centre Loop and elsewhere. The various land use and transport measures are
summarised in Table 4.1 below.
58 C. Sessa
Figure 4.9: Picture of scope route – part of the road hierarchy review
(© city of Bristol)
(Continued)
Achieving Sustainable Cities with Integrated Land Use and Transport Strategies 59
So far we have presented examples of integrated land use and transport measures. How
ever, to be effective, the single measures have to be combined into coherent strategies.
This is more easily said than done, because there are numerous barriers to the integration
of different policies as needed, due to local circumstances and barriers which have been
analysed in the TRANSPLUS case studies.
These case studies also illustrate important processes and key factors of success for the
implementation of integrated land use and transport strategies. In short, the basis for
good implementation seems always to require:
• the presence of a broad strategic concept for the city which integrates sectoral
policies in a comprehensive strategy;
• a high relevance given to co-operation between the different administrative depart
ments within the city and across different tiers of government (municipal, regional,
in some cases even national), and increasingly between public and private actors;
• the involvement of stakeholders and inhabitants in the development of a vision
for the City of Tomorrow or into planning processes.
Based on the TRANSPLUS case studies findings, the following are some key elements
that may ensure the successful implementation of integrated land use and transport
strategies.
Integrated strategic concepts as a basis for policy implementation: The main goals
and principles for the city development, for example, land use decisions, are usu
ally agreed upon and presented in a structural plan. In some cases, this repre
sents the main driver to coordinate the process between different departments
(e.g. urban planning, traffic and environmental departments) and, in a number of
cases, to combine the views of different authorities where responsibilities overlap.
Achieving Sustainable Cities with Integrated Land Use and Transport Strategies 61
Thus, the agreement on strategic concepts is achieved between the relevant administra
tive and political authorities. Definition of a vision for the city development becomes
a cornerstone to create common awareness of the main problems the city has to cope
with, to focus goals before project realisation and to develop a comprehensive strategy.
This was a huge motivational factor for some cities. On the contrary, in several exam
ples of “bad practice” consensus on a common strategic concept was not achieved. In
this case, a narrow approach to planning was taken, leading to the isolated treatment
of some land use and transport issues, and not enabling a timely management of side
effects.
From monocentric to polycentric structures: The new vision on the preferred urban
form makes a shift from the compact monocentric agglomeration with one multifaceted
urban centre to a polycentric region with a varied set of multifunctional urban centres.
The main goal is to develop a limited number of good accessible, multifunctional urban
centres, with a concentration of activities and high density settlement. The new plan
outlines a large number of policies and spatial principles for the realisation of the new
urban centres, amongst which the most important are:
• Intensifying existing urban areas: a number of the new urban centres should be
located inside the central city. Due to scarcity of development land, this requires
imaginative solutions. The city has set out a range of measures to intensify current
builtup area and especially the current monofunctional subcentres.
• Mixing functions within existing and new centres: The intensification of the
existing subcentres should include different functions. The local land use plans
will allow residential, recreational and other functions within these new centres,
and the city will actively pursue the inclusion of these functions in the project
plans made for the several subcentres.
• Selective development/hierarchy in centres: The city has chosen to determine the
size and function of the centres based on the position of the centre in public trans
port networks (international, national, interregional and regional). The profile of
the centres will be described in terms of specialisation, characteristics, and level
62 C. Sessa
Intermobil region Dresden: With the project “intermobil region Dresden,” the Dresden
city administration provides in cooperation with other partners a very comprehensive
policy package to promote sustainable urban development. The strategy is not only
Achieving Sustainable Cities with Integrated Land Use and Transport Strategies 63
focused on Dresden but includes surrounding municipalities too. The concept consists
of seven modules based on a mix of soft and hard policies to promote sustainable
transport and urban development. Besides providing a lot of innovative projects in
the field of transport (for instance “flexible light rail,” “electronic ticketing in public
transport”), the soft policy modules of “intermobil region Dresden” are of main interest
for integrated transport and land use planning. Integrated regional management of land
use is an important element of the project.
In this context, the investigation is about how to avoid spatial developments which
generate traffic. After German reunification in 1990, Dresden was an interesting
64 C. Sessa
example of how the choice of locations for living and working affects the success of
environmental friendly modes of transport. When choosing a new location for living,
people are often not aware of the fact that the new location will have influences on their
mode choice, for instance because the new location is not connected to public transport.
Therefore, the module “demand management” consists of different work packages such
as integrated regional management of land use, location and mobility management for
private households, mobility behaviour, and so on. It supports the usage of the public
transport system while giving advice for choice of locations and mode choice.
Step by step implementation process: Often relevant policy changes cannot be imple
mented at once in the whole city. This may be caused by a number of reasons, and thus
only a step by step implementation process seems to be an effective way to proceed. Usu
ally, the measures can be limited to a specific area where more favourable circumstances
enable (or more stringent needs require) the implementation of land use and transport
integrated concepts. For example, in some of the TRANSPLUS case studies, inner city
areas lost their original function and are considered as suitable sites to implement com
prehensive regeneration projects. These brownfield sites combine a lot of advantages
and can be reused paying due consideration to the needs of pedestrians, cyclists and
PT, and so on. Furthermore, redevelopment of these areas can be seen as pilot projects
to highlight the advantages of compact structures and to try out new planning forms.
Another positive aspect of a step by step implementation process is that it safeguards
stakeholders from being confronted with extensive projects that substantially affect their
usual patterns of mobility and, thus, their acceptance can be increased.
Proceedings and objectives: In this case, an integrated vision of urban redevelopment and
upgrading of a railway station was in place, but no attempts were intentionally made
to come to a “oneblock” implementation plan for the entire project. The realisation
of the project depended instead on the permanent attention of the administration for
partial realisation whenever opportunities occurred. The project fits within the objectives
of the “Spatial Structure Plan for Flanders,” aiming at qualitative housing (along the
water), good accessibility with public transport and bicycles, high (or medium) density
and proximity of and mixing with nonpolluting industries. The project implementation
started with the development of the environment of the railway station Dampoort and
of Houtdok, the old part of the harbour and the building of the new bridge across the
dockyard between Muidenlaan and Afrikalaan.
High public transport accessibility of the future mixed-use area: For the restructuring of
the former industrialised city part to a residential and retail area, a number of important
infrastructure measures needed to be taken, including road projects and the upgrading of
railway stations. In the Hinge project also some experiments with new transport systems,
for example, people movers, can be considered. This connection will relieve pressure on
the inner city ring way R40. Together with the development of the Dampoort station as
a regional node, a number of tramways will be extended.
Empirical evidence from TRANSPLUS case studies shows that the benefits of promoting
participation in LUT planning processes overcome the drawbacks that could be fore
seen. The development of citizens’ ideas, the greater openness and transparency of the
processes are major advantages. The main drawbacks are related with the delays caused
by the time consuming public engagement process. Nevertheless, consultation and partic
ipation are now becoming more widespread and expected as part of normal procedures
in planning, development and implementation of integrated projects. Some examples
of participation processes observed in the TRANSPLUS case studies are described
below.
Non-participation Participation
Low costs Strong understanding
Relatively quick Strong commitment
Clear leadership of the process Increased acceptability
Advantages
The Urban Level: At this level, citizens and stakeholders are the target of several infor
mation tools:
Within the working process of the traffic concept 78 citizens’ initiatives and several
individual citizens were included in several discussion forums and workshops and also
in the development team.
The Project level creation of a common consensus: On the project level, there exists a tool
of citizen participation called “Bürgerbeteiligungsverfahren.” For projects coordinated
by the municipality, this tool became a formal part of the planning process. The
Achieving Sustainable Cities with Integrated Land Use and Transport Strategies 67
preparation phase consists of information campaigns, opinion polls and interviews, dis
cussion forums and workshops about the planned project. After that a planning group
is formed which integrates planners, politicians, people from city and district adminis
tration, single citizens or citizens’ initiatives and representatives from the local economy.
This planning group discusses the project in several meetings moderated by independent
chairmen and develops solutions as a basis for policy decisions. Meeting minutes are
published with the aim to inform all citizens and stakeholders about the progress of the
planning. A common consensus can be found in this way on the project level.
Political Departments
Discussion rounds
City Congres
Discussion paper
Concept Concept
structure plan provincial plan
Organisation of three discussion platforms: First, there were three rounds of explorative
investigations into trends, preferences and interests. The material was published and
opened for discussion. At the same time, the political level made a draft of their vision on
Amsterdam (Hub Amsterdam), initiating three discussion platforms: a discussion among
organised groups in the society, a discussion among experts and a discussion among polit
ical entities. These discussions are synthesised in a publication called “Capita Selecta”
and presented at a congress. After three years of explorations and discussions, the depart
ment of urban planning made a discussion paper which included three alternative visions
and a preference of the department itself for one of the three. On basis of this paper, a
new participation phase started. There were large gatherings across the city, presenta
tions on all regular meetings with other institutional bodies, expert meetings and so on.
Final discussion on the district level: In the end, the department outlined a new concept
paper with the central choices that have to gain political approval. This paper has
been published in February 2001. It was then open for discussion with emphasis on
coordination among the partners involved (neighbouring municipalities, etc.) at the
district level.
4.3.6 Tübingen
Redeveloping the former military area in Tübingen, new concepts such as providing
short distances, restriction of private cars and others were implemented. However, the
implementation was discussed pragmatically with the people concerned. Particularly in
the beginning, the local newspaper was used to make the project wellknown. The urban
redevelopment department described the Südstadt development plans as a supplement
in the local newspaper (received by every household) and added a questionnaire that the
citizen should send back commenting their opinion. The response was predominantly
positive. There were workshops on different themes. Altogether, the discussion was good,
and all problems were mentioned and not circumvented. The people knew what they
got involved in (e.g. that it is not possible to park in front of the house), and as a result,
the inhabitants of Südstadt are proud of their quarter. Altogether, the participation of
citizens led to higher acceptance. A committee consisting of representatives of the city
council as well as informed citizens has been established. The citizens are not entitled to
vote but can discuss in the committee.
Integrated land use and transport planning is considered one of the instruments to
promote a more rational use of private cars and sustainable land use and transport in
European cities and regions. The selected case studies showed that there is a transport
problem and that integrated land use and transport is needed to make a city sustainable
in the longer term. While scholars often separate the transport and land use fields of
research, practitioners have to deal with the many interdependencies between them. Also
citizen participation matters. Moreover, politicians, decisionmakers, citizens and the
different categories of stakeholders shall become fully aware of sustainability concerns,
of how integrated land use and transport policy need their active and durable support
and of the extent to which these policies may help to achieve urban sustainability goals.
Achieving Sustainable Cities with Integrated Land Use and Transport Strategies 69
REFERENCES
Chapter 5
The challenges in urban development differ somewhat with the size of the settlement,
but one problem is common to all:
During recent decades, urban growth usually happened in ways contradictory to the
concept of sustainable settlement development, although this concept is theoretically
agreed on in many of the relevant policies. Suburbanisation produced spatially diffused
and functionally segregated settlement structures – sprawl – around cities and towns,
while the population of the generally more compact historic parts declined. This
continuing trend causes growth in traffic volumes, resulting in increased pressures on
the environment (such as pollution from exhaust fumes or climate problems due to
carbon dioxide emissions). It also compromises the effects of many measures aimed
at promoting sustainable transport modes.
(Gaffron et al., 2005, p. 7)
The structure of sprawl and the resulting problems are described in more detail in a
Communication from the European Union (EU) Commission:
The siting of employment, retail and leisure centres outside urban areas, for instance
around motorway junctions, undermines the economic viability of the city centre as a
commercial district, encourages car use and excludes citizens who do not have access
to a car from these jobs and services.
(Commission of the European Communities, 2004, p. 26)
As a result of these growth patterns, resources such as land and energy, which should be
preserved for future generations, are used excessively. Large areas are occupied by the
structures of sprawl, and the consumption of limited fossil fuels continues to increase,
especially for transport. The environment, which should provide a basis for the life of
71
72 Ph. Gaffron et al.
future generations as well as human health and overall quality of life are impaired by
the effects of this excessive use of resources.
In contrast to these trends, the objectives of the EU for the development of sustainable
settlements and for the improvement of urban environments specifically call for ‘support
[for] a polycentric, balanced urban system and promot[ion of] resourceefficient settle
ment patterns that minimise landtake and urban sprawl’ (Commission of the European
Communities, 1998, p. 6 and 15).
These issues lay at the core of the project ECOCITY, which was defined as a vision
of a sustainable and liveable city or town to be implemented in a smaller settlement
unit, that is, a model quarter or neighbourhood as an example for the desirable future
development of the community as a whole. The overall objective was to plan sustainable
urban neighbourhoods with an emphasis on the requirements for an environmentally
compatible transport system. Sustainable solutions for other relevant sectors – energy,
material flows, socioeconomy – were also to be designed to generate an urban envi
ronment promoting sustainable lifestyles – implying higher quality of life and reduced
consumption of resources.
The resulting ECOCITY vision and the benefits of its implementation as well as the sec
toral ECOCITY objectives and the principles of integrated participatory planning, which
were recommended for planning the model settlements, are described in Section 5.3.
In contrast to other Land Use and Transport Research (LUTR) projects, the emphasis
in the ECOCITY project was placed less on research and analysis and more on bringing
together solutions and measures in the plans for the model settlements, that were in
part already tried and tested in other good practice projects but had previously not
been combined in concepts spanning all the relevant sectors of urban development (as
detailed above). These concepts for model ECOCITIES thus represent the main project
output (see Section 5.5), which together with the experiences made during the planning
process (see Sections 5.6–5.8) can provide input for decisionmakers dealing with similar
planning tasks. First, however, the next section will provide a short review of the links
between urban patterns and transport.
In their studies, Newman and Kenworthy provided many arguments underscoring the
importance of designing urban patterns, which are favourable for sustainable transport
(e.g. Newman and Kenworthy, 1999). They compared annual travel demand and the
Planning Urban Structures for Sustainable Transport 73
resulting transportation energy use per capita (which is a key indicator for sustainability)
for cities with different landuse patterns and found large differences between compact
European and Asian cities on the one hand and dispersed American cities (where the
key figures were 2–3 times higher) on the other hand, showing a correlation of density
with the degree of car dependence. There is a rather long list of constraints acting upon
automobiledependent cities in the areas of economic efficiency (costs), environmental
responsibility (impacts), social equity (access) and human liveability (loss in quality of
life), which defines a need for action. One of the main (impending) constraints seems to
be the availability of oil – several studies show that the time of increasing oil production
is almost over, and a decline is about to begin (e.g. Campbell, 1991). The currently
common approach of dealing with these constraints through incremental, largely tech
nological adaptations appears to be insufficient – the increased energy efficiency of cars,
for example, is counteracted by increasing travel distances and heavier vehicles, while
attempting to increase social equity by promoting carownership increases environmen
tal impacts. Thus more fundamental longterm changes in the urban system and urban
patterns will be necessary (e.g. to decrease travel distances, thus reducing costs, impacts,
losses in quality of life and the dependence on cars).1 The goal should be to provide
facilities and services in close proximity to where people live, preferably within walking
distance or a short journey by bicycle or public transport because ‘it is not possible to
solve sustainability in cities without addressing automobile dependence’ (Newman and
Kenworthy, 1999, pp. 42–47, 334–335). There is a particular urgency to instigate such
strategic and longterm approaches as soon as possible – especially for new develop
ments – because the long lifespan of (newly) built structures perpetuates their effects for
a long time.
In planning for land use and transport, it is important to differentiate between means
and ends to produce solutions which are appropriate to the purpose. Transport, for
example, is generally a means while accessibility and mobility – as defined in the project
(see Box 5.1) – are the end (just as insulation and heating installations would be means
where warm rooms are the end).
Box 5.1: Definitions of Mobility and Accessibility as Used in the ECOCITY Project
In the ECOCITY project, mobility and accessibility were seen to describe the same
state of affairs from different points of view:
High mobility – as a characteristic of people – is determined by the ability to reach
a great number of destinations within the shortest possible time while covering the
shortest possible distance (rather than covering long travel distances at high speeds
to reach the same number of destinations).
Good accessibility – as a characteristic of urban structures – is understood as the
provision of destinations that are close to origins in space and in time, complemented
by the availability of highquality, environmentally compatible transport links (direct,
barrierfree pedestrian and cycle routes and attractive public transport routes).
1
The mutual dependence between land use and transport and the advantage of complementary measures
in both sectors to maximise synergies towards a ‘more sustainable’ outcome are also addressed in the
introductory Chapter 2 to this book.
74 Ph. Gaffron et al.
Thus there is only an indirect demand for cars and roads, while the direct demand
is for the accessibility of destinations. This demand should be met through the most
appropriate and efficient means. The priority for a truly sustainable city would thus be
a combination of urban patterns of proximity (short distances) and attractive networks
of pedestrian and cycle paths.
In the ECOCITY project, the overall aim was to keep sight of the ends and design the
most sustainable means to meet them. Model settlements (urban quarters) were designed
for specific sites in the seven municipalities involved to intensify the implementation of
agreed principles and to demonstrate the feasibility and desirability of future urban liv
ing compatible with sustainability requirements. While the chosen municipalities differ
in size, the focus lay on small to mediumsized towns and cities, which is where the
majority of people in Europe is still living. Where favoured by the location, the option
of linking smaller urban centres by highquality public transport and concentrating fur
ther development along the transport axis was considered. Additionally to the different
sizes, the diversity in climate zones, site location and urban contexts (greenfields, brown
fields, etc.) contributed to showing the possibility of sustainable solutions under different
circumstances.
To illustrate the vision of an ECOCITY, the features of a community, which would fulfil
these goals, were brought together in Figure 5.1. Agreeing on such a vision of the final
aim is helpful when discussing and agreeing on the steps and measures that need to be
taken along the way. It can also help in promoting overall awareness of the idea of an
ECOCITY. The building blocks of this vision are not ranked in any particular order of
importance, as all are required to reach the goal while their relative contribution varies
from case to case.
Due to the close interrelations of transport with other sectors, especially the urban struc
ture, minimising transport demand is a key element in fulfilling the vision: It contributes
to minimising material and energy consumption (for motorised means of transporta
tion) as well as to minimising the impairment of the natural environment and also
the impairment of people’s health and safety (caused by transport, predominantly car
traffic).
Planning Urban Structures for Sustainable Transport 75
City of
City of
balanced
short distances
mixed use
This in turn increases human wellbeing. The city of short distances – the appropriate
urban structure for minimising transport demand – is thus a central feature of the
ECOCITY vision. It is a main requirement for maximising the accessibility of various
destinations and thus maximising mobility for everyone (see definitions in Box 5.1).
Table 5.1: Benefits for different actors from land-use and transport aspects
in an ECOCITY
Due to the interdependence of land use and transport, there is also positive feedback
between both:
2
The text on benefits is based on subchapter 2.1 of ECOCITY Book II, ‘How to make it happen’
(Gaffron et al., 2007)