Chapter 3: Antennas For Wireless Systems

Chapter 3: Antennas for Wireless Systems 1
Terrestrial and Satellite-based Radio Systems 3-FS-antennas.doc

3. Antennas for wireless systems
Various antennas are used depending on
- the frequency range, e.g. 1) dipole antennas f < 2 GHz
2) aperture antennas f > 1 GHz
- the properties being required 3) omni-directional antenna diagram,
e.g. line circuit stations in satellite mobile radio
4) very directional antenna diagram,
e.g. receiving antenna for satellite-TV
5) polarization (linear or circular)
6) compactness
7) cost
8) steerable / scanning (mechanically or electronically)

Within the scope of this lecture we will focus on three types of antennas most often used in
wireless communication systems (more types and the fundamental principles are given in the
antenna lecture):
1. aperture antennas (high-gain antennas) f > 1 GHz, G > 15 dB
2. dipole antennas (crossed-dipole) f < 2 GHz, G < 15 dB
3. antenna arrays
to scan the antenna diagram (tracking)
to increase the directivity and resolution
for multi-beams to increase the capacity
for interference suppression by space filtering

The antennas on board of a satellite serve for up-link signal receiving and for radiation of
down-link signals. The various types of antennas ranges from dipole antennas with omni-
directional characteristics to antennas with a narrow beamwidth for high gain used for wide-
distance links.

3.1 Aperture antennas
Usually beam shaping of high-gain antennas is accomplished by reflectors, mostly parabolic
reflectors. The antenna gain of a parabolic antenna in comparison to an isotropic radiator and
the 3-dB-beamwidth (Half Power BeamWidth, HPBW) respectively is given by

( )
2
2
0 0 2 2
4 4
ap
e
rad t rad phy ap ap
A
D
G D A a
c
t t t
c c c c t c

| |
= = = =
|
\ .
with
ap
0.3 0.8
64.65
4 180 57.3... 62.5
~ ~
ap ap
c k
HPBW
D D

t t c c
in [deg],
where indicates the wavelength, D the reflector diameter and c
ap
the aperture efficiency of
the antenna. The latter consists of the aperture taper efficiency c
t
and the radiation efficiency
c
rad
of the antenna and usually the losses for horn- and reflector antennas can be neglected
(c
rad
~ 1):
c
t
= 1 for constant distribution along the aperture
c
t
~ 0.8 for cos-distribution along the aperture
c
t
~ 0.6 for cos
2
-distribution along the aperture
Example: Parabolic reflector with c
ap
= 0.6 for 12 GHz.

D in m 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 2 5 10 20 30
D/ 16 25 32 40 80 200 400 800 1200
G in dB 31.8 35.3 37.8 39.8 45.8 53.7 59.8 65.8 69.3
HPBW
in deg
4.38 2.9 2.2 1.75 0.88 0.36 0,18 0.091 0.063

The relation D/ is the decisive parameter (value?) in above equations, because the gain
factor is proportional to (D/)
2
and the beamwidth is inversely proportional to D/.

Examples of area coverage:

The area coverage can be determined by the following approximation, where the satellite
antenna with diameter D
1
produces a footprint (area coverage) with diameter of about a
1
on
Earth for small HPBW.
2
1
1 1
|
.
|
\
|
=
t
c
D
G
ap
and
1
1 1
57.3
=
ap
HPBW
D
c

d
a
HPBW
1
1
tan ~
1
1 1
57.3
180
~
ap
a d
D
t
c
for small HPBW
1

A
n
t
e
n
n
a

g
a
i
n

[
d
B
]

1.5 GHz
4 GHz
50 GHz
30 GHz
12 GHz
100 GHz
Aperture diameter [m]
1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 0.5 1 0
0
70
20
10
30
60
50
40
0.6
ap
c =
2
10 lg
ap
D
G
t
c

| |
=

|
\ .

H
a
l
f
-
P
o
w
e
r

B
e
a
m
W
i
d
t
h

[
d
e
g
]

0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
1.5 GHz
4 GHz
12 GHz
30 GHz
50
40
30
20
10
0
1
57.3
ap
HPBW
D
c
~
6 . 0 =
ap
c

H
a
l
f
-
P
o
w
e
r

B
e
a
m
W
i
d
t
h

[
d
e
g
]

0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
1.5 GHz
4 GHz
12 GHz
30 GHz
50
40
30
20
10
0
1
57.3
ap
HPBW
D
c
~
6 . 0 =
ap
c
Fig. 3-1: Gain and half-power beamwidth of aperture antennas.

D1
D
2
Elliptical
reflector
Feed horn
HPBW
1

HPBW2
3 dB gain
contour
Service area
=Required flux density (dBW/m
2
)
at given frequency and polarization
1 2
1 2
57.3 57.3
; = =
ap ap
HPBW HPBW
D D

c c
( )
2 2
1 1 2
1 2
57.3
| |
= =
|
\ .
ap
G D D
HPBW HPBW
t t
c
Earth
Satellite

Fig. 3-2: Elliptically shaped area coverage on Earth by an
elliptically shaped reflector antenna.

Sat 1
Area
coverage
HPBW
1
a
1
Earth
d
d
a
HPBW
1
1
) tan( ~
d
a
HPBW
1
1
~ for small HPBW
1


Cross-polarisation of an reflector antenna
Cross-polarization is produced from the reflector curventure deviating from a plane. It causes
cross coupling or cross talk from one polarization channel (e.g. a channel with horizontal
polarization) to another polarization channel (e.g. a channel with vertical polarization) in the
same frequency band or in overlapping frequency bands.
Reduction of cross polarization by
- high f/D (accomplishable through compact Cassegrain or Gregorian configurations)
- offset-feeding

- Especially for ground stations (Earth stations) high-gain Cassegrain-, Gregorian- or
Parabolic-antennas are utilized with the following properties
extreme high gain (G)
extreme narrow Beam (HPBW)
reduction of interferences with adjacent satellite links in the same frequency range

Example: C-band antenna system

1
2
3
Service
area
contour
TX 1
TX 2
TX 3
Feeds
Signals at
different
frequencies

Fig. 3-3: Multibeam antenna with three contiguous beams
operating at different frequencies.

Fig. 3-4: Parabolic reflector antennas.

Fig. 3-5: Cassegrain antenna.


Fig. 3-6: Earth station antenna (Cassegrain).


Fig. 3-7: Antenna requirements.

3.2 Dipole antennas

Ideal dipole with uniform current distribution
Let us first consider an ideal dipole or infinitesimal current element according to the figure
below, to be z-directed and placed in the origin of a co-ordinate system. It is ideal in the sense
that it has
- a very short length (incremental length) compared to the wavelength Az
Q
<<
(typically Az
Q
< /50),
- an extremely small diameter compared to its length d << Az
Q
(infinitesimal small) and
- a current
t j
e I I

=
e
0
(I
0
= peak value in time of the current), which is uniform in both,
magnitude and phase over the radiating element extent Az
Q
, leading to current per m
also in z-direction:

Q
z
z
z
z I dz I J
Q
Q
A
A
A
= =

0
2 /
2 /
0
.
Furthermore, it is assumed that the transmission line does not radiate and radiation from the
end plats is also considered to be negligible. Such a discontinuous current is difficult to
realize in practice. The term current element is often used for the ideal dipole to describe its
application as a section of a larger current distribution associated with actual antennas, which
can be decomposed into filaments of continuous current that are then subdivided into ideal
dipoles. Other terms used for this ideal dipole are Hertzian electric dipole, electric dipole,
infinitesimal dipole and doublet [Stutz], [Bal].
Since the length Az
Q
is very small (Az
Q
<< and Az
Q
<< r
PQ
), the distance r
PQ
from points on
the current element Q(x
Q
=0, y
Q
=0, z
Q
) to the field point P(r, O, u) approximately equals the
distance r from the origin to the field point: r
PQ
~ r .

When r is very large, i.e. in the far-field,
r
E is negligible, remaining just two orthogonal
components,
u
H and
O
E given below. The far fields are shown in Fig. 3-9 below.

0
0
sin
2

sin
2
jkr
Q ff
jkr
Q ff
z
j e
H I
r
E H
z
j e
E I
r
u
O o
O
A
O
n
A
u
O
c
=
`
~

)

0
sin
Q
I z A O
0
cos
Q
I z A O
O
O
r
0 Q
I z A
Transmission
line
End plates
Q
z d A <<
A <<
Q
z
0
I
) (
Q
z Q
) , , ( u O r P
O
E
u
H
av
S
PQ
r
Q
y
Q
z
Q
z
<
=
elsewhere 0
for
) (
0 Q Q
Q
z z I
z I
A
Intrinsic impedance of the medium n; for free-space
0
376.7 n ~
Fig. 3-8:Fields of an infinitesimal
dipole antenna.
The average power density and average power of an ideal dipole are given by
, av r
S
(r, O, u)
2
2
0 2
0
sin
4
Q
r
z
u I
r
A
n O
| |
=
|
\ .
and P
rad
=
2
2
0 0
3
Q
z
I
A
t
n
| |

|
\ .
.
Hence, the radiation resistance for an ideal dipole with uniform current distribution
(s/50), i.e. an input current I
A
= I
0
= const. along the length Az
Q
is given by:
2 2
2
, 0 2
2 2
80
3
Q Q
rad
rad u
A
z z
P
R
I
A A
t
n t

| | | |
= = =
| |
\ . \ .
for s/50 and a uniform current
distribution
0.32 for /50
Q
z A ~ = .

The Fig. 3-9 shows the far field of an ideal dipole, e.g. the angular variation of E
O
and H
u

over a sphere with constant radius r. An electric field probe antenna moved over the sphere
surface and oriented parallel to E
O
will have an output proportional to the normalized pattern
c(O) = sinO. Any plane containing the z-axis has the same radiation pattern of sinO since
there is no u-variation in the fields due to the symmetry of the source. A pattern taken in one
of these planes is called a E-plane pattern because it contains the electric field vector E
O
. A
pattern taken in a plane perpendicular to the E-plane (the x,y-plane in this case) is an H-plane
pattern because it contains the magnetic field H
u
[Stutz]. The complete three-dimensional
pattern for the ideal dipole is shown in Fig.
3-9(d). It is an omni-directional pattern in
azimuth since it is uniform in the x,y-plane.
Omni-directional antennas in azimuth are
very popular particularly in ground-based
mobile communications because of the time-
and space-dependent angular (primarily u-)
variations of the incident wave of the mobile
station due to shadowing and multi-path
effects. The maximum directivity of the
ideal dipole is given by:
2
0, 0
0, 0 0
2
(
( , ) 4
| ( , ) |
u u
c
D D
c d
O
O u
O u t
O u O
= =

=

t t
u O O O
t
0
2
2
0
sin sin
4
d d
=
t
O O t
t
0
3
sin 2
4
d

=
t
O
O O
0
2
cos
3
2
3
cos sin
2

=
2
3
1.76 dB
This means, that in the direction of maximum radiation O
0
, the radiation intensity is 50%
more than that which would occur from an isotropic source radiating the same total power.

Fig. 3-9: Normalized far-field pattern of the ideal dipole
[Bal]: (a) Field components; (b) E-plane radiation pattern;
(c) H-plane radiation pattern; (d) 3D-radiation pattern.
Crossed-Dipole Antenna (Ohmori page 101)
A dipole antenna with a half-wavelength (/2) is the most widely used, e.g. in mobile satellite
communications. A half-wavelength dipole is a linear antenna, whose current amplitude
varies one-half of a sine wave with a maximum at the center.

Far-field of an
2
-dipole:
( )
0
0
2
( )
cos cos
2 sin
P
jkr
P
c
I e
E j
r
O
t
O
O
n
t O
;
0
/ H E
u O
n =
As a dipole antenna radiates linearly polarized waves, two crossed-dipole antennas have been
used in order to generate circular-polarized waves. The two dipoles are geometrically
orthogonal (x and y axes in the Fig. 3-10), and equal amplitude signals are fed to them with
t/2 in-phase difference.

Characteristic of a crossed-dipole antenna ( ) ( ) ( )
1 2
, , , c c c O u O u O u = +
dipole#1: along the x-axis rotational symmetrical around O
u = angle between length axis and
P
r
only dependent from u

( )
1
2
cos cos
( )
sin
c
t
u
u
u
=

dipole#2: along the y-axis rotational symmetrical around O
= angle between length axis and
P
r
only dependent from = 90 - u

( ) ( )
2
2 2
cos cos cos sin
( )
sin cos
c
t t
u
u
= =
Overall pattern of the crossed-dipole with equal amplitudes but with
2
t
in-phase difference:
( )
( ) ( )
2 2
cos cos cos sin
,
sin cos
c j
t t
u u
O u
u u
= +
The patterns ( )
1
c u and ( )
2
c u are indicated in by the thick and thin lines respectively,
within a coordination system. The radiation pattern of a crossed-dipole antenna is also
indicated by the thick line in Fig. 3-10, which is nearly omni-directional in the horizontal
plane. A dipole antenna needs a balun to be excited by coaxial cables, which is an unbalanced
feed line. Further, a 3-dB hybrid (power divider) is generally used to feed a cross-dipole in
order to be able to feed the same power a phase difference of t/2 for each dipole element.
A crossed-dipole antenna has a maximum gain in the boresight direction (z axis direction in
Fig. 3-10). In mobile satellite communications, especially in land-mobile communications,
elevation angles to the satellite are not 90 except immediately under the satellite. In order to
optimize the radiation pattern, a set of dipole antennas are bent toward the ground as shown in

y
x
I(zQ)
2
=
rPQ
r
P
O
z
Q

P
u

HPBW
78
ZQ O
Angle between length axis of the dipole
and far-field point P.
0
0
2
1 for 0
2
( )
2
1 for 0
2
Q
z Q
Q
z Q
z
u I z
I z
z
u I z
| |
s s
|
\ .
=

| |
+ s s
|
\ .

Fig. 3-11, which is called a drooping dipole antenna. The crossed drooping dipole is one of
the most interesting candidates for land-mobile satellite communications, where the required
angular coverage is narrow and almost constant in elevation. By adjusting the height between
the dipole elements and the ground plane and the bending angle of the dipoles, the gain and
elevation pattern can be optimized for the coverage region of interest. Fig. 3-11 shows the
radiation patterns for the antenna designed by Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) which is to be
used over the entire continental Unites States (CONUS). It has a 4-dBi gain [8].

Fig. 3-10: Radiation patterns of a dipole, a cross-dipole, and the
coordination system.
Fig. 3-11: (a) Crossed drooping dipole antenna and (b) its radiation pattern.
3.3 Phased-Array Antennas

Fig. 3-12: Linear phased array with four dipoles.

Several antennas can be arrayed in space to make a directional pattern or one with a desired
radiation pattern. This type of antenna is called an array antenna, which consists of more than
two elements. Each element of an array antenna is excites by equal amplitude an phase, and
its radiation pattern is fixed. On the other hand, the radiation pattern can be scanned in space
by controlling the phase of the exciting current in each element of the array. This type of
antenna is called a phased-array antenna [13], which has many advantages in terms of mobile
satellite communications such as compactness, light weight, high-speed tracking
performance, and potentially low cost.
Arrays are found in many geometrical configurations. The most typical type in mobile
satellite communications is the planar array, in which elements are arrayed in a plane to scan
the beam at both azimuth and elevation angles to track the satellite. Fig. 3-12 shows the most
simple linear phase array that is composed of four elements, which have the same electrical
characteristics, and are arrayed at equal spaces of d along the x axis.
In Fig. 3-12, if each element is excited equally in amplitude, but with different phases, the far
field of the array antenna is given by

( ) ( )
1 2 1 2
3 3
2 2 2 2
sin sin sin sin
d d d d
jkr
jk jk jk jk
e
E c e e e e
r
O+o O+o + Oo + Oo
O O + + +

( ) ( )
1 2 1 2
3 3
2 2 2 2
sin sin sin sin
d d d d
jkr
jk jk jk jk
e
E c e e e e
r
O+o O+o + Oo + Oo
O O + + +

( ) ( ) ( )
1 2
3
2 2
2 cos sin cos sin
jkr
kd kd
e
c
r

= O Oo + Oo

( ) ( )
4
2
jkr
e
c AF
r
= O O

where the phase center is at the coordinate origin, and c(O) is the radiation pattern of the
element. The o
1
and o
2
including their signed are the values of phase shifters, as shown in Fig.
4.15. the coefficient AF is called the array factor. The radiation pattern for the array antenna
is found by multiplying the radiation pattern of the element antenna and the array factor.

The array factors AF
2
and AF
4
of linear arrays with two and four elements, excites by equal
phase (o
1
= o
2
= 0), whose spacing between elements is half a wavelength (d = /2), are as
follows:

( ) ( ) ( )
4
3
2 2
cos sin cos sin AF
t t
u u u = +

Figure 3-12 below shows patterns of array factors for the four-element linear array. The space
between element is half a wavelength. The maximum value was obtained in the boresight
direction (y axis).
The array factor will reach maximum in direction O
0
when cos( ) = 1are satisfied. This can
physically be explained by the fact that the phases of wave fronts become equal, as shown in
Fig. 3-12.

0 1 0 2
3
2 2
sin sin ( 0, 1, 2, )
kd kd
n n u o u o t = = =
Therefore, in case of n = 0

1 0
2
sin
kd
o u = and
2 0
3
2
sin
kd
o u =

It is found that maximum gain can be obtained in the desired direction, and the beam can be
scanned into a desired angle off the boresight direction. The radiation pattern of phased array
antennas with four elements can be calculated by the following equation:

( ) ( ) ( )
4 0 0
3
2
cos sin cos sin sin
s
c sin
t t
u u u u u = +

where u
0
denotes the angle of scanned direction. Each element is assumed to be
nondirectional, and element spacing is half a wavelength (d = /2).

Fig. 3-12 shows radiation patterns of phased array antennas for four-element linear arrays.
The beam is scanned at an angle of 30 degrees.

Chapter 3: Antennas For Wireless Systems

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Chapter 3: Antennas for Wireless Systems 1

Terrestrial and Satellite-based Radio Systems 3-FS-antennas.doc

only dependent from u

only dependent from = 90 - u

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