UNIT-V: ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY.

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Physiology deals with the functioning of an organism. Nutrition involves mode of procurement of nutrient and its utilization for various activities of the life.

Q. Describe the process of digestion of carbohydrates in human beings. Starch, lactose and sucrose are the major source of carbohydrates in human diet. Starch is a polysaccharide whereas lactose and sucrose are disaccharide present in milk and cane sugar respectively. 1. Digestion in mouth: When the food is chewed, it is mixed with saliva which contains starch hydrolyzing enzyme called salivary amylase(ptyalin). Ptyalin hydrolyses starch into maltose and isomaltose. The hydrolyzing activity of the ptyalin continue as long as for several hours after it enter the stomach before the food is completely mixed with gastric juice. Thus around 30-40% of starch are hydrolysed by ptyalin.The acidic pH of the gastric juice inhibit further activity of the ptylin. 2. Digestion in Duodenum: The partly digested food mixed with gastric uice is known as chime. It empties from the stomach into the duodenum where the food is mixed with pancreatic juice. It contains pancreatic amylase hydrolyses starch that have not been already digested into maltose, isomaltose and limit dextrins. STARCH pancreatic amylase MALTOSE + ISOMALTOSE + LIMIT DEXTRINS. 3. Digestion in small intestine: The intestinal juice contains disaccharide such as maltose, isomaltose, lactose, sucrose. They act on their corresponding substrate to produce monosaccharide. a). MALTOSE Maltase GLUCOSE + GLUCOSE b) ISOMALTOSE isomaltase GLUCOSE + GLUCOSE c). LACTOSE lactase GLUCOSE + GALACTOSE d). SUCROSE sucrase GLUCOSE + FRUCTOSE e). LIMIT DEXTRINS limit dextrins GLUCOSE Thus, the overall digestion of carbohydrates produces monosaccharides that can be easily absorbed from the inner walls of the alimentary canal.
Parts of alimentary canal 1. buccal cavity 2. duodenum small intestine Secretions(enz ymes) Salivary amylase Pancreatic amylase Disaccharides substrate products

Starch salivary amylase maltose+isomaltose+limit dextrins Starch pancreatic amylase maltose+isomaltose+limit dextrins a). MALTOSE Maltase GLUCOSE + GLUCOSE b) ISOMALTOSE isomaltase GLUCOSE + GLUCOSE c). LACTOSE lactase GLUCOSE + GALACTOSE d). SUCROSE sucrase GLUCOSE + FRUCTOSE e). LIMIT limit dextrins GLUCOSE

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Digestion of proteins: Q. Describe the process of protein digestion. Meat and the vegetables are the primary source of proteins in human diet. The protein hydrolyzing enzyme are collectively known as proteases. Generally they are produced in inactive In order to prevent intracellular digestion. Such inactive enzymes are known as proenzyme or zymozen. Digestion in stomach: Pepsin and rennin are the protein hydrolyzing enzyme present in the gastric juice. The inactive pepsinogen is converted into active pepsin by acidic pH of the gastric juice. Pepsinogen acidic pH pepsin (inactive) (active) Pepsin begins the digestion of protein in the stomach and hydrolyses into proteases, peptones and polypeptides. However, pepsin cannot hydrolyses milk protein, casein, unless they are converted into curd(calcium paracaseinate). i). Casein rennin paracasein

ii). Paracasein + Ca _______ calcium paracaseinate(curd) iii). Calcium paracaseinate pepsin peptones. Digestion of duodenum: The partly breakdown product of protein are mixed with pancreatic enzymes. The principle protein hydrolyzing enzyme present in pancreatic juice include trypsin, chymotrypsin and carbohydrates. The proteolytic enzymes are activated asTrypsinogen enterokinase trypsin. Chymotrypsinogen trypsin Chymotrypsin. Procarboxypeptidase trypsin carboxypeptidase Trypsin, Chymotrypsin and carboxypeptidase hydrolyse breakdown product of protein into dipeptides and some into amino acids. PROTEASES + PEPTONES trypsin POLYPEPTIDES + AMINO ACIDS . Chymotrypsin Smaller peptides carboxypeptidase dipeptides + amino acids. . Digestion in Smal intestine: The intestinal juice contains dipeptidase that hydrolyze dipeptides into amino acids. The enzymes responsible for final hydrolysis of peptides into amino acids are amino polypeptidase and dipeptidase. Dipeptidase dipeptidase amino acids Amino peptidase Thus, the overall products of protein digestion are amino acids that can be easily absorbed by the cells lining the alimentary canal. Digestion of fat: 1. The most common fat of our diet are neutral fats also known as triglycerides. 2. Triglycerides consists of glycerol and three fatty acids. 3. In addition, our diet also contain phospholipids, cholesterol, cholesterol ester. 4. Digestion of fats mainly occur in the intestine. However, a small amount of short chain triglyceride of butter-fat origin is digested in the stomach by gastric lipase. 5. Essentially all the digestion of fats occur in the small intestine as follows: a). Emulsification: 1. The conversion of large globules into small sizes so that water soluble enzymes can act on the globular surfaces is known as emulsification. It is the first step in fat digestion. 2. This can be achieved by the activity of bile which is a secretion of liver. 3. Bile contains bile salts and carboxy terminals of the bile salts are highly soluble in water whereas sterol portion are soluble in fats. The fat soluble portion of bile salts dissolves in the surface layer of the fat globule thereby decreasing surface tension of the fat, on agitation the fat globules can be easily broken down into many minute particles. b). Digestion of fats by pancreatic lipase: 1. The most important fat hydrolyzing enzyme is pancreatic lipase. The lipase are water soluble and can act only on the emulsified fat to produce monoglycerides, fatty acids and glycerol as the end product. 2. The end products are absorbed from the inner walls of the alimentary canal. Absorption of fats: 1. The hydrolysis of triglyceride is a highly reversible process and the end products of digestion needs to be removed rapidly. 2. Bile salts has a capacity to form micelles and during triglyceride digestion, monoglycerides and free fatty acids are dissolved in the fatty portion of the micelles. 3. The bile salt micelles also act as a transport medium to carry the monoglycerides and fatty acids to the brush border epithelial cells. 4. Since monoglycerides and fatty acids are soluble in lipids are absorbed by simple diffusion inside the muccosal cell. 5. The free fatty acids are reconstituted into triglyceride in the endoplasmic reticulum, once form the triglyceride aggregates into globules with cholesterol, phospholipid into globules. Each globules is coated with protein and are known as chylomicron which are transported into lymphatic vessels called lacteals. Q. Name the enzyme which hydrolyses starch into maltose. Salivary amylase hydrolyses starch into maltose. Q. Starch ptyalin Maltose. State the function of liver. The functions of liver are stated as below:

a). Bile secretion . b) Storage of fat. c). Breakdown of RBC. d). Iron storage. e). Vitamin A synthesis, urea synthesis. f). Primary site of detoxification. g). It is the sire of erythropoesis in foetus. Q. Name the true stomach in ruminant animal. Abomassum(the stomach of ruminant animal consists of four chambers). a). Rumen b). Reticulum c). Omasum d). Abomassum. * A ruminant is an animal with a complicated digestive system in which stmach has four several chambers. Rumen harbour bacteria and protozoa for fermentation of cellulose. The end products of the fermentation include carboxylic acid, carbondioxide and methane. The partially digested food called cud is passed to the second chamber reticulum where it is formed into pellets. It is then regurgitated and thoroughly chewed. This is called rumination or chewing the cud. The food is then reswallowed andn undergoes further fermentation. Eventually the partially digested food is passed through the first three chambers of the gut to reach the abomassum which is the true stomach. Further, food undergoes digestion usual mammalian digestive system. Q. Describe the role of HCl in digestion. Gastric juice is the principle secretion in the stomach. It contains HCl, mucus, two inactive enzyme pepsinogen and pro-rennin and small amount of gastric lipase. The hydrochloric acid plays the following role in digestion. 1. It produces an acidic ph(1-2.5) required for the activation of protein digesting enzyme. 2. It makes stomach content ideal for optimum activity of the stomach. 3. It kills harmful bacteria contaminated with the food and acts as a defence mechanism. 4. It denature many proteins and makes easier to digest. 5. The acid also loosens fibrous and the cellular components of the tissue. Q. How stomach is safe from the action of HCl? There are mechanisms that protect inner lining of the stomach and it is believed that acid in oxyntic cells of gastric glands is secreted near the edge of the cell rather than within the cell itself. Moreover, the freshly secreted acid is immediately diluted with the mucuc(produced by goblet cells). The mucus produced thus form a thick coat lining the walls of the stomach protecting from the damaging effect of HCl. In addition, goblet cells renew lining the stomach that cannot be penetrated by HCl. Q. What are gastric pits? These are long tubular gastric glands formed bny infolding of the epithelials. These are two specialized types of cells, parietal cells and chief cells. Parietal cells secrete HCl whereas chief cells secrete pepsinogen and pro-renin. Q. Why is bile juice important for digestion though it is not involved for digestion? Give three pints. Bile contains water, bile salts and bile pigments but no digestive enzymes. Bile salts are bicarbonates of glycocholate and taurocholate of sodium. It is however important for digestion of fats becausei). It increases the digestive action of lipase. ii). Sodium bicarbonates of bile neutralize acid in the gastric juice and makes chime alkaline necessary for action of proteolytic enzymes. iii). Bile salts emulsify large fat globules into small droplets(emulsification). Q. Give one difference between pepsin and trypsin. Pepsin is secreted by peptic or chief cells of the gastric gland whereas trypsin is secreted by pancreas. Pepsin works at an optimum acidic whereas trypsin works at an optimum ph. Q. Draw the transverse section of the alimentary canal. * Structure of alimentary canal. 1. A transverse section of alimentary canal(gut) has four distinct layers. a). Mucosa b) Sub-mucosa c). Muscularis Externa. d). Serosa Mucosa 1. It consists of the innermost layer of the gut. 2. It has three sub-layer-epithelium, lamina propia muscularis mucosa. 3. Epithelium secrete mucus. 4. Epithelium rests on basement membrane called lamina propia consisting of connective tissue. 5. Outside the lamina propia, there is a thin layer of smooth muscle called muscularis mucosa. Sub-mucosa 1. It is layer of connective tissue containg nerves, blood and lymph vessels, collagen and elastic fibre.

Muscularis externa. 1. It consists of an inner circular and outer longitudinal layer of smooth muscle. 2. It is responsible for wave like peristaltic movement of the gut wall which force food along. 3. Between circular and longitudinal muscle layer is auerbachs plexus. Plexus is a mass of nerve tissue which control peristaltis. 4. At a number of points along the gut, the circular muscles thickens into structures called sphincters. Cardiac sphincters are found at the junction of stomach and duodenum. Similarly, sphincters are present at caecal junction. Serosa 1. It is the outermost coat of the gut wall. 2. The serosa is covered by peritoneum. Q. Name the different pats of the alimentary canal. 1. mouth 2. buccal cavity 3. pharynx 4. Oesophagus 5. Stomach 6. Duodenum 7. Jejunum 8. Ileum 9. Colon 10. Rectum 11. Anus. Q. What are different parts of the stomach? Stomach is T-shaped organ. It has four main parts: 1. Cardiac part: it is present near the heart and lies in the opening of esophagus and stomach which is guarded by sphincter. 2. Fundus: It is commonly filled with air or gas.

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Body: The main part of the stomach is body and has greater curvature.

Pyloric: It is the posterior part of the stomach and present near the opening part of the stomach into small intestine. Pyloric part often divided into pyloric entrum and pyloric canal. Pyloric canal opens into the duodenum. Q. State the function of stomach . 1. It stores food for sometime(the stomach stores food for 4-5 hrs). 2. Churning action of stomach mix food with acidic gastric juice. 3. Castles intrinsic factor necessary for absorption of vitamin B12 is produced. 4. It produces pepsinogen, pro-rennin, HCl, gastric lipase and gastric amylase. 5. Gastrin is a hormone secreted by gastric gland that promote secretion of gastric juice. 6. Inside the stomach, alcohol, aspirin, drugs, moderate amount of sugar and water are absorbed. Q. Define the following terms: a). Dental formula b). Diphyodont c). Heterodont d). Thecodont. a). Dental formula. The arrangement of teeth can be convenient expressed in the form of a dental formula. Dental formula gives number and types of teeth in half of the jaws. Dental formula for human being is 2123/2123*2 or 2[i2/2c1/1pm2/2m3/3] b). Diphyodont: Condition for having two sets of teeth, one is deciduous teeth(milk teeth), appear first and progressively replaced by another set called permanent teeth. c). Heterodont: Conditions having different types of tooth. Human beings have four basic kinds of tooth. They are incisors, canines, premolar and molars. d). Thecodont: Teeth are embedded in the socket of the jaw bone is known is known as thecodont. Q. Draw the generalized structure of a tooth. 1. The visible part of the tooth is known as crown. The crown is covered with enamel which is the hardest substance in the body and relatively resistant to decay. 2. The neck of the tooth is surrounded by gum. 3. The root remain embedded in the jaw bone. The body of the tooth is made up of dentine which is present beneath the enamel. 4. Inside the tooth, there is a pulp cavity that contains odontoplast, nerves, and blood vessels which provides nutrients to the living tissue of the tooth. 5. The root of the tooth is covered with cement, a substance similar to bone.