Researchers Study Motivation in Class

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By Andrea Bennett on March 18, 2009 9:24 AM

USC Rossier School of Education researchers have been examining the role motivation plays in learning in the classroom. The research group known as Motivation, Instruction, Cognition, Language & Literacy was formed by Robert Rueda and Gisele Ragusa two years ago. It includes USC doctoral students as well as faculty from the University of California, Santa Barbara, California State University, Los Angeles, and California State University, Fullerton. The group ultimately aims to provide professional development for teachers and intervention programs for urban youngsters based on the latest knowledge on reading engagement and student motivation. Members of the group engage both in joint projects involving the entire group as well as smaller collaborative and individual projects in this general area of research. Over the past two years, members have conducted focus groups and surveys with teachers regarding their understanding of students motivation to read, and they also have examined the reading and motivational profiles of students in urban school settings. Their work, which has been presented at the American Educational Research Association and at the National Reading Conference, will appear in forthcoming publications. Rueda and Ragusa currently are leading the groups current work - measuring what teachers actually understand about student motivation and what types of motivational profiles struggling urban readers exhibit. The research group surveyed teachers within six urban school districts over the past 18 months. Results of that study will be in Reading Psychology this spring. The government has poured a tremendous amount of money into reading at the national level, but theyve focused on cognitive strategies related to reading and ignored motivation mostly, Rueda said. For whatever reason, historically, weve separated motivation from learning, and the field is coming to realize theyre tied together. You can teach someone cognitive strategies to be a better learner, but if theyre not motivated, it doesnt matter. With the overwhelming focus on basic skills, for instance, children get a lot of practice learning how to pronounce words, but when they get to the third or fourth grade, many do not understand what they are reading, Rueda said, and many see no value in reading. Preliminary results on how much teachers know about student motivation are a mixed bag, Ragusa and Rueda observed. Teachers come with a broad set of reading instruction experiences, Ragusa said. These experiences guide them in their beliefs and in instructional decisions. Some (teachers) do think of motivation as a trait - either you have it or you dont, Rueda noted. Some teachers have a tendency to rely on the notion that the way to affect motivation is to reward kids with extrinsic things, like points or stickers. Thats not the most powerful way to affect motivation, because when the rewards disappear, so does the motivation. Rueda said research shows motivation is a whole constellation of beliefs about how hard a task is, how useful it is to do and how competent one is to do it. Motivation consists of persistence, effort and choice, he said, and it is related to the level of interest and value one places upon a given task. Currently, the approaches educators are trained to take with unmotivated children can initiate a downward spiral for already struggling students and be a selffulfilling prophecy. When kids fail and teachers perceive they have a motivation problem, they will just lower their expectations or stop trying altogether, and when those kids fail, they feel less competent and try less and less, and attribute it to the fact that they are less smart, Rueda said. English Language Learner students, for example, tend to do worse in schools, he said. When they fail, they are often given repetitive tasks and more structured activities. With low-achieving kids, schools will reduce their autonomy and give them less choice, Rueda said. We know autonomy impacts motivation It can be very motivating for people to have some say in whats going to happen - they have a sense of investment and control. Kids are no different. In a related study, the researchers conducted six focus groups in urban schools with various teachers, with those results to be submitted to journals in the coming months. Further research was conducted with a series of motivation- related studies of struggling readers in urban schools. Those findings will be submitted for publication as well. Ragusa said the group has found differences in motivational profiles of urban learners that often relate to achievement or might affect achievement. These differences were found in spite of the fact that this group appeared to be homogenous. They also discovered that, in some cases, students who were labeled as struggling readers in their schools actually showed up as average to slightly above average achievers once a battery of assessments were conducted, she said. Accordingly, multiple means of measuring students reading achievement in an effort to create a profile of readers is helpful in yielding comprehensive information, Ragusa said

Running head: READING MOTIVATION IN FIRST GRADE Teacher and Student Perceptions of Boys and Girls Reading Motivation Cassandra S. Coddington and John T. Guthrie University of MarylandREADING MOTIVATION IN FIRST GRADE 1 Abstract The purpose of this study was to compare teacher and student perceptions of motivation for reading. Motivational constructs were theoretically derived from previous work on efficacy and

task-orientation. First grade students and teachers were asked to complete parallel reading motivation questionnaires. Results suggest both first grade teachers and students perceive distinctions among students efficacy, reading orientation, and perceived difficulty for reading. Teachers perceptions were more consistent and had higher associations with word identification outcomes than students perceptions.READING MOTIVATION IN FIRST GRADE 2 Introduction The empirical research of the effect of motivation on various academic tasks has grown over the past decade to include both qualitative and quantitative studies, which underscore the significant impact that motivation can have on academic performance (Chapman & Tunmer, 1995, 2003; Wigfield, & Guthrie, 1997). In addition to research on the effect of student motivation on overall academic performance, subject specific research (i.e., reading and math) has also increased. This research includes extensive longitudinal studies of the effect of student motivation on reading comprehension measures (Chapman & Tunmer, 1995, 2003; Chapman, Tunmer, & Prochnow, 2000; Meece & Miller, 2001). The majority of the research conducted on reading motivation has been conducted with upper elementary students (Cunningham & Stanovich, 1997; Gottfried, 1990; Stanovich, 1986). This research has revealed a great deal about the association of student motivation and reading achievement in older students (Grades 3-5). Until recently, limited research had been conducted on the effect of student motivation on emergent literacy skills (Chapman, Tunmer, & Prochnow, 2000; Poskiparta, Niemi, Lepola, Ahtola, & Laine, 2003). More recent research on the motivation of young, emergent readers has diverged in methodology. Some researchers have chosen to assess student self-reports of perceptions of motivation, while other researchers feel that teachers can provide more valid assessments of student motivation. In addition to concerns about methodology, a review of the literature reveals the need for a closer look at the effect of gender on motivation and connections to reading achievement.

Those studies that report gender findings are not usually explicitly examining them as a research question and any number of studies may not report findings related to gender because they areREADING MOTIVATION IN FIRST GRADE 3 not a primary research question. It seems necessary in order to fully understand the relationship between motivation and achievement to also examine the effect of gender. Teacher Ratings Researchers studying younger students often choose to measure teacher or researcher observations of student motivation (Graham & Golan, 1991; Lepola, Salonen, & Vauras, 2000). These researchers claim that when students are too young to make accurate assessments of their motivation, teacher ratings are often more valid (Lepola, Poskiparta, Laakkonen, & Niemi, 2005; Onatsu-Arvilommi, & Nurmi, 2000; Poskiparta, et al., 2003). In a study using teacher perceptions of student motivation, Poskiparta, et al. (2003), administered three different reading ability measures in the second grade: story-reading speed (decoding), errors (accuracy), sentence-spelling ability, and reading comprehension. Based on these scores, students were grouped into three different reading groups using a cluster analysis: good readers, good decoders, and poor readers. Good readers were those students who had the capabilities to decode the words, but also demonstrated the ability to comprehend. Good decoders were those students who had mastered the skills necessary to complete the task of reading (letter sound recognition, blending, phonemes), but were not yet accomplished readers in terms of comprehension (Poskiparta et al, 2003). Motivation orientations were determined by experimenter ratings and teacher ratings. The students were evaluated on the number of behaviors they exhibited from each of the following orientations: ego defensive, task orientation, or social dependence. The students were assessed on their motivation orientation in both a free play and a pressure situation induced experimentally. Researchers gave the students an impossible Lego task in order to induce the pressure situation.READING MOTIVATION IN FIRST GRADE 4 In preschool the three reading-level groups were almost identical in terms of their

motivation orientation for reading in both free play and pressure situations. However, by first and second grade, teachers rated students classified to the poor readers group as less task-oriented and more ego-defensive and socially dependent compared to good decoders and good readers (Poskiparta et al., 2003). The teacher ratings were supported by experimenter ratings of the children in the pressure situations. Interestingly, teacher orientation ratings were correlated to decoding and spelling skills, indicating that teachers perceptions of emotional-motivational behaviors were closely associated with student performance on reading tasks. Although, Poskiparta et al (2003) used the term task orientation to describe student s ability to focus on a given task, for the purposes of this investigation, task orientation will be referred to as reading orientation, as the items refer specifically to the student s orientation to reading tasks. Student Self-Reports Student s self reports have also been used to obtain reliable results of student motivation, even from emergent readers (Chapman & Tunmer, 1995; Chapman, Tunmer, & Prochnow, 2000). Utilizing a specific assessment protocol with researchers recording student responses, Chapman, Tunmer, and Prochnow (2000) were able to assess first, second and third graders motivation for reading. These researchers found evidence that children with negative academic self-concepts in the second year have significantly poorer phonological sensitivity skills and letter-name knowledge at the beginning of schooling than those with positive academic self-concepts (Chapman, Tunmer, & Prochnow, 2000). Chapman and colleagues conducted a study on first, second and third graders reading self-concept, development of academic self-concept and early reading-related skills and performance. Chapman et al. (2000) used the Perception of AbilityREADING MOTIVATION IN FIRST GRADE 5 Scale for Students to assess academic self-concept in the students. The scores on this measure from the end of the second year were used to assign children to either the positive, negative, or typical academic self-concept group. The researchers grouped the children based on their

academic self-concepts in the middle of the three-year longitudinal study. Reading self-concepts for children with negative academic self-concepts were already more pessimistic toward reading than the attitudes of the positive and typical self-concept groups at 6 to 8 weeks into the first semester of school (Chapman et al., 2000). Previous investigators have concluded that children begin school with a positive self concept of ability that remains until two or three years into the schooling process when inflated self-perceptions more accurately begin to reflect real academic performance (Chapman et al., 2000). Because reading self-concepts in this study appeared so rapidly in conjunction with reading difficulties, Chapman and colleagues concluded that domain-specific self-concepts may develop sooner than more general academic self-concept. Children who are emergent readers seem able to distinguish between their perceptions of the difficulty of reading, while at the same time holding self-efficacy beliefs about their ability as readers. The evidence suggests that even at an early age, readers are able to say, I believe that I can read this book (a statement of self-efficacy) as well as, I believe that this book will be difficult for me to read (a statement of perceived difficulty). There is a small distinction between these two perspectives and it is intriguing that the research indicates that students can hold both perspectives at such a young age. Traditionally, when discussing efficacy beliefs researchers have focused on students either holding self-efficacy beliefs that contribute to their reading, or not holding them at all. Chapman, Tunmer, and Prochnow (2000) extend that discussion to include students who may hold efficacy beliefs, while also perceiving difficultyREADING MOTIVATION IN FIRST GRADE 6 about reading. This addition presents a more complex view of motivation, which includes both self-efficacy and perceptions of difficulty, than can be discussed from the traditional selfefficacy model. Self-report Versus Teacher Ratings The literature on motivation in young children cited in this paper reveals a discrepancy where certain methodologies are associated with different outcomes. The motivational constructs

of self-efficacy and perceived difficulty have been examined using a self-report measure (Chapman & Tunmer, 1995, 2003), whereas reading orientation has only been assessed using teacher ratings (Lepola, 2004; Lepola, Salonen, & Vauras, 2000; Lepola, Poskiparta, Laakkonen, & Niemi, 2005). It is necessary to examine whether self-efficacy and perceived difficulty can also be accurately assessed using teacher ratings and whether reading orientation can be assessed using student self-reports. In addition, it would be interesting to examine whether the teacher or student reports within each of these constructs is more effective at predicting reading achievement outcomes. Role of gender In addition to the previous findings, there is some empirical evidence to suggest that gender has an effect on the level of motivation and correlation to achievement at a young age. In a recent review, Meece, Glienke, and Burg (2006) investigated the role of gender in psychological and educational research on motivation in middle school students. They concluded that, in general, girls and boys continue to uphold stereotypical gender roles in the classroom. Boys in general report higher levels of competence and ability in science and math, while girls tend to have more efficacy in language arts and writing (Meece, Glienke, & Burg, 2006). In addition to reviewing gender effects in the literature by theory, the authors also discussed theREADING MOTIVATION IN FIRST GRADE 7 impact of schooling influences. One interesting finding was that when gender differences in ability were found, generally they represented actual differences in performance instead of teacher biases towards one gender or another (Meece, Glienke, & Burg). They cited one exception, which was that teachers tend to overestimate girls effort in mathematics (Meece, Glienke, & Burg). This finding is particularly relevant for this study, which aims to discuss teacher and student perceptions of student motivation. The finding that teachers tend to overestimate girls effort has not been thoroughly investigated in reading, and we investigate it here.

Some of the research that has been conducted on reading motivation with emergent readers has revealed some interesting gender findings. Lepola (2004) found that boys with low levels of initial reading skills (phonemic awareness and language comprehension) experienced negative levels of motivational change compared to girls with similar pre-reading deficits. Onatsu-Arvilommi & Nurmi (2000) found that boys displayed higher levels of task-avoidance than girls across the first grade. These gender findings exist in the literature and are particularly relevant to the present investigation. In particular, investigating gender differences in both student and teacher perceptions will contribute new information to the field about the impact of gender on motivation at a very early age. Summary and Research Questions The present study extends the motivation research of emergent readers by assessing both student and teacher perceptions of motivation. In this way, this study attempts to extend the previous research on emergent readers which analyzed early reading motivation from only one rater, either students (Chapman, Tunmer, & Prochnow, 2000) or teachers (Lepola, Salonen, & Vauras, 2000). Furthermore, this study assesses self-efficacy beliefs and reading orientation,READING MOTIVATION IN FIRST GRADE 8 providing a multidimensional view of motivation, which has not been previously investigated with emergent readers. Additionally, in the present study, gender differences are examined from both the student and teacher perspective, which presents a more complex picture than has previously been available on the affect of gender differences in early reading motivation (Lepola, 2004). In the present study, we will address each of these points guided by the following research questions: 1. To what extent do student and teacher perceptions of students reading efficacy, perceived difficulty and reading orientation differ? 2. To what extent does students gender relate to student and teacher reports of students reading efficacy, perceived difficulty and reading orientation?

3. To what extent do student and teacher perceptions illustrate different levels of motivation and are these levels related to gender? 4. To what extent do teachers perceptions of students reading efficacy, perceived difficulty, and reading orientation independently correlate to students wordidentification ability? 5. To what extent do students perceptions of reading efficacy, perceived difficulty and reading orientation independently correlate to students word-identification ability? Method Participants The study was conducted with 84 first grade students (40 boys 39 Caucasian, 1 AfricanAmerican and 44 girls 42 Caucasian, 2 African-Americans; Total sample was 96% Caucasian, 3% African-American) in eight classrooms at two elementary schools in a mid-Atlantic county school system. The population of this county ranges widely across the socioeconomic andREADING MOTIVATION IN FIRST GRADE 9 educational scales and is predominately Caucasian; approximately 6% of the population is African-American. Parent permission was obtained for all participants and students assented to participation in the study. Eight female first grade teachers participated in the study. Measures Student motivation. Student reading motivation was assessed using the Young Reader Motivation Questionnaire (YRMQ). The YRMQ contains 12 items, all worded in question format (e.g. Are you good at remembering words?) instead of the more typical declarative format (e.g. I am good at remembering words). This wording was chosen based on research that has revealed declarative items orally administered to younger students can be confusing. However, items worded in question format are less complex for younger students to comprehend (Chapman & Tunmer, 1995). The full scale Cronbach s alpha reliability for all 12 items was .70. The Difficulty items were reversed for the reliability calculations in order to maintain consistency with the other two constructs in the scale. A complete list of the items can be found

in Appendix A. Children responded to each item on a 4-point scale (1 = No, Never; 2 = No, Not Usually; 3 = Yes, Usually; 4 = Yes, Always), but were orally talked through the scale in two sections. The YRMQ is composed of three subscales: Reading Self-Efficacy (4 items), Reading Orientation (3 items), and Reading Difficulty (5 items). Validity of the items on each subscale was determined through an expert in the field of motivation who served as an outside evaluator for this study. Reading self-concept (self-efficacy) was empirically defined as beliefs regarding ability and proficiency in reading tasks (Chapman & Tunmer, 1995). The reading self-efficacy subscale of the YRMQ included 4 items (e.g., Do you think you read well? MOTIVATION IN FIRST GRADE 10 Are you good atREADING

remembering words? ). The reliability of the 4 items in the reading self-efficacy subscale was .64. Student reading orientation items addressed concentration on task, verbal behavior indicating task-involvement, and willingness to think and experiment in play and problemsolving situations (Lepola, et al., 2000, p. 158). The reading orientation subscale of the YRMQ included 3 items (e.g., Is it fun for you to read books? Do you look forward to reading? ).

The reliability of the 3 items in the reading orientation subscale was .60. Student difficulty items referred to the belief that reading activities are hard or problematic (Chapman & Tunmer, 1995). The reading difficulty subscale of the YRMQ included 5 items (e.g., Are the books you read in class too hard? Do you need extra help in

reading? ). The reliability of the 5 items in the difficulty subscale was .67. Teacher ratings of motivation. The teacher ratings form was designed to parallel the student form. Questions were worded to reflect the teacher s perception of their students motivation for reading. Student reading motivation was assessed using the Teacher Form of the Young Reader Motivation Questionnaire. The T-YRMQ contains 15 items, all worded in declarative format (e.g. This student thinks he/she is good at remembering words ). The full

scale reliability for all 15 items was .93. A complete list of all items can be found in Appendix B. Teachers responded to each item on a 4-point scale (1 = No, Never; 2 = No, Not Usually; 3 = Yes, Usually; 4 = Yes, Always). The T-YRMQ is composed of three subscales: Reading Self-Efficacy (5 items), Reading Orientation (5 items), and Reading Difficulty (5 items). Teachers were told that reading self-concept (self-efficacy) was empirically defined as beliefs regarding ability and proficiency in reading tasks (Chapman & Tunmer, 1995). The reading self-efficacy subscale of the T-YRMQ included 5 items (e.g., This student thinks thatREADING MOTIVATION IN FIRST GRADE 11 he/she can read well This student thinks he/she is good at remembering words ). The

reliability of the 5 items in the reading self-efficacy subscale was .94. Student reading orientation was defined for the teachers as concentration on task, verbal behavior indicating task-involvement, and willingness to think and experiment in play and problem-solving situations (Lepola, et al., 2000, p. 158). The reading orientation subscale of the T-YRMQ included 5 items (e.g., This student looks forward to reading This student thinks it

is fun to read books ). The reliability of the 5 items in the reading orientation subscale was .91. Student difficulty was defined for the teachers as the belief that reading activities are hard or problematic for this child (Chapman & Tunmer, 1995). The reading difficulty subscale of the T-YRMQ included 5 items (e.g., This student thinks the books he/she reads in class are too hard This student needs extra help in reading ). The reliability of the 5 items in the

difficulty subscale was .95. Achievement measures. The Woodcock-Johnson Letter-Word Identification subtest (Woodcock, Mather, & Schrank, 2004) was used to assess the students word identification skills. Basals and ceilings were established based on 6 consecutive items correct or incorrect. The Letter-Word Identification subtest has a median reliability of .91 in the age 5 to 19 range (Schrank et al., 2004). Procedure

Student procedure. Students were assessed individually in the middle of the school year outside of their classrooms but in their own school building. The researcher and the student sat on opposite sides of a small desk in a quiet alcove in the hallway or in the school library during the entire assessment procedure. The location was secluded such that there were no interruptions by other students passing by. Student confidentiality and privacy was protected at all times. AllREADING MOTIVATION IN FIRST GRADE 12 students in the study with parent permission were assessed on two days by the same researcher. Testing began at 8:00 am in the morning and lasted until noon when the students went to lunch. The researcher resumed testing at 1:00 pm and ended for the day at 2:30 pm. In an effort to reduce the children s fears and increase their willingness to participate, time was spent building rapport before any assessments began. Students were assured that their answers were confidential and that their teachers and parents would not see their answers. Students were then asked if they wanted to participate in the study. Order of testing. Measures were counterbalanced so that half of the students received the Woodcock-Johnson first and half received the YRMQ. Students who were randomly selected to Group 1 received the Woodcock-Johnson Word Identification subtest first and the YRMQ second. Students who were randomly selected to Group 2 received the YRMQ first and the Woodcock-Johnson Word Identification second. We chose to counterbalance the measures in order to evaluate the effect that each measure had on the other as well as any fatigue effects that students might experience. We expected that the order that the measures were administered would not affect performance. Counterbalancing did not effect the administration time for each measure. Student measures. The Woodcock-Johnson Letter-Word Identification subtest was administered to each student beginning with the appropriate item (Item 7) for first graders suggested in the Woodcock-Johnson manual. Basal was established when students answered 6 consecutive items correctly. Time spent taking the Woodcock-Johnson Letter-Word

Identification subtest varied from 4 to 7 minutes depending on the student s reading abilities. The Young Reading Motivation Questionnaire (YRMQ) was administered orally to students by the same researcher. Students were again assured that their responses on theREADING MOTIVATION IN FIRST GRADE 13 questionnaire were confidential. They were also told that the questionnaire had to do with their interest and enjoyment in reading and that their answers would help people to better understand what first graders think about reading. Students were then read the following directions, Please answer the following question on reading. For each question think about whether you would answer Yes or No. The first question was then read to the student, Can you work out hard words by yourself when you read? The student was given time to think about the question and was prompted by the researcher to choose either, Yes or No. If the student responded Yes then the researcher further prompted the student by asking, Can you work out hard words by yourself Always or Usually? If the student responded No then the researcher further prompted the student by asking, Can you Not Usually work out hard words by yourself or Never? Student responses were recorded by the administrator and the next question was read to students. The answer response prompting was continued for all 12 items. Students were given as much time as necessary to answer each question. If the student required it, the questions were read again until the student was ready to respond. Administration of the YRMQ took approximately 3 to 5 minutes. At the conclusion of the testing, students were reassured that their answers were very helpful and that they would remain confidential. Total administration time for both measures was approximately 10 to 12 minutes. Students were given a small reward and then returned to the classroom. Teacher measures. Teachers were given a copy of the Teacher Young Reader Motivation Questionnaire (T-YRMQ) for each student in their class participating in the study.

The purpose of the questionnaire was explained by the researcher to each teacher. Any additionalREADING MOTIVATION IN FIRST GRADE 14 questions were answered by the researcher. The teachers completed the forms for their students on their own and returned them to the researcher two days later. Completing the T-YRMQ required approximately 3 minutes per student with 10 students for each teacher for a total of 30 minutes. Results Question One: To what extent do student and teacher perceptions of students reading efficacy, perceived difficulty and reading orientation differ? This question was addressed using descriptive statistics (Table 1) and correlation coefficients (Table 2). Correlation coefficients between students and teachers perceptions confirm convergent validity for all three motivational constructs: efficacy, r(70) = .37, p < .01; perceived difficulty, r(69) = .27, p < .05; and reading orientation, r(70) = .26, p < .05. In addition, students self-reports indicated convergent validity. Students perceptions of efficacy and difficulty were significantly correlated, r (71) = -.50, p < .001; as well as students perceptions of difficulty and reading orientation, r(67) = -.36, p < .01. Statistically significant correlation coefficients of teachers perceptions of students reading motivation also indicated convergent validity: teachers perceptions of students efficacy and difficulty, r(71) = -.82, p < .001; teachers perceptions of students efficacy and reading orientation, r(73) = .73, p < .001; and teachers perceptions of students difficulty and reading orientation, r (77) = -.78, p < .001. These findings indicate students and teachers overall associate the three motivational constructs in a similar way. Mean differences between student and teacher perceptions of motivation were tested using three paired samples t-tests with a Bonferroni correction of p < .01 as our criterion for significance. The t-tests revealed that student responses were significantly higher than teacherREADING MOTIVATION IN FIRST GRADE 15

responses on the reading-orientation items, t(48) = 3.17, p < .01, with an effect size of ES = .53. There were no significant differences in student and teacher perceptions of efficacy and perceived difficulty for reading. Question Two: To what extent does students gender relate to student and teacher reports of students reading efficacy, perceived difficulty and reading orientation? Statistically significant correlation coefficients by gender revealed convergent validity for teachers perceptions of boys (Table 3). For boys, correlation coefficients of teachers perceptions confirm convergent validity for all three motivational constructs: efficacy, r (32) = .42, p < .05; perceived difficulty, r (33) = .35, p < .05; and reading orientation, r (31) = .38, p < .05. For girls, correlation coefficients of teachers perceptions did not correlate statistically significantly: efficacy, r (38) = .26, p > .05; perceived difficulty, r (36) = .19, p > .05; and reading orientation, r (39) = .08, p > .05. In addition, for boys correlation coefficients indicated convergent validity. Boys perceptions of efficacy and difficulty were significantly correlated, r (34) = -.68, p < .001; as well as boys perceptions of difficulty and reading orientation, r (31) = -.54, p < .001. Correlation coefficients for girls did not indicate convergent validity. Girls perceptions of efficacy and difficulty were not statistically significantly correlated, r (37) = -.69, p > .05; as well as girls perceptions of difficulty and reading orientation, r (36) = -.03, p > .05 and girls perceptions of reading orientation and efficacy, r (38) = .21, p > .05. Question Three: To what extent do student and teacher perceptions illustrate different levels of motivation and are these levels related to gender?READING MOTIVATION IN FIRST GRADE 16 This question was addressed by a two-way multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA). The two-way MANOVA had two within-subjects and one between subjects variable of 2(rater) x 3(motivation) x 2(gender) (Table 4). The two-way MANOVA revealed a significant main effect for gender, F (1, 77) = 9.38, p

< .01, with girls (M = 2.87) perceiving themselves overall more motivated than boys (M = 2.74). In addition there was a significant main effect for motivation, F (2, 76) = 91.64, p < .001, with higher ratings for reading orientation (M = 3.31) than efficacy (M = 2.92) and perceived difficulty (M = 2.19). There was a significant rater main effect, F (1, 77) = 5.97, p < .01, with teachers (M = 2.85) reporting higher ratings than students (M = 2.76) reported. There was, however, a statistically significant Motivation x Rater interaction, F (2, 76) = 11.21, p < .001, (Figure 1). Post hoc analyses using paired-sample t-tests with a Bonferonni correction, revealed statistically significant differences for reading orientation. Teachers perceived their students as more reading oriented than students perceived themselves to be, t (78) = 3.88, p < .03. There were no statistically significant differences between student and teacher ratings of efficacy, t (79) = -1.59, p > .05 and difficulty, t (79) = 1.15, p > .05. Question Four: To what extent do teachers perceptions of students reading efficacy, perceived difficulty, and reading orientation account for independent variance to students wordidentification ability? Multiple regressions were conducted using teachers perceptions of students motivation for reading to predict word identification scores on the Woodcock-Johnson Word-Identification subtest (Table 5). In the first regression with the full sample, teachers perceptions of students reading orientation were entered first, followed by teachers perceptions of students efficacy andREADING MOTIVATION IN FIRST GRADE 17 then teachers perceptions of students difficulty with reading. This order was chosen based on the strength of the correlations between teachers perceptions and word-identification scores in Table 2. Teachers perceptions of students reading motivation for all three constructs were statistically significant: reading orientation, R 2 = .27, p < .001; efficacy, R

2 = .23, p < .001, and difficulty, R 2 = .03, p < .05. The beta weights for teachers perceptions of student efficacy, = .49, p < .01, and difficulty, = -.32, p < .05 were statistically significant. Results from regressions for teachers perceptions of boys and girls separately revealed similar findings to the sample as a whole. For boys, teachers perceptions of student reading orientation, R 2 = .39, p < .001, and efficacy, R 2 = .22, p < .001 were significant predictors of word identification. For girls, teachers perceptions of students reading orientation, R 2 = .16, p < .05, and efficacy, R 2 = .20, p < .01, were significant predictors of word identification. Teacher perceptions of difficulty did not contribute significantly to explain variance in word identification after the effect of reading orientation and efficacy were accounted for, for boys, R 2 = .05, p > .05, and girls, R 2 = .04, p > .05.

Question 5: To what extent do students perceptions of reading efficacy, perceived difficulty and reading orientation independently correlate to students word-identification ability? Multiple regressions were conducted using students perceptions of motivation for reading to predict word identification scores on the Woodcock-Johnson Word-Identification subtest (Table 6). In the first regression with the full sample, students perceptions of reading orientation were entered first, followed by students perceptions of efficacy and then students perceptions of difficulty with reading. The order was the same as the order used for the analysis of teachers perceptions. For the total group, students perceptions of efficacy, R 2 = .07, p < .01, and difficulty in reading, R 2 = .06, p < .01 were statistically significant predictors of word-READING MOTIVATION IN FIRST GRADE 18 identification scores after student reading orientation was statistically controlled. Multiple regressions for students perceptions of boys and girls were run separately. Boys perceptions of efficacy, R 2 = .17, p < .05, contributed significantly to word identification when reading orientation was controlled. Girls perceptions of reading orientation, efficacy and difficulty did not contribute significantly to explain variance in word identification after the effects of reading orientation and efficacy were accounted for. Discussion Associations Between Teacher and Student Perceptions of Motivation Teachers and students perceived student motivation at similar levels for efficacy and difficulty with reading. However, student and teacher perceptions of reading-orientation were

statistically significantly different. In addition, students perceptions of reading-orientation, perceived difficulty and efficacy were moderately correlated. This finding is not unexpected as the constructs are components of the students larger perception of their motivation for reading. Teachers perceptions of student reading-orientation, perceived difficulty and efficacy were also highly correlated, suggesting convergent validity for the three constructs of reading motivation for teachers. Overall, the results suggest that both student and teacher perceptions of reading motivation are moderately correlated. Relationship to Existing Literature There are three major contributions which this study provides to the field at large. First, this study confirms the work of researchers who view motivation as a multidimensional phenomenon, composed of multiple constructs (Wigfield & Guthrie, 1997; Chapman & Tunmer, 1995). These findings indicate that regardless of the source of the motivation (student or teacher); raters are able to distinguish between multiple constructs of motivation at the sameREADING MOTIVATION IN FIRST GRADE 19 time. This study extends this line of work, by illustrating this phenomenon with both student and teacher perceptions. Second, this study extends our current understanding of the similarity of perceptions of difficulty and efficacy between student and teacher perceptions of motivation in emergent readers. This supports the findings of Guthrie et al. (2007) which found that fourth grade students and teachers share similar perceptions of student motivation. Guthrie et al. (2007) found that teacher and student motivation may share moderate associations, but that teacher ratings had the highest predictive ability with reading achievement. However, for reading-orientation, teachers and students perceptions of motivation were very different. This may be due to the fact that teachers and students have different reference groups for answering the questions. For example, one of the questions asked, Is it fun for you to read books? The teacher is referencing student s behavior and choices within the academic setting. Essentially, the teacher is comparing

the student s enjoyment of reading in comparison to other classroom activities. The student has a larger reference group from which to make this evaluation. The student may respond differently if they were asked, Is reading books more fun than riding your bike? versus Is reading books more fun than working math problems? This discrepancy in reference group may be partially responsible in the divergent perceptions of reading orientation for teachers and students. Finally, this study adds additional complexity to the discussion of the effect of gender on motivation and achievement outcomes. While teachers perceptions of boys and girls motivation were associated with word identification, the perceptions of boys and girls differed in their associations with word identification scores. Boys perceptions of motivation were statistically, significantly associated with word identification scores. However, girls perceptions were not statistically significantly associated with word identification scores. The findings here indicateREADING MOTIVATION IN FIRST GRADE 20 that girls perceptions of their abilities are not as highly associated with achievement outcomes as boys or teachers perceptions. This finding requires further exploration and additional research, but it does extend the existing literature on the topic. In particular, longitudinal examinations of the relationship between gender and motivation and achievement outcomes are necessary. These would provide more evidence for the impact gender may be having early on in the educational process. Teachers Perceptions of Student Motivation as Predictors Teachers perceptions of student efficacy and difficulty were uniquely associated with word identification. In addition, teacher perception of student efficacy and perceived difficulty were statistically significant predictors of student word-identification when controlling for reading orientation. This finding presents a valuable contribution to the field, which indicates teachers perceptions of student reading motivation are multifaceted. Teachers perceptions of student efficacy uniquely contributed to predicting word-identification scores, after taking into account teachers perceptions of reading-orientation and difficulty. Similarly, teachers

perceptions of student difficulty with reading uniquely contributed to predicting wordidentification scores when teachers perceptions of reading orientation and efficacy were taken into account. This finding both confirms and extends the existing literature. Chapman, Tunmer and Prochnow (2000) found that perceived difficulty was a significant unique predictor of reading achievement, but they recorded student self-reports instead of teacher ratings. These findings confirm the predictive power of perceived difficulty regardless of the source (student or teacher). Students Perceptions of Motivation as PredictorsREADING MOTIVATION IN FIRST GRADE 21 For students, perceptions of efficacy and difficulty were unique predictors of word identification scores. However, similar to the findings of Chapman, Tunmer, and Prochnow (2000), student perceived difficulty was a significant predictor of word-identification scores when the influence of reading-orientation and efficacy were statistically controlled. This finding confirms the studies of Chapman and colleagues, which indicates that student perceived difficulty is the strongest motivational predictor, among self-report measures, of reading achievement. In addition, these findings provide convergent validity for a multidimensional model of reading motivation from both the student and teacher perspective. Both students and teachers distinguished between perceptions of efficacy and difficulty, which extends our current understanding of reading motivation from both perspectives. Gender Differences in Both Teacher and Student Perceptions of Motivation When examining the sample by gender, discrepancies emerged between student and teacher perceptions of student motivation. The results revealed convergent validity for teachers perceptions of boys. Teachers perceptions of boys efficacy, perceived difficulty and reading orientation were correlated with boys perceptions of their own motivation. In addition, boys perceptions of reading efficacy, perceived difficulty and reading orientation were statistically significantly correlated. Teachers perceptions of the three motivation constructs were not statistically

significantly correlated with girls perceptions of motivation. In addition, girls perceptions of reading efficacy, perceived difficulty and reading orientation were not statistically significantly correlated to each other. Teachers perceptions for girls reading efficacy, perceived difficulty and reading orientation were statistically significantly correlated. These findings suggest aREADING MOTIVATION IN FIRST GRADE 22 disconnection between teachers and girls perceptions of reading motivation. They also suggest that girls perceptions may not be as valid as teachers perceptions in the first grade. These gender findings confirm similar findings in the literature of reading motivation in emergent readers. Lepola (2004) found that phonemic and language comprehension differences early on were associated with later poor phonemic and language comprehension skills and that students differed on these measures by gender. In that study, boys were found to be at specific risk of negative motivational changes if beginning with low phonemic skills. The results presented here do not provide directionality, but they do suggest a unique difference between teacher and student perceptions, which is influenced by the gender of the child. In line with the findings of Lepola (2004), girls overall perceived themselves as more motivated than boys. This finding confirms previous studies, which have found that overall girls perceive themselves as more efficacious for reading than boys perceive themselves to be. In addition, extending the discussion of Question Two, teachers overall perceived students as more motivated than students reported, but this result was only statistically significant for reading orientation. Teachers perceived students as more reading oriented than the students perceived themselves to be. Limitations The current study has some limitations that should be mentioned. First, the reliability of the student responses on the YRMQ are relatively low when compared to the reliability of the teacher responses on the T-YRMQ. This may be partly due to the age of the children and perhaps a less fully formed understanding of their own motivation. In any case, further research is

necessary to determine the reliability of the YRMQ with younger children. In addition, the sample size was relatively small. This was partially due to the desire to keep the responsibilitiesREADING MOTIVATION IN FIRST GRADE 23 of the teachers to a minimum. Each teacher was only asked to complete questionnaires on ten of their students. Future studies should increase the number of teacher and student responses. Future studies should also consider additional measures of reading achievement. The current investigation used a standardized measure of reading ability appropriate for young students, but additional measures should also be explored. Finally, the current sample was primarily Caucasian, which limits the generalizability of the findings. Future studies should investigate a more ethnically diverse sample.READING MOTIVATION IN FIRST GRADE 24 References Chapman, J. W., & Tunmer, W. E. (1995). Development of young children's reading selfconcepts: An examination of emerging subcomponents and their relationship with reading achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 87, 154-167. Chapman, J. W. & Tunmer, W. E. (2003). Reading difficulties, reading-related self-perceptions, and strategies for overcoming negative self-beliefs. Reading and Writing Quarterly, 19, 5-24. Chapman, J. W., Tunmer, William E., & Prochnow, J. E. (2000). Early reading-related skills and performance, reading self-concept, and the development of academic self-concept: A longitudinal study. Journal of Educational Psychology, 92, 703-708. Cunningham, A. E., & Stanovich, K. E. (1997). Early reading acquisition and its relation to reading experience and ability 10 years later. Developmental Psychology, 33, 934-945. Gottfried, A. E. (1990). Academic intrinsic motivation in young elementary school children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82, 525-538. Graham, S., & Golan, S. (1991). Motivational influences on cognition: Task involvement, ego involvement, and depth of information processing. Journal of Educational Psychology,

83, 187-194. Guthrie, J. T., Hoa, A. L., Wigfield, A., Tonks, S. M., Humenick, N. M., & Littles, E. (2007). Reading motivation and reading comprehension growth in the later elementary years. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 32, 282-313. Lepola, J. (2004). The role of gender and reading competence in the development of motivational orientations from kindergarten to grade 1. Early Education and Development, 15, 215-240.READING MOTIVATION IN FIRST GRADE 25 Lepola, J., Poskiparta, E., & Laakkonen, E., Niemi, P. (2005). Deveopment of and relationship between phonological and motivational processes and naming speed in predicting word recognition in grade 1. Scientific Studies of Reading, 9, 367-399. Lepola, J., Salonen, P., & Vauras, M. (2000). The development of motivational orientations as a function of divergent reading careers from pre-school to the second grade. Learning & Instruction, 10, 153-177. Meece, J. L., Glienke, B. B., & Burg, S. (2006). Gender and motivation. Journal of School Psychology, 44, 351-373. Meece, J. L., & Miller, S. D. (1999). Changes in elementary school children's achievement goals for reading and writing: Results of a longitudinal and an intervention study. Scientific Studies of Reading, 3, 207-229. Meece, J. L. & Miller, S. D. (2001). A longitudinal analysis of elementary school students achievement goals in literacy activities. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 26, 454480. Onatsu-Arvilommi, T., & Nurmi, J.-E. (2000). The role of task-avoidant and task-focused behaviors in the development of reading and mathematical skills during the first school year: A cross-lagged longitudinal study. Journal of Educational Psychology, 92, 478-491. Poskiparta, E., Niemi, P., Lepola, J., Ahtola, A., & Laine, P. (2003). Motivational-emotional

vulnerability and difficulties in learning to read and spell. British Journal of Educational Psychology (Vol. 73, pp. 187): British Psychological Society. Stanovich, K. E. (1986). Matthew effects in reading: Some consequences of individual differences in the acquisition of literacy. Reading Research Quarterly, 21, 360-406. Wigfield, A. & Guthrie, J. T. (1997). Relations of children s motivation for reading to theREADING MOTIVATION IN FIRST GRADE 26 amount and breadth of their reading. Journal of Educational Psychology, 89, 420-432. Woodcock, R. W., Mather, N., & Schrank, F. A. (2004). Woodcock-Johnson III Diagnostic Reading Battery. Itasca, IL: Riverside Publishing.READING MOTIVATION IN FIRST GRADE 27 Table 1 Means and Standard Deviations Source Teacher Student Measures Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total Efficacy Mean 2.88 3.10 3.00 2.73 2.98 2.86 SD .76 .68 .72 .75 .56 .67 Reading-Orientation Mean 3.08 3.24 3.16 3.39 3.54 3.47 SD .53 .56 .55 .71 .43 .58 Difficulty Mean 2.16 2.09 2.13 2.19 2.28 2.24 SD .75 .75 .75 .76 .61 .68 Woodcock-Johnson WID Mean 23.65 24.57 24.57 SD 8.22 7.92 8.06READING MOTIVATION IN FIRST GRADE 28 Table 2 Correlations of Motivation Subscales and Word Identification Subscale 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1. SE __ -.50

** .22 .36 ** -.35 ** .33 ** .28 * 2. SPD __ -.36 ** -.19 .27 * -.30 * -.31 ** 3. SRO __ .11 -.08 .26 * .11 4. TSE __ -.82 ** .73 ** .71

** 5. TSD __ -.78 ** -.72 ** 6. TRO __ .60 ** 7. WJ-WID Note: SE = Student Perceptions of Efficacy, SPD = Student Perceptions of Difficulty, SRO = Student Perceptions of Reading Orientation, TSE = Teacher Perceptions of Student SelfEfficacy, TSD = Teacher Perceptions of Student Difficulty, TRO = Teacher Perceptions of Student Reading Orientation, WJ-WID = Woodcock-Johnson Word Identification; * p < .05. ** p < .01.READING MOTIVATION IN FIRST GRADE 29 Table 3 Correlations of Motivation Subscales and Word Identification by Gender Subscale 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1. SE __ -.68 ** .21 .42 * -.35 *

.37 * .41 * 2. SPD -.29 __ -.54 * -.30 .35 * -.40 * -.39 * 3. SRO .21 -.03 __ .24 -.18 .38 * -.20 4. TSE .26 -.11 -.14 __ -.84 ** .77 ** .79 ** 5. TPD -.37 * .19 .10 -.83 **

__ -.73 ** -.78 ** 6. TRO .25 -.24 .10 .70 ** -.82 ** __ .66 ** 7. WJ-WID .10 -.24 -.05 .60 ** -.68 ** .53 ** Note: SE = Student Perceptions of Efficacy, SPD = Student Perceptions of Difficulty, SRO = Student Perceptions of Reading Orientation, TE = Teacher Perceptions of Student Self-Efficacy, TPD = Teacher Perceptions of Student Difficulty, TRO = Teacher Perceptions of Student Reading Orientation, WJ-WID = Woodcock-Johnson Word Identification; * p < .05. ** p < .01. *

p < .05. ** p < .01; Boys correlations above diagonal, girls correlations below.READING MOTIVATION IN FIRST GRADE 30 Table 4 Analysis of Variance of Efficacy, Reading Orientation and Perceived Difficulty by Source and Gender Effect df1 / df2 F _ Between Subjects Gender 1 / 77 9.38 ** Within Subjects Motivation 2 / 76 91.64 *** .29 Motivation * Gender 2 / 76 .39 .99 Source 1 / 77 5.97 ** .93 Source * Gender 1 / 77 .48 .99 Motivation * Source 2 / 76 11.21 *** .77 Motivation * Source * Gender 2 / 76 .17 .99 ** p < .01,

*** p < .001READING MOTIVATION IN FIRST GRADE 31 Table 5 Multiple Regressions of Teacher Perception of Student Motivation on Woodcock-Johnson WordIdentification Independent Variables R R 2 _R 2 F df1 / df2 Final Beta Total TRO .52 .27 .27 24.84 *** 1 / 68 -.07 TSE .70 .49 .23 29.71 *** 1 / 67 .49 ** TPD .72 .52 .03 4.02 * 1 /66 -.32 * Boys TRO .63 .39 .39 19.19 *** 1 / 30 .05

TSE .78 .61 .22 16.18 *** 1 / 29 .41 TPD .81 .65 .05 3.63 1 / 28 -.40 Girls TRO .40 .16 .16 6.93 * 1 / 36 -.19 TSE 64 .37 .20 11.25 ** 2 / 35 .41 TPD .76 .40 .04 2.17 3 / 34 -.39 Note. Dependent variable is the Woodcock-Johnson Word-Identification subtest. TE = Teacher Perceptions of Student Self-Efficacy, TPD = Teacher Perceptions of Student Difficulty, TRO = Teacher Perceptions of Student Reading Orientation; * p < .05. ** p < .01.READING MOTIVATION IN FIRST GRADE 32 Table 6 Multiple Regressions of Student Perception of Motivation on Woodcock-Johnson WordIdentification Independent Variables R R 2 _R 2

F df1 / df2 Final _ Total SRO .09 .01 .01 .55 1 / 61 -.02 SE .29 .08 .07 4.84 ** 1 / 60 .16 SPD .38 .14 .06 3.30 ** 1 / 59 -.29 * Boys SRO .17 .03 .03 .75 1 / 27 .06 SE .44 .20 .17 5.41 * 1 / 26 -.20 SPD .49 .23 .04 1.21 1 / 25 .17 Girls SRO .06 .00 .00 .11 1 / 32 -.03 SE .08 .01 .00 .09 1 / 31 .01 SPD .25 .06 .06 1.82 1 / 30 -.25 Note. Dependent variable is the Woodcock-Johnson Word-Identification subtest. SE = Student Perceptions of Efficacy, SPD = Student Perceptions of Difficulty, SRO = Student Perceptions of Reading Orientation; * p < .05.

** p < .01.READING MOTIVATION IN FIRST GRADE 33 Appendix A Young Reader Motivation Questionnaire (YRMQ) Student Form Efficacy for Reading 1. Can you work out hard words by yourself when you read? 2. Are you good at remembering words? 3. Do you think you read well? 4. Can you work out hard words in a story even if there are no pictures? Reading Orientation 1. Is it fun for you to read books? 2. Do you look forward to reading? 3. Do you like reading at home? Perceptions of Difficulty in Reading 1. Is reading to the class hard for you? 2. Are the books you read in class too hard? 3. Do you make lots of mistakes in reading? 4. Do you need extra help in reading? 5. Is it hard for you to understand the stories you have to read in class?READING MOTIVATION IN FIRST GRADE 34 Appendix B Young Reader Motivation Questionnaire Teacher Form Perceptions of Student Efficacy for Reading 1. This student thinks he/she can work out hard words by himself/herself when he/she reads. 2. This student thinks he/she is good at remembering words. 3. This student thinks he/she can work out sounds in words.

4. This student thinks he/she can read well. 5. This student thinks he/she can work out hard words in a story even if there are no pictures. Perceptions of Student Reading-Orientation 1. This student likes word games in class. 2. This student thinks it is fun to read books. 3. This student looks forward to reading. 4. This student likes reading to himself/herself. 5. This student likes reading at home. Perceptions of Student Difficulty in Reading 1. This student finds reading to the class hard. 2. This student thinks the books he/she reads in class are too hard. 3. This student makes lots of mistakes in reading. 4. This student needs extra help in reading. 5. This student finds it hard to understand the stories he/she has to read in class.

414 2006 International Reading Association (pp. 414 424) doi:10.1598/RT.59.5.1 K AT H R Y N M . E D M U N D S K AT H R Y N L . B A U S E R M A N What teachers can learn about reading motivation through conversations with children In this article, a group of students explain what really motivates them to read. A s elementary school teachers, we (the authors) have frequently heard comments such as I hate to read or I never read a book. We have taught in various school settings, including urban, suburban, and rural school environments, with diverse student populations. We have employed a variety of strategies and incentives, and, like Kohn (1993), we have found that extrinsic rewards were not effective at producing lasting change. Despite our efforts, we still heard negative comments about reading from our students. After many discussions, we realized that our students levels of reading motivation varied as much as the students themselves. We also discussed how we would much rather hear more positive comments about reading from them. Therefore, we decided it was time to talk with our students and find out how we could turn the negative comments into positive ones. We decided it was time

to find out how to really motivate students to read. What does the research say? Numerous research studies have been conducted to examine the role of motivation in general (Deci, 1971, 1972a, 1972b; Lepper & Greene, 1975; Lepper, Greene, & Nisbett, 1973; Loveland & Olley, 1979). Research over the past 20 years demonstrated that students motivation is a primary concern of many teachers, and numerous classroom teachers acknowledge that a lack of motivation is at the root of many of the problems they face in teaching (O Flahavan, Gambrell, Guthrie, Stahl, & Alvermann, 1992; Veenman, 1984). There is a vast amount of research that supports the idea that motivation plays a major role in learning (Deci & Ryan, 1985; Dweck & Elliott, 1983; McCombs, 1989). Motivation frequently makes the difference between learning that is temporary and superficial and learning that is permanent and internalized (Oldfather, 1993). Although there is an immense amount of research about reading, especially the cognitive aspects (Guthrie & Wigfield, 2000), few studies have been conducted to determine the role of motivation in reading (McQuillan, 1997). Even though it is believed that motivation plays a major role in reading development, a review of the Annual Summary of Investigations Related to Reading (International Reading Association) over several years revealed that relatively few studies had been conducted on

that role. From 1985 to 1992, approximately nine studies were conducted per year on the role of motivation in literacy development (Gambrell, 1995). Gambrell (1996) reported the results of a national survey conducted by the National Reading Research Center, which showed that reading motivation was a topic that teachers would like to see investigated. There were 84 reading topics included on the survey, and teachers identified developing an interest in reading as their first priority for reading research. In the top 10, 3 other topics associated with motivation appeared. Those topics includedWhat teachers can learn about reading motivation through conversations with children 415 increasing the amount and expanse of reading; increasing intrinsic motivation to read; and investigating teachers , parents , and peers roles in children s reading motivation (Gambrell, 1996). When children first enter school, they are excited about learning and are very motivated. However, their motivation to learn appears to decrease during the elementary school years in all academic subjects, including reading (Eccles, Wigfield, & Schiefele, 1998; Guthrie & Wigfield, 2000). Children s motivation to read in the school and home environment decreases as they get older (Guthrie & Wigfield). The decline in the motivation to read appears to be greatest from first through fourth grade (Wigfield et al., 1997). This decline in motivation has been attributed to children s growing awareness of their own performance as compared to others, as well as to instruction that emphasizes competition and does not address children s interests (Guthrie & Wigfield). Teachers also recognize that motivation may be correlated to the amount and breadth of children s reading. Research conducted over the past

several years suggests that elementary school children who are motivated to read spend more time reading than those who are not motivated (Guthrie, Wigfield, Metsala, & Cox, 1999; Morrow, 1992; Wigfield & Guthrie, 1997). Research has indicated that children who spend more time reading are better readers and comprehenders than children who spend little time reading. Reading motivation has also been linked to the development of lifelong readers (Morrow, 1992; Wang & Guthrie, 2004). Motivation may also influence the success of multiple strategy instruction (National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, 2000). Because teachers are aware of the importance of motivation in reading development and achievement, they have used various educational practices to enhance reading motivation and encourage children to read (Miller & Meece, 1997; Wang & Guthrie, 2004). Like us, however, they realized these practices are not always effective. Therefore, it was critical for us as teachers to take a more in-depth look at what really motivates children to read. Our study Because we heard so many negative comments about reading and there has been very little research in this area, we decided to go to the source: we asked our students what motivated them to read. The students attended an elementary school in a

midsize city in the southern United States, which had 831 students in grades pre-K through 5 and 37 teachers. Fifty-nine percent of the students were white, 38% were black, and 3% were from other ethnicities. Seventy-four percent of the students were on free or reduced-cost lunch status. The three language arts teachers for the fourth-grade classrooms in the school agreed to participate in our study. Each teacher taught two classes of language arts. They identified their instructional program as a basal program supplemented by trade books. We asked them to rate the reading levels and motivational levels of all 91 fourth-grade students. Students were placed in the following categories: Motivated Above-Grade Level, Motivated On-Grade Level, Motivated Below-Grade Level, Unmotivated Above-Grade Level, Unmotivated On-Grade Level, and Unmotivated Below-Grade Level. Three students were randomly selected from each category, with the exception of the Unmotivated Above-Grade Level category (only one student was identified in this category). Each child was interviewed using the Conversational Interview portion of the Motivation to Read Profile by Gambrell, Palmer, Codling, and Mazzoni (1996). The Conversational Interview consists of 14 questions that are related to reading

narrative text, expository text, and reading in general. Three questions are related to the reading of narrative text, three questions are related to the reading of expository text, and eight questions are related to general reading. We asked follow-up questions to provide greater depth to student responses. We organized and analyzed the data we collected in the Conversational Interviews using the constant comparative method introduced by Glaser and Strauss (1967). The constant comparative method of qualitative analysis allowed for the constant comparison of data. It involved comparing one incident with another incident to identify similarities and differences. We then coded the 416 The Reading Teacher Vol. 59, No. 5 February 2006 incidents into categories. Categories were changed, refined, and created throughout the analysis. The data were examined in this way to identify patterns and lead to the development of theory. Analysis of the data began with the first interview and continued simultaneously with the remainder of the data collection. Data collection was complete when new information was no longer uncovered and appropriate categories were identified. Several patterns emerged regarding children s motivation to read. What did the children say? Our analysis of the data using the constant comparative method revealed several patterns, which we then placed into six categories. These six categories include factors that get children excited about reading narrative text, factors that get children excited about reading expository text, factors that get children excited about reading in general, sources of book referrals, sources of reading

motivation, and actions of those who motivate children to read (see Figure 1). Category 1: Factors that get children excited about reading narrative text In the Conversational Interview, children were asked to talk about the most interesting story or book they have been reading recently and why the story was interesting to them. When discussing the narrative text they were reading, several factors that got them excited about reading narrative text arose. The most popular factors were personal interests, book characteristics, and choice. See Table 1 for the breakdown of raw data on narrative text. Personal interests. The frequent mention of personal interests indicated that children s reading motivation was influenced by their own interests. In the following comments, the children revealed that they found books interesting because of the books relations to their personal interests: FIGURE 1 The six categories that motivated children to read Why readers selected narrative text: 1. Personal interests 2. Characteristics of books 3. Choice Why readers selected reading in general:

1. Characteristics of books 2. Knowledge gained Why readers selected expository text: 1. Knowledge gained 2. Choice 3. Personal interests Sources of book referrals: 1. School library 2. Teachers 3. Family members 4. Peers Actions of others: 1. Buying or giving books 2. Reading to children 3. Sharing books Sources of motivation: 1. Family members 2. Teachers 3. Themselves Reading motivation: What did the children say? I like camping. They were fishing and stuff. It was about magic, and I like to read about magic. Because it is about a ferret, and I like ferrets. I like the way they chase little balls.

Characteristics of books. When discussing narrative text, the children indicated that the characteristics of the books affected their motivation to read as well. Such things as exciting book covers, actionpacked plots, and humor were frequently mentioned. The importance of the characteristics of the books was illustrated through the following types of responses. Because on the front cover it showed three kids, and they opened a box. The box had gold in it. It has funny stuff in there. The book seemed boring at first, but Oliver goes on a lot of adventures. The book keeps you wondering. Because the book had a lot of action in it, and it was funny. Choice. The importance of choice was revealed throughout the interviews as children shared the books they were reading or had recently read. When sharing the narrative text they were reading, 84% of the children discussed books they had selected themselves, while only 16% discussed books that were assigned by the teachers. It appears the children were motivated to read when they were given an opportunity to decide what narrative text they would like to read. The following responses demonstrate the influence of choice: I found it in the school library. It is one I chose. Category 2: Factors that get children

excited about reading expository text During the Conversational Interview, children were encouraged to think about something they had learned recently from a book or some other reading material. They were asked to share what they read about, what they learned, and why the book or article was important to them. When discussing expository text, the children s responses focused on the influence of the knowledge gained by reading the book, on the relationship between the book and their personal interests, and on choice. Based on the children s responses about why the expository texts were important to them, it appears that books they could read to gain knowledge, books they chose, and books related to their personal interests affected their motivation to read the most. See Table 2 for the breakdown on raw data about expository text. Knowledge gained. The children placed a great deal of importance on the information they could learn from reading informational books. They were excited to share facts and knowledge learned when reading expository text. Therefore, it seems the knowledge the children can gain from reading books positively affects their motivation to read, as the following examples show. I could learn about different animals. I see what they eat and what they look like.

I can learn about different things like the states. Because I did not know much about reptiles or animals. What teachers can learn about reading motivation through conversations with children 417 TABLE 1 Narrative text: Influences on interest Factors students said made them interested in narrative text Number of positive student responses for each factor (total population n = 16) Knowledge gained 5 Similar personal experiences 5 Personal interests 14 Book characteristics 14 Choice 14Choice. The children also discussed texts they chose more frequently when they were discussing expository text they were reading or had recently read. Seventy-six percent of the children shared expository text that they had chosen themselves, and only 14% of the children shared expository text that had been assigned by the teacher. The remaining 10% could not share informational texts they had read. It appears the children were motivated to read when they were given an opportunity to decide which expository text they would like to read. The following responses reveal the effect that choice has on children s reading motivation. I chose the book. I got it from school. I chose it from the school library. I got it from the library at school. I picked it out myself.

Personal interests. The children also placed a great deal of emphasis on expository text that was related to their personal interests. These responses concerning expository text supported the conclusion made from the children s responses about narrative text. The conclusion was that children s reading motivation is positively influenced by books that are related to their personal interests. The following comments show the influence of children s personal interests on their motivation to read: I like dolphins. I think they are cool because they live in the ocean, and I like oceans. It was important because I like different cultures. Because it was about an Indian, and I am interested in Indians. Category 3: Factors that get children excited about reading in general After specifically discussing narrative and expository text, the children were asked questions focusing on reading in general. The children were given the opportunity to discuss other books they were reading and the things that got them excited about reading books in general. The conclusions that were made based on the responses dealing with narrative and expository text were supported by the children s responses when discussing reading in general. When discussing some of the factors that got them really excited about reading, characteristics of books and knowledge gained were patterns that repeatedly arose. Characteristics of books. Children enjoyed books

that were funny or scary. They also chose books with great illustrations. The following responses given by the children support the conclusion that the characteristics of books had a positive effect on children s reading motivation. The books, because I like them. The pictures they are really funny. When they are scary, funny, and fall stories. I like scary books because you wonder what is going to happen next.... I like funny stories because they make you laugh, and they are exciting to read. I like fall stories because they are about fall, and fall is not too hot or too cold.... Knowledge gained. The children also placed a great deal of importance on the information they 418 The Reading Teacher Vol. 59, No. 5 February 2006 TABLE 2 Expository text: Influences on interest Factors students said made them interested in narrative text Number of positive student responses for each factor (total population n = 16) Knowledge gained 13 Similar personal experiences 1 Personal interests 6 Book characteristics 4 Choice 13

Gift 1 Accelerated Reader book 1 No specific reason 1could learn from reading books when discussing factors that got them excited about reading. They gained knowledge about many things that interested them such as travel. Thus, it seemed the knowledge children gained from reading books positively influenced their motivation to read, as the following comments show. When I have not read the book before, and it has stuff about places where I have not been before. I want to find out about places you can go. You can learn a lot of stuff from them. Category 4: Sources of book referrals Access to books is critical to the amount of reading children do and to their reading achievement (Gambrell & Marinak, 1997). Thus, it is valuable to examine more closely the ways in which children are exposed to books. When discussing reading in general, children were asked to share how they found out about the books they were currently reading or had recently read. While examining the ways children were exposed to books, several sources emerged, such as the school library, teachers, family members, and peers. School library. The importance of the school library was revealed throughout the interviews as children discussed how they found out or knew about the books they were reading. When discussing narrative and expository text, the children overwhelmingly reported that they found out about their books from the school library. Other libraries,

such as the classroom library and the local or county library, were also mentioned but not as frequently. The children s responses indicated that exposure to the school library as well as to other libraries positively affected the children s motivation to read by introducing them to a variety of books. When discussing the narrative text and the expository text they were reading, it is important to note that the children reported they found most of the books they read in the school library, but none of them referred to the school librarian as an influence in their responses. The children s repeated referral to the school library shows that the school library provided the children with a variety of books that interested them and motivated them to read. The children s omission of the school librarian also supports the fact that just having access to books facilitated their reading motivation. However, the frequent response involving the school library showed that school librarians could also have a more positive influence on children s reading motivation. Teachers. The role the teacher plays in exposing children to books was also revealed during the interviews. When discussing the narrative text they were reading, the children frequently identified their teacher as the person who introduced books to them. The teacher was also mentioned when discussing expository text they were reading, but not as frequently. These responses highlighted the effect teachers can have on what children read and their reading motivation. Family members. Based on the children s responses regarding expository text, it can be concluded

that family members can also greatly influence what children are currently reading and affect their reading motivation. During the interview, children reported that they found out about the expository text they were reading from various family members, such as their mothers, fathers, and cousins. It is important to note, however, that the children most frequently responded that their mother had the greatest influence on their reading choices. Various family members were also referred to when the children were describing the narrative text they were reading, but the responses were not as frequent as when discussing expository text. The children s frequent mention of family members, especially their mothers, showed that family had a positive effect on children s reading motivation by exposing them to books. Peers. Although teachers and family were mentioned, the children most frequently responded that they had found out about books they wanted to read from their friends. This finding supports the fact that children are motivated to read by sharing books with one another. Category 5: Sources of motivation When examining children s reading motivation, it is important to discover not only who exposes them to books but also who actually motivates them to read. When children were asked who got them interested in and excited about reading, What teachers can learn about reading motivation through conversations with children 419the interviews revealed that the children s interest

in and excitement about reading was sparked by various individuals including family members (especially mothers), teachers, and themselves. Family members. Once again, the children illustrated the importance of family in the area of reading motivation. The most frequent response to the question, Who gets you interested in and excited about reading? was their mothers. However, it is necessary to point out that other family members, such as grandmothers, siblings, and so on, were also mentioned by the children, supporting the conclusion that a variety of family members influenced children s motivation to read. Teachers. Like the family, the teacher was a frequent response when asked, Who gets you excited about reading? This result showed yet again the role teachers play in children s reading motivation. Themselves. The children also cited themselves as a source of motivation. They attributed their desire to read to their own actions. By referring to themselves as a source of motivation, the children supported the idea that their interest in reading fostered their own motivation. The effect of the children s own desire to read on their reading motivation was demonstrated through the following examples. Nobody gets me excited. I just like to read books. Nobody I know of. I just read them because I like to. Nobody really gets me excited about reading books because I read them because I like reading books. Category 6: Actions of family members, teachers, and peers After discovering who motivated the children to

read, it was critical to examine the actions of these individuals. Therefore, we followed up the question about who gets them excited by asking what the individuals did to excite the children and interest them in reading. Three themes that emerged were buying or giving children books, reading to them, and sharing books with them. The two most (and equally) frequent responses were buying or giving the children books and reading to them. Buying or giving children books. Conversational Interviews showed that children valued receiving books, and that the action of giving or buying books for children motivated them to read. They enjoyed receiving books for their birthdays and for holidays, as well as other occasions. Reading to children. Along with the value of book giving, the value of reading to children emerged. Many of the children revealed that they enjoyed being read to by others. This finding highlighted the importance of reading to children regardless of their age. Sharing books. Finally, the children discussed the action of sharing books. The children enjoyed being told about books others were reading. They mentioned both formal and informal methods of sharing, such as book reports and informal discussions with peers. This was shown repeatedly by responses as simple as, I like it when they tell me about what they are reading. Recommendations for the

classroom teacher Based on the data collected during the Conversational Interviews, it is recommended that the following five approaches be used to increase children s desire to read: self-selection, attention to characteristics of books, personal interests, access to books, and active involvement of others. Self-selection One way to increase children s desire to read is to let them choose their own books. During the Conversational Interview, children frequently discussed books they had chosen themselves. This finding highlighted the importance of choice when attempting to positively affect children s reading motivation. Therefore, it is recommended that teachers not only give children the opportunity to choose the books they would like to read but also allot time during the school day to read them. We recommend two activities for classroom teachers to help students in this self-discovery process. 420 The Reading Teacher Vol. 59, No. 5 February 2006Three-piece kits. The first idea is for teachers to create three-piece kits about different topics. For example, if the class is studying dolphins, then the teacher can collect an expository book, a narrative book, and a poem (all connected to the topic of dolphins) in a plastic bag labeled Dolphins. It is important to include all three types of writing for students to explore. Kits can be added to the classroom library as new topics are studied. Students

can discuss their preferences with peers or with the teacher during individual reading conferences. Self-discovery bookmarks. In this activity, teachers give students bookmarks with a checklist of ideas and suggestions for reading choices by categories based on genres and personal interests. Students can take these bookmarks to the library and use them as a reminder of the types of books they might want to discover and check out. There is a sample in Figure 2 for teachers to copy and laminate for durability. Attention to characteristics of books In this study, two factors related to the characteristics of books appeared to influence children s interest in books and their motivation to read. These factors included characteristics of narrative books and knowledge gained by reading expository books. Thus, it is recommended that teachers consider these factors when selecting books for their classrooms. Teachers need to provide a variety of books that have different characteristics that children will desire to read books that are scary or funny or have good illustrations. Although the children discussed narrative text more often than expository text, they frequently reported that a book was important to them because they could learn something from the book. This finding demonstrates the importance of offering expository text to children as well as narrative text when trying to increase their reading motivation.

One suggestion we have for increasing exposure to a variety of books is an activity we call Librarians Unleashed. Teachers collect all of the books students have read during the month of sustained silent reading. These books can be collected in a large box. On the last day of the month, the books are emptied onto the middle of the floor. (It should be an impressive pile for the students to admire.) Next, the students must become little librarians as they determine five categories in which to sort the pile of books they have read. Students usually have a lively discussion about the characteristics of the books they have read and the categories into which they should be sorted. Any reasonable category should be accepted as long as several books can be connected to the label, for What teachers can learn about reading motivation through conversations with children 421 FIGURE 2 Self-discovery bookmark Self-discovery bookmark Name_____________________________________________ o Poetry o Expository books about Animals Space/planets History Trees/plants

Countries Oceans/seas _________________________________________ _________________________________________ _________________________________________ o Narrative books Picture books Chapter books Storybooks (animals) Storybooks (people) Mysteries Funny storybooks Fables Fairy tales Historical fiction _________________________________________ _________________________________________ _________________________________________example, Books That Made Me Laugh. The books are then distributed into five baskets and labeled by the students. Teachers can make the baskets available for sustained silent reading during the new month and then repeat the process. However, we recommend that the categories not be repeated for two consecutive months. Personal interests The children also chose books because they were related to their own personal interests. It is

important for teachers to provide books on many different topics that match the interests of their students. Based on these themes regarding factors that influence children s interest in books, we recommend that teachers assess children s interests at the beginning and throughout the school year through reading conferences and interest inventories. We also suggest that teachers provide a variety of narrative and expository texts that address the various interests of their students. Teachers may want to consider sorting books and placing them in baskets based on their content (e.g., mystery books, animal books, and humorous books). Teachers should also rotate special book collections, such as author or themed studies, throughout the year. Another idea we suggest is a variation of Book Clubs or literature circles called Genre Gurus. Students participate in groups based on the genre they have chosen to read. For example, five students have each read a different fairy tale. In their group, the discussion revolves around the genre, not the story line of the fairy tales: How did each book fit into the genre? How are the books alike? How are they different? What did we learn about fairy tales by reading these books? Students should create a visual to share their newfound knowledge about fairy tales with the rest of the class. Access to books Because children indicated that access to books positively affected their reading motivation, it is recommended that teachers not only provide extensive

classroom libraries, but also that they allow students frequent access to school libraries. In this study, the children got a majority of the books they were reading or had read from the school library. Because children were getting many of the books from the school library, it is recommended that teachers give them many opportunities to go to the school library, and that school librarians establish a flexible schedule as well as an assigned schedule for classrooms. We recommend that teachers create a pass called License to Look. This license can be used during flexible library visiting times. When students finish their work early, they can use the pass to visit the library and browse for books. The library should also provide a variety of narrative and expository books that address the interests of the children. Teachers should give librarians a list of one or two classroom topics for each week and ask the librarian to spend the first few minutes of class library time sharing some of the library resources available, being sure to include expository text, narrative text, and poetry. Likewise, we recommend that teachers provide families access to books through inexpensive book clubs and the use of take-home literacy bags that include books for parents and children to read together, as well as interactive games, crafts, and activities that involve the books. Teachers should also encourage family members to take children on regular visits to the local library and to develop the children s personal home libraries. One idea we have used is called Saturday Read-Ins. This is an activity that can be done monthly and will help

families support reading for their child. Enlist the help of the school principal and the librarian to provide a casual time on Saturday morning for children and their families to come to the library to find books and read them. Story time could be a feature. Healthy snacks could also be served. (This activity could be done one day after school instead of Saturday, again on a monthly basis.) Active involvement of others The students revealed that they were motivated to read when people read to them and when people shared what they were reading with them. Giving students books, reading to them, and sharing books with them are all practices that are recommended. Based on the frequent mention of these practices by students when asked to discuss what others do to motivate them to read, it is recommended that teachers spend time daily reading aloud to them, and that teachers allow many opportunities for them to share what they are reading with one another. Because school libraries are one 422 The Reading Teacher Vol. 59, No. 5 February 2006of the most important resources for books, it is suggested that teachers encourage the school librarian to read to students during library time and give them an opportunity to share books they are reading with one another. The influence of family, especially mothers, was demonstrated throughout the Conversational Interviews. Therefore, we recommend that teachers introduce family members to practices that will increase their children s reading motivation. These practices include reading aloud to their children, sharing with their children the books they are reading, and buying or giving their children books. Best practices in reading can be modeled by teachers

during open houses, parent/teacher organization meetings, or parent workshops. Tips such as the following one can also be shared with parents in newsletters. Reading tip of the week: Before you read a book with your child, look at the cover together and ask your child to predict what the book will be about. Ask, What do you think this book will be about? As you read together, check your prediction with the story and make any needed changes to your prediction. Finally, it is recommended that teachers take advantage of the influence that peers have on children s reading motivation. The children in this study demonstrated the effect their peers have on their reading motivation by frequently mentioning them when asked how they found out about a book and when asked who motivated them to read. We suggest that teachers provide opportunities for classmates to share what they are reading with one another. This sharing can occur through book swaps (students bring in a used book to trade for another used book collected in a basket or on a shelf), literature circles, and informal discussions about the books they are reading. The following activities are some other recommendations for peer sharing of books. Quotable Quips: After reading a book, students are asked to write a one-sentence critique similar to those found on book jackets of adult

paperbacks. (Teachers should share appropriate samples from real books and model examples after class read-alouds.) Student responses can be written on a sheet stapled inside the front cover of the book. Each critic (reader) adds his or her Quotable Quip to the running commentary. These can be used by students to help select books to read. Critic s Chair: After a book has been read, a critic can take the chair and share opinions about the book both positive praise and constructive criticism. For variation, teachers can have two students with different opinions about a book go head to head in an open discussion. This debate will give students a forum to discuss books and encourage other students in the class to read the book being discussed. Motivation increases reading achievement Children who are motivated to read will spend more time reading (Guthrie et al., 1999; Morrow, 1992; Wigfield & Guthrie, 1997), and research supports the positive effect of increased reading on reading achievement (Mazzoni, Gambrell, & Korkeamaki, 1999; Taylor, Frye, & Maruyama, 1990) as well as the likelihood of becoming lifelong readers (Morrow, 1992; Wang & Guthrie, 2004). Based on our findings in this study, we have

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