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INDEX
Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION BASICS AND HISTORY 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 History of Microstrip Patch Antenna Overview How Antenna Radiates Advantage and disadvantage 9-10 10-22 22-31 31-32
Chapter 2
Chapter 3
Chapter 4
Chapter 5
5.2 RESULT
LIST OF REFERENCES
65-66
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure No.
Name of Figures
Surface waves Leaky waves Radiation pattern Linear polarization Circular polarization Transmit (Tx) and Receive (Rx) Antennas separated by R. A negative charge has an associated Electric Field with it, everywhere in space.
The E-fields when the charge is accelerated.F (a) Geometry of Microstrip (Patch) Antenna. (b) Side View Magnitude of S 11 versus Frequency. Side view of patch antenna with E-fields shown underneath. Radiation pattern of rectangular patch Common Shapes of microstrip patch elements Microstrip Line Feed Probe fed Rectangular Microstrip Patch Antenna Aperture Coupled Feed
Proximity Coupled Feed Transmission Line Model Microstrip Patch Antennas Top View of Antenna Side View of Antenna Charge distribution and current density creation on the microstrip patch
Fig. 23
Various types of circularly polarized microstrip patch antennas: (a) triangular patch,(b) square patch, (c) circular patch, (d) ring, (e) pentagonal patch, and (f) elliptical patch.
Fig. 24
Two types of excitations for circularly polarized microstrip antennas: (a) dual-fed patch and (b) singly fed patch.
Fig. 25
Typical configurations of dual-fed circularly Polarized microstrip antennas: (a)circular patch and (b) square patch
Fig. 26
Typical configurations of singly fed circularly polarized microstrip antennas: (a)Circular patch and (b) square patch
Fig. 27
Amplitude and phase of orthogonal modes for singly fed circularly polarized microstrip antennas.
Fig. 28
Fig. 29
Fig. 30
Surface current distributions for meandered rectangular microstrip patches with (a) meandering slits and (b) a pair of triangular notches cut at the patchs non radiating edges.
Fig. 31
Compact broadband microstrip Antenna Antenna using chip resistor Geometry of a stacked shorted patch antenna for compact broadband operation.
Fig. 35 Fig. 36 Fig. 37 Fig. 38 Fig. 39 Fig. 40 Fig. 41 Fig. 42 Fig. 43 Fig. 44 Fig. 45 Fig. 46 Fig. 47 Fig. 48 Fig. 49 Fig. 50
Compact circularly polarized rectangular microstrip Antenna Compact circularly polarized circular microstrip Antenna Back View Of Patch Antenna Front View Of Patch Antenna Plot of angle vs. voltage Block Diagram Of Microwave Setup Antenna Setup For Measuring E & H-Plane Characteristics Setup For Measurement At X-Band VSWR results of simulation Impedence plot of antenna Magnetic field vector plot of antenna Reflection coff. plot of antenna Electric field plot of antenna 3D radiation plot of antenna Polarization plot of antenna E field plot of antenna
Gain plot of antenna Impedence plot of antenna VSWR plot of antenna 3D radiation plot of antenna Radiation plot of antenna H field plot of antenna
SHRI KRISHAN INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY KURUKSHETRA UNIVERSITY, KURUKSHETRA (HARYANA)
CERTIFICATE
Certified that this project report Microstrip Patch Antenna is the
bonafide work of Pradeep Attri who carried out the project work under my supervision.
CHAPTER1
At some point in the summer of 1984 they arrived at the idea of combining these two geometries, using a slot or aperture to couple a microstrip feed line to a resonant microstrip patch antenna. After considering the application of small hole coupling theory to the fields of the microstrip line and the microstrip antenna, they designed a prototype element for testing. Their intuitive
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theory was very simple, but good enough to suggest that maximum coupling would occur when the feed line was centered across the aperture, with the aperture positioned below the center of the patch, and oriented to excite the magnetic field of the patch. The first aperture coupled microstrip antenna was fabricated and tested by a graduate student, Allen Buck, on August 1, 1984, in the University of Massachusetts Antenna Lab. This antenna used 0.062 Duroid substrates with a circular coupling aperture, and operated at 2 GHz. As is the case with most original antenna developments, the prototype element was designed without any rigorous analysis or CAD - only an intuitive view of how the fields might possibly couple through a small aperture. They were pleasantly surprised to find that this first prototype worked almost perfectly it was impedance matched, and the radiation patterns were good. Most importantly, the required coupling aperture was small enough so that the back radiation from the coupling aperture was much smaller than the forward radiation level. The geometry of the basic aperture coupled patch antenna is described. The radiating microstrip patch element is etched on the top of the antenna substrate, and the microstrip feed line is etched on the bottom of the feed substrate. The thickness and dielectric constants of these two substrates may thus be chosen independently to optimize the distinct electrical functions of radiation and circuitry. Although the original prototype antenna used a circular coupling aperture, it was quickly realized that the use of a rectangular slot would improve the coupling, for a given aperture area, due to its increased magnetic polarizability. Most aperture coupled microstrip antennas now use rectangular slots, or variations thereof.
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gained by them. The micro strip antennas are the present day antenna designers choice. Low dielectric constant substrates are generally preferred for maximum radiation. The conducting patch can take any shape but rectangular and circular configurations are the most length of the antenna is nearly half wavelength in the dielectric; it is a very critical parameter, which governs the resonant frequency of the antenna. There are no hard and fast rules to find the width of the patch. Waves on Microstrip The mechanisms of transmission and radiation in a microstrip can be understood by considering a point current source (Hertz dipole) located on top of the grounded dielectric substrate (fig. 1.1) This source radiateselectromagnetic waves. Depending on thedirection toward which waves are transmitted, they fall within three distinct categories,each of which exhibits different behaviors.
fig.
dipole antenna
Surface Waves
The waves transmitted slightly downward, having elevation angles between /2and arcsin (1/ r), meet the ground plane, which reflects them, and then meet the dielectric-to-air boundary, which also reflects them (total reflection condition). The magnitude of the field amplitudes builds up for some particular incidence angles that leads to the excitation of a discrete set of surface wave modes; which are similar to the modes in metallic waveguide. The fields remain mostly trapped within the dielectric, decaying exponentially above the interface . The vector , pointing upward, indicates the direction of largest attenuation. The wave propagates horizontally along , with little absorption in good quality dielectric. With two directions of and orthogonal to each other, the wave is anon-uniform plane wave. Surface waves spread out in cylindrical fashion around the excitation point, with field amplitudes decreasing with distance (r), say1/r, more slowly than space waves. The same guiding mechanism provides propagation within optical fibers . Surface waves take up some part of the signals energy, which does not reach the intended user. The signals amplitude is thus reduced, contributing to an apparent attenuation or a decrease in antenna efficiency. Additionally, surface waves also introduce spurious coupling between different circuit or antenna elements. This effect severely degrades the performance of microstrip filters because the parasitic interaction reduces the isolation in the stop bands .In large periodic phased arrays, the effect of surface wave coupling becomes particularly obnoxious, and the array can
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neither transmit nor receive when it is pointed at some particular directions (blind spots). This is due to a resonance phenomenon, when the surface waves excite in synchronism the Floquet modes of the periodic structure. Surface waves reaching the outer boundaries of an open microstrip structure are reflected and diffracted by the edges. The diffracted waves provide an additional contribution to radiation, degrading the antenna pattern by raising the side lobe and the cross polarization levels. Surface wave effects are mostly negative, for circuits and for antennas, so their excitation should be suppressed if possible.
Leaky Waves
Fig1. surface
waves
Waves directed more sharply downward, with angles between arc sin (1/ r) and , are also reflected by the ground plane but only partially by the dielectric-to-air boundary. They progressively leak from the substrate into the air (Fig 1.3), hence their name laky waves, and eventually contribute to radiation. The leaky waves are also non uniform plane waves for which the attenuation direction points downward, which may appear to be rather odd; the amplitude of the waves increases as one moves away from the dielectric surface. This apparent paradox is easily understood by looking at the figure 1.3; actually, the field amplitude increases as one move away from the substrate because the wave radiates from a point where the signal amplitude is larger. Since the structure is finite, this apparent divergent behaviour can only exist locally, and the wave vanishes abruptly as one crosses the trajectory of the first ray in the figure. In more complex structures made with several layers of different dielectrics, leaky waves can be used to increase the apparent antenna size and thus provide a larger gain .This occurs for favourable stacking arrangements and at a particular frequency. Conversely, leaky waves are not excited in some other multilayer structures.
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Guided Waves
When realizing printed circuits, one locally adds a metal layer on top of thesubstrate, which modifies the geometry, introducing an additional reflecting boundary. Waves directed into the dielectric located under the upper conductor bounce back and forth on the metal boundaries, which form a parallel plate waveguide. The waves in the metallic guide can only exist for some Particular values of the angle of incidence, forming a discrete set of waveguide modes. The guided waves provide the normal operation of all transmission lines and circuits,in which the electromagnetic fields are mostly concentrated in the volume below the upper conductor. On the other hand, this build up of electromagnetic energy is not favourable for patch antennas, which behave like resonators with a limited frequency bandwidth.
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Frequency Band Name Extremely Low Frequency (ELF) Super Low Frequency (SLF)
Wavelength (Meters) 10,000-100,000 km 1,000-10,000 km 100-1,000 km 10-100 km 1-10 km 100-1,000 m 10-100 m 1-10 m 10-100 cm 1-10 cm 1-10 mm 380-750 nm (nanometers)
Ultra Low Frequency 300-3000 Hz (ULF) Very Low Frequency 3-30 kHz (VLF) Low Frequency (LF) 30-300 kHz Medium Frequency (MF) 300-3000 kHz
Navigational Beacons AM Radio Aviation and AM Radio Shortwave Radio FM Radio Television, Mobile Phones, GPS Satellite Links, Wireless Communication Astronomy, Remote Sensing Human Eye
High Frequency (HF) 3-30 MHz Very High Frequency 30-300 MHz (VHF) Ultra High Frequency 300-3000 MHz (UHF) Super High Frequency (SHF) High Frequency (EHF) Visible Spectrum 3-30 GHz 30-300 GHz 400-790 THz (4*10^147.9*10^14)
Table Frequency Bands Basically the frequency bands each range over from the lowest frequency to 10 times the lowest frequency. Antenna engineers further divide the bands into things like "X-band" and "Ku-band". That is the basics of frequency. To understand at a more advanced level, read on, or move to the next topic.
Bandwidth
Bandwidth is another fundamental antenna parameter. This describes the range of frequencies over which the antenna can properly radiate or receive energy. Often, the desired bandwidth is one of the determining parameters used to decide upon an antenna. For instance, many antenna types have very narrow bandwidths and cannot be used for wideband operation. Bandwidth is typically quoted in terms of VSWR. For instance, an antenna may be described as operating at 100-400 MHz with a VSWR<1.5. This statement implies that the reflection
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coefficient is less than 0.2 across the quoted frequency range. Hence, of the power delivered to the antenna, only 4% of the power is reflected back to the transmitter. Alternatively, the return loss S11=20*log10(0.2)=-13.98 dB. Note that the above does not imply that 96% of the power delivered to the antenna is transmitted in the form of EM radiation; losses must still be taken into account. Also, the radiation pattern will vary with frequency. In general, the shape of the radiation pattern does not change radically. There are also other criteria which may be used to characterize bandwidth. This may be the polarization over a certain range, for instance, an antenna may be described as having circular polarization with an axial ratio <3dB from 1.4-1.6 GHz. This polarization bandwidth sets the range over which the antenna's operation is roughly circular. The bandwidth is often specified in terms of its Fractional Bandwidth (FBW). The antenna Q also relates to bandwidth.
RADIATION PATTERN
A radiation pattern defines the variation of the power radiated by an antenna as a function of the direction away from the antenna. This power variation as a function of the arrival angle is observed in the far field. As an example, consider the 3-dimensional radiation pattern in Figure 1, plotted in decibels (dB) .
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This is an example of a donut shaped or toroidal pattern. In this case, along the z-axis, which would correspond to the radiation directly overhead the antenna, there is very little power transmitted. In the x-y plane (perpendicular to the z-axis), the radiation is maximum. These plots are useful for visualizing which directions the antenna radiates. Typically, because it is simpler, the radiation patterns are plotted in 2-d. In this case, the patterns are given as "slices" through the 3d plane. The same pattern in Figure 1 is plotted in Figure 2. Standard spherical coordinates are used, where is the angle measured off the zaxis, and is the angle measured counterclockwise off the x-axis. If you're unfamiliar with radiation patterns or spherical coordinates, it may take a while to see that Figure 2 represents the same pattern as shown in Figure 1. The pattern on the left in Figure 2 is the elevation pattern, which represents the plot of the radiation pattern as a function of the angle measured off the z-axis (for a fixed azimuth angle). Observing Figure 1, we see that the pattern is minimum at 0 and 180 degrees and becomes maximum at broadside to the antenna (90 degrees off the z-axis). This corresponds to the plot on the left in Figure 2. The plot on the right in Figure 2 is the azimuthal plot. It is a function of the azimuthal angle for a fixed polar angle (90 degrees off the z-axis in this case). Since the pattern in Figure 1 is symmetrical around the z-axis, this plot appears as a constant in Figure 2. A pattern is "isotropic" if the radiation pattern is the same in all directions. These antennas don't exist in practice, but are sometimes discussed as a means of comparison with real antennas. Some antennas may also be described as "omnidirectional", which for an actual means that it is isotropic in a single plane (as in Figure 1 above for the x-y plane). The third category of antennas are "directional", which do not have a symmetry in the radiation pattern.
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FIELD REGION
The fields surrounding an antenna are divided into 3 principle regions: Reactive Near Field Radiating Near Field or Fresnel Region Far Field or Fraunhofer Region The far field region is the most important, as this determines the antenna's radiation pattern. Also, antennas are used to communicate wirelessly from long distances, so this is the region of operation for most antennas. We will start with this region.
This region is sometimes referred to as the Fraunhofer region, a carryover term from optics.
Radiating Near Field (Fresnel) Region The radiating near field or Fresnel region is the region between the near and far fields. In this region, the reactive fields are not dominate; the radiating fields begin to emerge. However, unlike the Far Field region, here the shape of the radiation pattern may vary appreciably with distance.
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Note that depending on the values of R and the wavelength, this field may or may not exist. Finally, the above can be summarized via the following diagram:
DIRECTIVITY
Directivity is a fundamental antenna parameter. It is a measure of how 'directional' an antenna's radiation pattern is. An antenna that radiates equally in all directions would have effectively zero directionality, and the directivity of this type of antenna would be 1 (or 0 dB). An antenna's normalized radiation pattern can be written as a function in spherical coordinates
Because the radiation pattern is normalized, the peak value of F over the entire range of angles is 1. Mathematically, the formula for directivity (D) is written as:
This equation might look complicated, but the numerator is the maximum value of F, and the denominator just represents the "average power radiated over all directions". This equation then is just a measure of the peak value of radiated power divided by the average.
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Impedance
An antenna's impedance relates the voltage to the current at the input to the antenna. This is extremely important as we will see. Let's say an antenna has an impedance of 50 ohms. This means that if a sinusoidal voltage is input at the antenna terminals with amplitude 1 Volt, the current will have an amplitude of 1/50 = 0.02 Amps. Since the impedance is a real number, the voltage is in-phase with the current. Let's say the impedance is given as Z=50 + j*50 ohms (where j is the square root of -1). Then the impedance has a magnitude of
This means the phase of the current will lag the voltage by 45 degrees. To spell it out, if the voltage (with frequency f) at the antenna terminals is given by then the current will be given by
So impedance is a simple concept, which relates the voltage and current at the input to the antenna. The real part of an antenna's impedance represents power that is either radiated away or absorbed within the antenna. The imaginary part of the impedance represents power that is stored in the near field of the antenna (non-radiated power). An antenna with a real input impedance (zero imaginary part) is said to be resonant. Note that an antenna's impedance will vary with frequency. While simple, we will now explain why this is important, considering both the low frequency and high frequency cases. It turns out (after studying transmission line theory for a while), that the input impedance Zin is given by:
This is a little formidable for an equation to understand at a glance. However, the happy
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thing is: If the antenna is matched to the transmission line (ZA=ZO), then the input impedance does not depend on the length of the transmission line.
Circular Polarization
Circular polarization (CP) is usually a result of orthogonally fed signal input. When two signals of equal amplitude but 90o phase shifted the resulting wave is circularly polarized. Circular polarization can result in Left hand circularly polarized (LHCP) where the wave is rotating anticlockwise, or Right hand circularly polarized (RHCP) which denotes a clockwise rotation. The main advantage of using CP is that regardless of receiver orientation, it will always receive a component of the signal. This is due to the resulting wave having an angular variation.
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Criteria for Circular Polarization The E-field must have two orthogonal (perpendicular) components. The E-field's orthogonal components must have equal magnitude. The orthogonal components must be 90 degrees out of phase.
Effective Area
A useful parameter calculating the receive power of an antenna is the effective area or effective aperture. Assume that a plane wave with the same polarization as the receive antenna is incident upon the antenna. Further assume that the wave is travelling towards the antenna in the antenna's direction of maximum radiation (the direction from which the most power would be received). Then the effective aperture parameter describes how much power is captured from a given plane wave. Let W be the power density of the plane wave (in W/m^2). If P represents the power at the antennas terminals available to the antenna's receiver, then:
Hence, the effective area simply represents how much power is captured from the plane wave and delivered by the antenna. This area factors in the losses intrinsic to the antenna (ohmic losses, dielectric losses, etc.). This parameter can be determine by measurement for real antennas. A general relation for the effective aperture in terms of the peak gain (G) of any antenna is given by:
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Effective aperture will be a useful concept for calculating received power from a plane wave. To see this in action, go to the next section on the Friis transmission formula.
Antenna Temperature
Antenna Temperature ( ) is a parameter that describes how much noise an antenna produces in a given environment. This temperature is not the physical temperature of the antenna. Moreover, an antenna does not have an intrinsic "antenna temperature" associated with it; rather the temperature depends on its gain pattern and the thermal environment that it is placed in. To define the environment, we'll introduce a temperature distribution - this is the temperature in every direction away from the antenna in spherical coordinates. For instance, the night sky is roughly 4 Kelvin; the value of the temperature pattern in the direction of the Earth's ground is the physical temperature of the Earth's ground. This temperature distribution will be written as . Hence, an antenna's temperature will vary depending on whether it is directional and pointed into space or staring into the sun.For an antenna with a radiation pattern given by as: , the noise temperature is mathematically defined
This states that the temperature surrounding the antenna is integrated over the entire sphere, and weighted by the antenna's radiation pattern. Hence, an isotropic antenna would have a noise temperature that is the average of all temperatures around the antenna; for a perfectly directional antenna (with a pencil beam), the antenna temperature will only depend on the temperature in which the antenna is "looking".The noise power received from an antenna at temperature can be expressed in terms of the bandwidth (B) the antenna (and its receiver) are operating over:
In the above, K is Boltzmann's constant (1.38 * 10^-23 [Joules/Kelvin = J/K]). The receiver also has a temperature associated with it ( ), and the total system temperature (antenna plus receiver) has a combined temperature given by . This temperature can be used in the above equation to find the total noise power of the system. These concepts begin to illustrate how antenna engineers must understand receivers and the associated
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electronics, because the resulting systems very much depend on each other.
Fig6 Transmit
Assume that PTWatts of total power are delivered to the transmit antenna. For the moment, assume that the transmit antenna is omnidirectional, lossless, and that the receive antenna is in the far field of the transmit antenna. Then the power p of the plane wave incident on the receive antenna a distance R from the transmit antenna is given by:
If the transmit antenna has a gain in the direction of the receive antenna given by the power equation above becomes:
, then
The gain term factors in the directionality and losses of a real antenna. Assume now that the receive antenna has an effective aperture given by antenna ( ) is given by: . Then the power received by this
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Since the effective aperture for any antenna can also be expressed as:
This is known as the Friis Transmission Formula. It relates the free space path loss, antenna gains and wavelength to the received and transmit powers. This is one of the fundamental equations in antenna theory, and should be remembered (as well as the derivation above). Finally, if the antennas are not polarization matched, the above received power could be multiplied by the Polarization Loss Factor (PLF) to properly account for this mismatch..
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Fig7.
A negative charge has an associated Electric Field with it, everywhere in space.
So this negatively charged particle produces an electric field around it, everywhere in space. The Electric Field is a vector quantity - it has a magnitude (how strong the field strength is) and a direction (which direction does the field point). The field strength dies off (becomes smaller in magnitude) as you move away from the charge. Further, the magnitude of the Efield depends on how much charge exists. If the charge is positive, the E-field lines point away from the charge. Now, suppose someone came up and punched the charge with their fist, for the fun of it. The charge would accelerate and travel away at a constant velocity. How would the universe react in this situation? The universe has also decided (again, for no apparent reason) that disturbances due to moving (or accelerating) charges will propagate away from the charge at the speed of light - c0 = 300,000,000 meters/second. This means the electric fields around the charge will be disturbed, and this disturbance propagates away from the charge. This is illustrated in Figure 2.
Fig8.The E-fields
Once the charge is accelerated, the fields need to re-align themselves. Remember, the fields want to surround the charge exactly as they did in Figure 1. However, the fields can only
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respond to events at the speed of light. Hence, if a point is very far away from the charge, it will take time for the disturbance (or change in electric fields) to propagate to the point. we have 3 regions. In the light blue (inner) region, the fields close to the charge have readapted themselves and now line up as they do in Figure 1. In the white region (outermost), the fields are still undisturbed and have the same magnitude and direction as they would if the charge had not moved. In the pink region, the fields are changing - from their old magnitude and direction to their new magnitude and direction. Hence, we have arrived at the fundamental reason for radiation - the fields change because charges are accelerated. The fields always try to align themselves as in Figure 1 around charges. If we can produce a moving set of charges (this is simply electric current), then we will have radiation. Now, you may have some questions. First - if all accelerating electric charges radiate, then the wires that connect my computer to the wall should be antennas, correct? The charges on them are oscillating at 60 Hertz as the current travels so this should yield radiation, correct? Answer: Yes. Your wires do act as antennas. However, they are very poor antennas. The reason (among other things), is that the wires that carry power to your computer are a transmission line - they carry current to your computer (which travels to one of your battery's terminals and out the other terminal) and then they carry the current away from your computer (all current travels in a circuit or loop). Hence, the radiation from one wire is cancelled by the current flowing in the adjacent wire (that is travelling the opposite direction). Another question that will arise is - if its so simple, then everything could be an antenna. Why don't I just use a metal paper clip as an antenna, hook it up to my receiver and then forget all about antenna theory? Answer: A paper clip could definitely act as an antenna if you get current flowing on the antenna. However, it is not so simple to do this. The impedance of the paper clip will control how much power your receiver or transmitter could deliver to the paper clip (i.e. whether or not you could get any current flowing on the paper clip at all). The impedance will depend on what frequency you are operating at. Hence, the paper clip will work at certain frequencies as an antenna. However, you will have to know much more about antennas before you can say when and it may work in a given situation. In summary, all radiation is caused by accelerating charges which produce changing electric fields. And due to Maxwell's Equations, changing electric fields give rise to changing magnetic fields, and hence we have electromagnetic radiation. The subject of antenna theory is concerned with getting power from your receiver to radiation away from an antenna. This requires the impedance of your antenna to be roughly matched to your receiver, and that the currents that cause radiation add up in-phase (that is, they don't cancel each other out as they would in a transmission line). A multitude of antenna types produce ways of achieving this, and you can find descriptions about them on the antenna list page.
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Microstrip or patch antennas are becoming increasingly useful because they can be printed directly onto a circuit board. They are becoming very widespread within the mobile phone market. They are low cost, have a low profile and are easily fabricated. Consider the microstrip antenna shown in Figure 1, fed by a microstrip transmission line. The patch, microstrip and ground plane are made of high conductivity metal. The patch is of length L, width W, and sitting on top of a substrate (some dielectric circuit board) of thickness h with permittivity . The thickness of the ground plane or of the microstrip is not critically important. Typically the height h is much smaller than the wavelength of operation.
fig. 9Geometry
The frequency of operation of the patch antenna of Figure 1 is determined by the length L. The center frequency will be approximately given by:
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The above equation says that the patch antenna should have a length equal to one half of a wavelength within the dielectric (substrate) medium. The width W of the antenna controls the input impedance. For a square patch fed in the manner above, the input impedance will be on the order of 300 Ohms. By increasing the width, the impedance can be reduced. However, to decrease the input impedance to 50 Ohms often requires a very wide patch. The width further controls the radiation pattern. The normalized pattern is approximately given by:
In the above, k is the free-space wave number, given by 2 / . The magnitude of the fields, given by:
The directivity of patch antennas is approximately 5-7 dB. The fields are linearly polarized. Next we'll consider more aspects involved in Patch (Microstrip) antennas. Consider a square patch antenna fed at the end as before. Assume the substrate is air (or styrofoam, with a permittivity equal to 1), and that L=W=1.5 meters, so that the patch is to resonate at 100 MHz. The height h is taken to be 3 cm. Note that microstrips are usually made for higher frequencies, so that they are much smaller in practice. When matched to a 200 Ohm load, the magnitude of S11 is shown in Figure 1.
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Some noteworthy observations are apparent from Figure 1. First, the bandwidth of the patch antenna is very small. Rectangular patch antennas are notoriously narrowband; the bandwidth of rectangular patches are typically 3%. Secondly, the antenna was designed to operate at 100 MHz, but it is resonant at approximately 96 MHz. This shift is due to fringing fields around the antenna, which makes the patch seem longer. Hence, when designing a patch it is typically trimmed by 2-4% to achieve resonance at the desired frequency. The fringing fields around the antenna can help explain why the microstrip antenna radiates. Consider the side view of a patch antenna, shown in Figure 2. Note that since the current at the end of the patch is zero (open circuit end), the current is maximum at the center of the half-wave patch and (theoretically) zero at the beginning of the patch. This low current value at the feed explains in part why the impedance is high when fed at the end. Since the patch antenna can be viewed as an open circuited transmission line, the voltage reflection coefficient will be -1. When this occurs, the voltage and current are out of phase. Hence, at the end of the patch the voltage is at a maximum (say +V volts). At the start of the patch (a half-wavelength away), the voltage must be at minimum (-V Volts). Hence, the fields underneath the patch will resemble that of Figure 2, which roughly displays the fringing of the fields around the edges.
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Fig11.
It is the fringing fields that are responsible for the radiation. Note that the fringing fields near the surface of the patch are both in the +y direction. Hence, these E-fields add up in phase and produce the radiation of the microstrip antenna. As a side note, the smaller r is, the more "bowed" the fringing fields become; they extend farther away from the patch. Therefore, using a smaller permittivity for the substrate yields better radiation. In contrast, when making a microstrip transmission line (where no power is to be radiated), a high value of r is desired, so that the fields are more tightly contained (less fringing), resulting in less radiation. This is one of the trade-offs in patch antenna design. There have been research papers written were distinct dielectrics (different permittivities) are used under the patch and transmission line sections, to circumvent this issue.
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OF A RECTANGULAR PATCH
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electronic system, micro strip antennas based on photolithographic technology are seen as an engineering breakthrough.
Introduction
In its most fundamental form, a Microstrip Patch antenna consists of a radiatingpatch on one side of a dielectric substrate which has a ground plane on the other side asshown in Figure below The patch is generally made of conducting material such as copper or gold and can take any possible shape. The radiating patch and the feed lines are usually photo etched on the dielectric substrate.
In order to simplify analysis and performance prediction, the patch is generally square, rectangular, circular, triangular, and elliptical or some other common shape as shown in Figure 2.2. For a rectangular patch, the length L of the patch is usually 0.3333 o< L < 0.5 o, where o is the free-space wavelength. The patch is selected to be very thin such that t << o (where t is the patch thickness).The height h of the dielectric substrate is usually .003 oh0.05 o. The dielectric constant of the substrate ( r ) is typically in the range 2.2 r 12.
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Fig13. Common Shapes of microstrip patch elements Microstrip patch antennas radiate primarily because of the fringing fields between the patch edge and the ground plane. For good antenna performance, a thick dielectric substrate having a low dielectric constant is desirable since this provides better efficiency ,larger bandwidth and better radiation. However, such a configuration leads to a larger antenna size. In order to design a compact Microstrip patch antenna, substrates with higher dielectric constants must be used which are less efficient and result in narrower bandwidth. Hence a trade-off must be realized between the antenna dimensions and antenna performance.
ADVANTAGES
Microstrip patch antennas are increasing in popularity for use in wireless applications due to their low-profile structure. Therefore they are extremely compatible for embedded antennas in handheld wireless devices such as cellular phones, pagers etc... The telemetry and communication antennas on missiles need to be thin and conformal and are often in the form of Microstrip patch antennas. Another area where they have been used successfully is in Satellite communication. Some of their principal advantages are given below: Light weight and low volume. Low profile planar configuration which can be easily made conformal to host surface. Low fabrication cost, hence can be manufactured in large quantities. Supports both, linear as well as circular polarization. Can be easily integrated with microwave integrated circuits (MICs). Capable of dual and triple frequency operations. Mechanically robust when mounted on rigid surfaces.
DISADVANTAGES
Microstrip patch antennas suffer from more drawbacks as compared to conventional antennas. Some of their major disadvantages aregiven below: Narrow bandwidth. Low efficiency. Low Gain. Extraneous radiation from feeds and junctions. Poor end fire radiator except tapered slot antennas. Low power handling capacity. Surface wave excitation. Microstrip patch antennas have a very high antenna quality factor (Q). It represents the losses associated with the antenna where a large Q leads to narrow bandwidth and low efficiency. Q can be reduced by increasing the thickness of the dielectric substrate. But as the thickness increases, an increasing fraction of the total power delivered by the source goes into a surface wave. This surface wave contribution can be counted as an unwanted power loss since it is ultimately scattered at the dielectric bends and causes degradation of the antenna characteristics. Other problems such as lower gain and lower power handling capacity can be overcome by using an arrayconfiguration for the elements
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CHAPTER2
Feed Techniques
Microstrip patch antennas can be fed by a variety of methods. These methods can be classified into two categories- contacting and non-contacting. In the contacting method, the RF power is fed directly to the radiating patch using a connecting element such as a microstrip line. In the non-contacting scheme, electromagnetic field coupling is done to transfer power between the microstrip line and the radiating patch. The four most popular feed techniques used are the microstrip line, coaxial probe (both contacting schemes), aperture coupling and proximity coupling (both non-contacting schemes).
Fig14. Microstrip Line Feed The purpose of the inset cut in the patch is to match the impedance of the feed line to the patch without the need for any additional matching element. This is achieved by properly controlling the inset position. Hence this is an easy feeding scheme, since it provides ease of fabrication and simplicity in modeling as well as impedance matching. However as the thickness of the dielectric substrate being used, increases, surface waves and spurious feed
34
radiation also increases, which hampers the bandwidth of the antenna.The feed radiation also leads to undesired cross polarized radiation. Coaxial Feed The Coaxial feed or probe feed is a very common technique used for feeding Microstrip patch antennas. As seen from Figure 2.4, the inner conductor of the coaxial connector extends through the dielectric and is soldered to the radiating patch, while the outer conductor is connected to the ground plane. Figure
Fig15.
The main advantage of this type of feeding scheme is that the feed can be placed at any desired location inside the patch in order to match with its input impedance. This feed method is easy to fabricate and has low spurious radiation. However, a major disadvantage is that it provides narrow bandwidth and is difficult to model since a hole has to be drilled in the substrate and the connector protrudes outside the ground plane, thus not making it completely planar for thick substrates (h > 0.02 o). Also, for thicker substrates, the increased probe length makes the input impedance more inductive, leading to matching problems. It is seen above that for a thick dielectric substrate, which provides broad bandwidth, the microstrip line feed and the coaxial feed suffer from numerous disadvantages. The non-contacting feed techniques which have been discussed below,solve these issues.
35
In this type of feed technique, the radiating patch and the microstrip feed line are separated by the ground plane as shown in Figure below. Coupling between the patch and the feed line is made through a slot or an aperture in the ground plane.
The coupling aperture is usually centered under the patch, leading to lower crosspolarization due to symmetry of the configuration. The amount of coupling from the feed line to the patch is determined by the shape, size and location of the aperture. Since the ground plane separates the patch and the feed line, spurious radiation is minimized. Generally, a high dielectric material is used for bottom substrate and a thick, low dielectric constant material is used for the top substrate to optimize radiation from the patch. The major disadvantage of this feed technique is that it is difficult to fabricate due to multiple layers, which also increases the antenna thickness. This feeding scheme also provides narrow bandwidth.
36
This scheme also provides choices between two different dielectric media, one for the patch
and one for the feed line to optimize the individual performances. Matching can be achieved by controlling the length of the feed line and the width to-line ratio of the patch. The major disadvantage of this feed scheme is that it is difficultto fabricate because of the two dielectric layers which need proper alignment. Also, thereis an increase in the overall thickness of the antenna.
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CHAPTER3
Methods of Analysis
The preferred models for the analysis of Microstrip patch antennas are the transmission line model, cavity model, and full wave model (which include primarily integral equations/Moment Method). The transmission line model is the simplest of all and it gives good physical insight but it is less accurate. The cavity model is more accurate and gives good physical insight but is complex in nature. The full wave models are extremely accurate, versatile and can treat single elements, finite and infinite arrays, stacked elements, arbitrary shaped elements and coupling. These give less insight as compared to the two models mentioned above and are far more complex in nature.
Hence, as seen from Figure 2.8, most of the electric field lines reside in the substrate and parts of some lines in air. As a result, this transmission line cannot support pure transverseelectric-magnetic (TEM) mode of transmission, since the phase velocities would be different in the air and the substrate. Instead, the dominant mode of propagation would be the quasiTEM mode. Hence, an effective dielectric constant ( reff) must be obtained in order to account for the fringing and the wave propagation in the line. The value of reff is slightly less then r because the fringing fields around the periphery of the patch are not confined in the dielectric substrate but are also spread in the air as shown in Figure 3.8 above. The expression for reff is given by Balanis as:
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Where
r
reff
h = Height of dielectric substrate W = Width of the patch Consider Figure 2.9 below, which shows a rectangular microstrip patch antenna of length L, width W resting on a substrate of height h. The co-ordinate axis is selected such that the length is along the x direction, width is along the y direction and the height is along the z direction.
Fig19.
In order to operate in the fundamental TM10 mode, the length of the patch must be slightly less than /2 where is the wavelength in the dielectric medium and is equal to o/ reff where o is the free space wavelength. The TM10 mode implies that the field varies one /2 cycle along the length, and there is no variation along the width of the patch. In the Figure 2.10 shown below, the microstrip patch antenna is represented by two slots, separated by a transmission line of length L and open circuited at both the ends. Along the width of the patch, the voltage is maximum and current is minimum due to the open ends. The fields at the edges can be resolved into normal and tangential components with respect to the ground plane.
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Fig20.
fig21. Side
View of Antenna
It is seen from Figure 1.11 that the normal components of the electric field at the two edges along the width are in opposite directions and thus out of phase since the patch is /2 long and hence they cancel each other in the broadside direction. The tangential components (seen in Figure 1.11), which are in phase, means that the resulting fields combine to give maximum radiated field normal to the surface of the structure. Hence the edges along the width can be represented as two radiating slots, which are 2 / apart and excited in phase and radiating in the half space above the ground plane. The fringing fields along the width can be modeled as radiating slots and electrically the patch of the microstrip antenna looks greater than its physical dimensions. The dimensions of the patch along its length have now been extended on each end by a distance L , which is given empirically by Hammerstad [11] as:
For a given resonance frequency o f, the effective length is given by [9] as:
For a rectangular Microstrip patch antenna, the resonance frequency for any TMnm mode is given by James and Hall [14] as:
40
Where m and n are modes along L and W respectively. For efficient radiation, the width W is given by Bahl and Bhartia [15] as:
Cavity Model
Although the transmission line model discussed in the previous section is easy to use, it has some inherent disadvantages. Specifically, it is useful for patches of rectangular design and it ignores field variations along the radiating edges. These disadvantages can be overcome by using the cavity model. A brief overview of this model is given below. In this model, the interior region of the dielectric substrate is modeled as a cavity bounded by electric walls on the top and bottom. The basis for this assumption is the following observations for thin substrates (h << ). Since the substrate is thin, the fields in the interior region do not vary much in the z direction, i.e. normal to the patch. The electric field is z directed only, and the magnetic field has only the transverse components Hx and Hy in the region bounded by the patch metallization and the ground plane. This observation provides for the electric walls at the top and the bottom.
Fig22.
Consider Figure 2.12 shown above. When the microstrip patch is provided power, a charge distribution is seen on the upper and lower surfaces of the patch and at the bottom of the ground plane. This charge distribution is controlled by two mechanisms-an attractive mechanism and a repulsive mechanism as discussed by Richards. The attractive mechanism is between the opposite charges on the bottom side of the patch and the ground plane, which helps in keeping the charge concentration intact at the bottom of the patch. The repulsive mechanism is between the like charges on the bottom surface of the patch, which causes pushing of some charges from the bottom, to the top of the patch. As a result of this charge movement, currents flow at the top and bottom surface of the patch. The cavity model
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assumes that the height to width ratio (i.e. height of substrate and width of the patch) is very small and as a result of this the attractive mechanism dominates and causes most of the charge concentration and the current to be below the patch surface. Much less current would flow on the top surface of the patch and as the height to width ratio further decreases, the current on the top surface of the patch would be almost equal to zero, which would not allow the creation of any tangential magnetic field components to the patch edges. Hence, the four sidewalls could be modeled as perfectly magnetic conducting surfaces. This implies that the magnetic fields and the electric field distribution beneath the patch would not be disturbed. However, in practice, a finite width to height ratio would be there and this would not make the tangential magnetic fields to be completely zero, but they being very small, the side walls could be approximated to be perfectly magnetic conducting. Since the walls of the cavity, as well as the material within it are lossless, the cavity would not radiate and its input impedance would be purely reactive. Hence, in order to account for radiation and a loss mechanism, one must introduce a radiation resistance RR and a loss resistance RL. A lossy cavity would now represent an antenna and the loss is taken into account by the effective loss tangent eff which is given as:
Qt is the total antenna quality factor and has been expressed by [4] in the form:
Where
W T is the total energy stored in the patch at resonance. P d is the dielectric loss. tan is the loss tangent of the dielectric. Qc represents the quality factor of the conductor and is given as:
42
Where Pc is the conductor loss. is the skin depth of the conductor. H is the height of the substrate. Q r represents the quality factor for radiation and is given as:
Thus, equation (1.12) describes the total effective loss tangent for the microstrip patch antenna.
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44
Figure23 Various types of circularly polarized microstrip patch antennas: (a) triangular patch, (b) square patch, (c) circular patch, (d) ring, (e) pentagonal patch, and (f) elliptical patch.
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Fig24. Two types of excitations for circularly polarized microstrip antennas: (a) dual-fed patch and (b) singly fed patch.
Fig25. Typical
configurations of dual-fed circularly Polarized microstrip antennas: (a)circular patch and (b) square patch
Fig26. Typical configurations of singly fed circularly polarized microstrip antennas: (a)Circular patch and (b) square patch
Because a patch with single-point feed generally radiates linear polarization, in order to radiate CP, it is necessary for two orthogonal patch modes with equal amplitude an in phase quadrature to be induced. This can be accomplished by slightly perturbing a patch at appropriate locations with respect to the feed. Purturbation configurations for generating CP operate on the principle of detuning degenrate modes of a symmetrical patch by perturabation
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segments as shown in figure 3.5. The fields of a singly fed patch can be resolved into two orthogonal degenerates modes 1 and 2. Proper purturbation segments will detune the frequency response of mode 2 such that, at the operating frequency f0, the axial ratio rapidly degrades while the input match remains acceptable. The actual detunig occurs either for one or both modes depending on the placement of perturbation segments.
Fig27. Amplitude
antennas. A circular polarization can also be obtained from a single-point-fed square or circular patch on a normally biased ferrite substrate, as shown in fig 3.6. Pozar demostrated that a singly fed patch radiates both left hand circularly polarized (LHCP) and right hand circularly polarized(RHCP) at the same level and polarity of bias magnetic field; however LHCP and RHCP have different resonan frequencies. At the same operating frequency, the sence of polarization can be reversed by reversing the polarity of bias field. The axial ratio bandwidth is found to be larger than the impedance bandwidth. The radiation efficiency is on the order of 70%. Dual circular polarization have also been achieved using a singly fed triangular or pentagonal microstrip antenna. A schematic diagram of an isoceles triangular patch and its feed loci is shown in figure 3.7. A triangular patch radiates CP at dual frequencies, f1 and f2, with the separation ratio depending on the aspect ratio b/a. As shown in figure 3.7 RHCP can be changed to LHCP at each frequency by moving the feed location 1to 2 or from 4 to 3. The aspect ratio b/a is generally very close to unity; hence, a triangularpatch is almost equilateral. A pentagonal patch in figure 3.8, with the aspect ratio c/a as a design parameter, also behaves in a similar manner. It radiates RHCP when the feed pointis on 2 or 3 and LHCP for the feed on 1 to 4.
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Fig28.
48
Fig29.
plate or partial shorting wall, and (c) a shorting pin. The feeds are not shown. shorting-pin loading technique to an equilateral-triangular microstrip antenna, the size reduction can be made even greater, reaching as large as 94%.This is largely because an equilateral-triangular microstrip antenna operates at its fundamental resonant mode, whose null-voltage point is at two-thirds of the distance from the triangle tip to the bottom side of the triangle; when a shorting pin is loaded at the triangle tip, a larger shifting of the null-voltage point compared to the cases of shorted rectangular and circular microstrip antennas occurs, leading to a greatly lowered antenna fundamental resonant frequency.
Fig30. Surface current distributions for meandered rectangular microstrip patches with (a) meandering slits and (b) a pair of triangular notches cut at the patchs nonradiating edges.
Compactness
By embedding suitable slots in the radiating patch, compact operation of microstrip antennas can be obtained. Figure below shows some slotted patches suitable for the design of compact microstrip antennas. In Figure , the embedded slot is a cross slot, whose two orthogonal arms can be of unequal or equal lengths. This kind of slotted patch causes meandering of the patch surface current path in two orthogonal directions and is suitable for achieving compact circularly polarized radiation or compact dual- Compact microstrip antennas with (a) an inverted U-shaped patch, (b) a folded patch, and (c) a double-folded patch for achieving
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lengthening of the excited patch surface current path at a fixed patch projection area. The feeds are not shown.
The microstrip-line-fed planar inverted-L (PIL) patch antenna is a good candidate for compact operation. The antenna geometry is shown in Figure 1.6. When the antenna height is less than 0.1 0 ( 0 is the free-space wavelength of the center operating frequency), a PIL patch antenna can be used for broadside radiation with a resonant length of about 0.25 0 [24]; that is, the PIL patch antenna is a quarter-wavelength structure, and has the same broadside radiation characteristics as conventional half wavelength microstrip antennas. This suggests that at a fixed operating frequency, the PIL patch antenna can have much reduced physical dimensions (by about 50%) compared to the conventional microstrip antenna.
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Fig32 .COMPACT
51
Fig33 . Antenna
In this case, with the same antenna parameters, the obtained antenna size reduction can be greater than for the design using chip-resistor loading. Moreover, the obtained impedance bandwidth can be increased by a factor of six compared to a design using shorting-pin loading. For an FR4 substrate of thickness 1.6 mm and relative permittivity 4.4, the impedance bandwidth can reach 10% in L-band operation [26]. However, due to the introduced ohmic loss of the chip-resistor loading, the antenna gain is decreased, and is estimated to be about 2 dBi, compared to a shorted patch antenna with a shorting pin. For the latter design with stacked shorted patches, an impedance bandwidth of greater than 10% can be obtained. For this design, of course, the total antenna volume or height is increased.
Fig34. Geometry of a
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Various novel designs have been reported recently to achieve compact circularly polarized radiation with microstrip antennas. In addition to the well-known technique of
Fig35. COMPACT
using a high-permittivity substrate as described in, compact CP designs can be achieved by embedding suitable slots or slits in the radiating patch or the antennas ground plane. These designs mainly use a single probe feed or an edge-fed microstrip-line feed. By using a single inset microstrip-line feed, it is possible for microstrip antennas with a slotted patch to achieve compact CP radiation.For a compact CP design using a tuning stub [12, 47] the required length of the tuning stub increases as the CP center operating frequency is lowered. The increase in allowable tuning-stub length accompanying the reduction in antenna size for such compact CP designs allows a greatly relaxed manufacturing tolerance compared to the corresponding conventional circularly polarized microstrip antenna at the same operating frequency. This is a great advantage for practical applications,
53
Fig36. COMPACT
Geometries of (a) a microstrip-line-fed compact circularly polarized microstrip antenna with a tuning stub and (b) an aperture-coupled compact circularly polarized microstrip antenna with a bent tuning stub.
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CHAPTER4
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Rotation Left hand Left hand Left hand Right hand Right hand Right hand Right hand
Angle(degree) 0 20 40 60 20 40 60 80
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Antenna Measurement
If a transmission line propagating energy is left open at the end, there will be radiating from this end. In case of a rectangular waveguide this antenna presents a mismatch of about 2:1 and it radiates in many directions. The match will improve if the open waveguide is horn shape. The radiation pattern of an antenna is a diagram of field strength or more often t e h power intensity as a function of the aspect angle at a constant distance from the radiating antenna. An antenna pattern is presented as a two dimensional pattern in one or several planes. An antenna pattern is consists of several labels, the main lobe, side lobe, back bone lobe . The major power is concentrated in the main lobe as low as possible. The power intensity at the main lobe compared to the power intensity achieved from an imaginary omnidirectional antenna (radiating equally in all directions) with the same power fed to the antenna is defined as gin of the antenna. 3dB Beam Width: The angle between two points on a main lob e where yhe power intensity is half the maximum power intensity where measuring an antenna pattern , it is normally most interesting to plot the pattern far from the antenna. Far field pattern is achieved at a minimum distance of 2D2/ (for rectangular Horn antenna)
where D is size of the broad wall of horn aperture is free wavelength It is also very imported to avoid disturbing reflection. Antenna measurement is normally made at outdoor rangers or in so called anechoic chambers made of absorbing materials. Antenna measurements are mostly made with unknown antennas as receiver. Therefor several methods to measure the gain of antenna. One method is to compare the unknown antenna with known gain. A method is to use two identical antennas, as transmitters and other as receiver from following formula the gain can be calculated. PR = Pt PS G1 G2/(4TS)2 where Pt is transmitted and receiving antenna S is to radial distance between antenna.
PS Is free space wavelength.
If both transmitting & receiving antenna are identical having gain G the G=4TSPr/PSPt In the above equation Pt, S,Pr and can be measured and gain can be computed. As from the above equation it is not necessary to know the absolute of Pt & Pr. Only is required,
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Procedure
Antenna Diagram Plotting 1.Setup the equipments as shown in fig 4.3 .keeping the axis of both antenna in the same axis line.
2. Energise the gunn oscillator for maximum output at desired frequency with square wave modulation by tunning square wave amplitude and frequency of modulating signal of gunn power supply and by tunning of detector. 3. Also tune the S.S. Tuner in the line for maximum output(if S.S Tuner in the setup. 4. Obtain full scale deflection (0dB) on normal dB scale(0-10dB) at any convenient range switch position of the V.S.W.R meter by gain control knob of V.S.W.R meter or by variable attenuator. 5. Turn the receiving horn to the left in 10degree steps up to -130 to 130 degree and note the corresponding V.S.W.R dB reading in normal dB range. When necessary change the range switch to next higher range and add 10 dB to the observed value. 6. Repeat the above steps but this time turn the receiving horn to the right and note down the readings.
SHRI KRISHAN DEV BHOOMI INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
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7. Draw the relative power pattern i.e. output v/s angle. 8. from the diagram determine 3dB width of the horn antenna can be measured. Gain measurement 1. Set up the equipments as shown in fig. both horns should be in line. 2. Keep the range db switch of VSWR meter at 50 db position with gain control full. 3. Energize the gunn oscillator for maximum output at desired frequency of gunn power supply and by tuning of detector. 4. Obtain full scale deflection in VSWR meter with variable attenuator. 5. Replace the transmitting horn by detector mount and change the appropriate range db position to get the deflection. On scale . note and record the range db position and deflection of VSWR meter. 6. Calculate the difference in db between the power measured in step 4 and 5.
Antenna1 results:
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Fig43. vswr
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Fig45.
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fig.47electric
fig.48 3d radiation
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fig.49. polarization
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Antenna 2:
After changing the dimensions of substrate and ground plate new improved results are formed as:
fig.50
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XY Plot 7
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[1] Jordan E C & Balmain K G, Electromagnetic Waves and RadiatingSystems, 2nd ed., PHI, 1968. [2] Weeks W.L, Antenna Engineering, McGraw-Hill, 1968. [3] Balanis C.A, Antenna Theory: Analysis and Design, 2nd ed., Wiley, 1996. [4] Elliot R.S, Antenna Theory and Design, Prentice-Hall, 1981. [5] Stutzman W.L &. Thiele G.A , Antenna Theory and Design,Wiley, 1998. [6] Johnson R.C, Antenna Engineering Handbook, 3rd ed., McGraw-Hill, 1993. [7] Collin R.E & Zucker F.J, Antenna Theory, eds., Part I, McGraw-Hill, 1969. [8] Kiang Jean-Fu, Antennas, Chapter 3, National Taiwan University,Taipei,Taiwan. [9] Biswas M & Guha D, Broadband Microstrip Patches for M.C System", University of Kolkatta, Kolkatta, India. [10] Etd.lib.fsu.edu, Microstrip Patch Antenna Design & Results, Chapter 3. [11] Greig D.D, & Enlemann, H.F.,Microstrip-A New Transmission Technique for the Kilomegacycle Range,Proceedings of The IRE, 1952, Vol .40,No.10,pp.1644-1650. [12] Deschamps G.A., Microstrip Microwave Antennas, The Third Symposium on The USAF Antenna Research & Development Program, University of Illinois, Monticello , Illinois, October 18-22,1953. [13] Wu T.T, Theory of the Microstrip, Journal of Applied Physics, March, 1957, Vol. 28, No. 3, pp. 299-302. [14] Wheeler H.A., Transmission Line Properties of Parallel Strips Separated by a Dielectric Sheet, IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory of Techniques, Vol. MTT-13, pp 172-185, March 1965. [15] Purcel R.A., Masse D.J. & Hartwig C.P., Losses in Microstrip IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory & Techniques, June, 1968, 342-350. [16] Purcel R.A., Masse D.J. ,Hartwig C.P. & Errata: Losses in Microstrip IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory & Techniques, December, 1968, 1064. [17] Denlinger E.J., Radiation from Microstrip Radiators, IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory & Techniques, pp 235-236, April 1969. [18] Watkins J., Circular Resonant Structures in Microstrip, Electronics Letters, Vol 5, No.21, October 16, 1969, pp. 524-525. [19] Bancroft, Randy ,Etd.lib.fsu.edu, Microstrip Patch Antenna Design & Results,
SHRI KRISHAN DEV BHOOMI INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
REFRENCES
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Chapter 1. [20] Haider S & Young L, Microstrip Patch Antenna for Broadband Indoor Wireless Systems, University of Auckland, 2003, pp. 3-5. [21] Etd.lib.fsu.edu, Microstrip Patch Antenna Design & Results, Chapter 4. [22] Guha D, Microstrip & Printed Antennas: Recent trends & Developments, December 2003, pp. 10-12. [23] Wong K.L, Design of Nonplanar Microstrip Antennas and Transmission Lines, Wiley, New York, October 4,2001. [24] Biswas M, Siddiqui J.Y. & Guha D, CAD of Triangular Microstrip Patch Antenna in Multilayered Media, Institute of Radio Physics & Electronics, University of Calcutta, Calcutta, India. [25] Verma, A.K. & Nasimuddin, Fast & Accurate Model for Analysis of Equilateral Triangular Patch Antenna.Department of Electronics Science,University of Delhi,New Delhi, India. [26] Wojciech J.K.,"Triangular Microstrip Antenna Loaded by Slots for GPS Applications." Wroclaw University of Technology, Faculty of Electronics, Institute of Telecommunications, Teleinformatics & Acoustics, Wybrzeze Wyspianskiego 27, 50-370 Wroclaw, Poland. [27] Solanki M.R., Kiran U.K & Vinoy K.J, Broadband Design of a Triangular Microstrip Antenna with Capacitive Feed, Microwave Laboratory, ECE Department, IIS, Bangalore, India. [28] Siddiqui J.Y. & Guha D, Applications of TMP: Circuit Elements for Modern Wireless Antenna. [29] Fassetta A.S, Low-profile circular array of equilateral triangular patches for angular diversity IEE Proc. Microwaves,Antennas and Propagation, vol. 150, pp. 34-36, Feb. 2003.