DIGITAL TRANSMISSION AND CONVERTING ANALOG SIGNALS TO DIGITAL SIGNALS DIGITAL TRANSMISSION Transmittal of digital signals between two

two or more points in a communications system. T1 and E1 are examples of communication systems that require digital transmission. Use CSU or DSU to interface DTEs to digital transmission channels/media such as T1 or E1 lines.

Ease of detection and decoding

Reasons for Encoding Some signals, whether the source information is digital or analog, needs to be transmitted through a digital communications medium or system. Digital communication systems are now widely used.

Encoding Formats UPNRZ - Unipolar Nonreturn to Zero BPNRZ - Bipolar Nonreturn to Zero UPRZ - Unipolar Return to Zero BPRZ - Bipolar Return to Zero BPRZ-AMI - Bipolar Return to Zero Alternate Mark Inversion Unipolar - involves the transmission of only a single nonzero voltage Bipolar transmission - involves two nonzero transmission Nonreturn to zero binary pulse is maintained for the entire bit time Return to zero- active time of the binary pulse is less than 100% of the bit time Alternate mark inversion two nonzero voltage levels (-V and +V) but both polarities represent logic 1s and 0V represents logic 0

DIGITAL TRANSMISSION IN DATA COMMUNICATIONS

DTE

DCE CSU/DSU

DCE CSU/DSU

DTE

Advantages of Digital Transmission Noise immunity Ease of processing and combining Ease of measuring and evaluating

Disadvantages of Digital Transmission Requires more bandwidth Necessitates encoding and decoding circuitry Requires precise time synchronization Incompatible with older analog transmission systems

Digital Line Encoding Converts standard logic levels to a form more suitable for transmission through digital communication system Six factors must be considered Transmission voltages and DC component Duty cycle Bandwidth considerations Clock and framing bit recovery Error detection

UPNRZ

BPNRZ

UPRZ

BPRZ

BPRZ-AMI

Pulse Modulation sampling analog information signals then converts it into discrete pulses and transporting the pulses from sources to a destination over a physical transmission medium.

Pulse Amplitude Modulation The amplitude of a constant width, constant position pulse is varied according to the amplitude of the sample of the analog signal

Pulse Code Modulation 4 Methods of Pulse Modulation 1. 2. 3. 4. Pulse Width Modulation Pulse Position Modulation Pulse Amplitude Modulation Pulse Code Modulation The analog signal is sampled and then converted to a serial n-bit binary code for transmission Each code has a number of bits and requires the same length of time for transmission The only digitally encoded modulation technique that is commonly used for digital transmission. The pulses are of fixed length and fixed amplitude.

Simplified Block Diagram of a PCM Transmission System

Analog Input Signal Bandpass filter Sample & hold Parallel-toSerial Converter

ADC

Regenerative repeater

PULSE WIDTH MODULATION Pulse Duration Modulation (PDM) Pulse Length Modulation (PLM) Width of constant pulse is varied proportional to the amplitude of the analog signals at the time it is sampled

Serial-toParallel converter

DAC

Hold circuit

Low-pass filter

Analog Output signal

PCM Sampling Used to periodically sample the continually changing analog input voltage and convert it to a series of constant amplitude pulses that can be easily converted to binary PCM code. - Natural Sampling - Flat-top Sampling

Pulse Position Modulation The position of a constant-width pulse within a prescribed time slot is varies according to the amplitude of the sample of the analog signal

Sampling Rate Nyquist sampling theorem - the minimum sampling rate (fs) that can be used for a given PCM system fs 2fa where: fs = minimum Nyquist sample rate fa = maximum analog input frequency If fs is less than two times fa, alias or foldover distortion occurs PCM Code The binary codes are n-bit codes, where n may be any positive integer greater than 1 The codes used are sign-magnitude codes With 2 magnitude bits, there are four codes possible for positive numbers and four codes for negative numbers.

size which is equal to the voltage of the least significant bit (Vlsb) Quantum/Quantization interval magnitude difference between adjacent steps Each code has a quantization range equal to + or one-half the magnitude of quantum

PCM Analog to Digital Conversion

111 +3V 110 +2V 101 +1V 100 0V 000 0V 001 -1V 010 -2V 011 -3V

Folded Binary Code Sign 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 Magnitude 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 Decimal Value +3 +2 +1 +0 -0 -1 -2 -3 Quantization Range +2.5 V to +3.5 V +1.5 V to +2.5 V +0.5 V to +1.5 V 0 V to +0.5 V 0 V to -0.5 V -0.5 V to -1.5 V -1.5 V to -2.5 V -2.5 V to -3.5 V

111 110 101 100 000 001 010 011

+3V +2V +1V 0V 0V -1V -2V -3V

Quantization Error Round-off errors in the transmitted signal that are reproduced when the code is converted back to analog Equivalent to additive white noise that alters the signal amplitude = sample voltage resolution

Folded Binary Code Quantization process of converting an infinite number of possibilities to a finite number of conditions (rounding off amplitudes) Quantizing - assigning PCM codes to absolute magnitudes Resolution magnitude of a quantum, equal to the voltage of the minimum step

Dynamic Range

Ratio of the largest possible magnitude to the smallest possible magnitude that can be decoded by DAC

= 0.01V d. Qe = resolution /2 = 0.005V Coding Efficiency Numerical indication of how efficiently a PCM code is utilized Ratio of the minimum number of bit required to achieve a certain dynamic range to the actual number of PCM bits used Coding eff = (8.63/9)100 = 95.89% Signal-to-Quantization Noise Ratio SQR = resolution/ Qe = Vlsb/(Vlsb/2) = 2 SQRmin = 1/0.5 = 2 = 20 log 2 = 6 dB SQRmax = 3/(0.5) = 6 = 20 log 6 = 15.6 dB Signal-to-Quantization Noise Ratio
SQR ( dB ) = 10 log SQR ( dB ) = 10 log SQR ( dB ) v2 / R (q 2 / 12 ) / R

DR = Vmax (maximum voltage magnitude) Vmin (quantum value/resolution) DR expressed in dB

DR = 20 log Vmax Vmin Number of bits used for PCM code depends on DR 2n 1 DR where n = no. of bits in a PCM code excluding sign bit 2n = DR + 1 log 2n = log (DR+1) nlog 2 = log (DR+1) n = log (3+1) = 0.602 = 2 log 2 0.301 For a dynamic range of 3, a PCM code requires 2 bits

For a PCM system with the following parameters, determine a. minimum sample rate b. minimum number of bits used in the PCM code c. resolution d. quantization error Maximum analog input frequency = 4 KHz Maximum decoded voltage at the receiver = 2.55V Minimum dynamic range = 46 dB SOLUTION a. fs = 2 (4 KHz) = 8 KHz b. 46 dB = 20 log Vmax/Vmin ; 102.3 = Vmax/Vmin ; dr = 199.5 n = log (199.5+1)/log 2 = 7.63 therefore 8 bits c. Resolution = Vmax/ (2n 1) = 2.55/(256-1)

v2 / R q 2 / 12 v = 20 log q

Where: R = resistance v = rms signal voltage q = quantization interval v2/R = average signal power (q2/12/R) = average quantization noise power

Linear VS nonlinear PCM Codes

Linear codes magnitude change between any two successive steps in uniform Resolution/accuracy is the same for lower and higher amplitude signal SQR for low amplitude signal is less than the SQR for higher amplitude signal Nonlinear step size increases with the amplitude of the input signal More codes at the bottom Distance between successive codes is greater for higher amplitude signals Vmax/Vmin is increased

Use flash encodersmore complex Multiple Threshold Circuit common type of word-at-a time coding where logic circuit senses the highest threshold circuit sensed by the PAM input signal and produce the approximate PCM code.

DELTA MODULATION PCM Uses a single bit PCM code to achieve digital transmission of analog signals Only a single bit is transmitted that indicates whether the sample is larger or smaller than the previous sample

IDLE NOISE CHANNEL The only input to the PAM sampler when there is no analog input signal Converted to a PAM sample as if it were a signal, then quantized by the ADC. MIDTREAD QUANTIZATION one way to reduce idle noise First quantization interval is made larger in amplitude than the rest of the steps Input noise can be quite large and quantized as a positive or negative zero code noise is suppressed during the process CODING METHODS 1. Level-at-a Time Coding Compares the PAM signal to a ramp waveform while the counter is advanced at a uniform rate When the ramp waveform equals or exceeds the PAM sample, the counter contains the PCM code

ADAPTIVE DELTA MODULATION PCM Delta modulation where the step size of the DAC is automatically varied, depending on the amplitude characteristic of the analog input signal

DIFFERENTIAL PCM Difference in the amplitude of two successive samples is transmitted

VOCODER Special voice encoder/decoder Used in digitizing speech signals only Used for recorded information

Hartleys Law IBxt where: I = information capacity (bps) B = bandwidth (Hz) t = transmission time (sec) In the total absence of noise fb = 2B log2M where: fb = channel capacity (bps) B = minimum Nyquist bandwidth (Hz) M = number of coding or voltage levels

2. Digit-at-a Time Coding determines each digit of the PCM code sequentially Feedback coder one common kind of digit-at-a time coder that determines the PCM code simultaneously because it uses successive approximation register(SAR) 3. Word-at-a Time Coding

When binary coding is used fb = 2B To determine Hither total information sent in time t, H = fbt where t = transmission time, s Ex. Given a bandwidth of 4 KHz with a coding level of 4, determine the maximum bit rate. How many bits are transmitted per coding level? If data is transmitted continuously for 3 seconds, what is the total number of bits transmitted? fb = 2B log2M = 2(4000) log24 = 16,000 bps total number of bits per coding level = log 24 =2 total number of bits transmitted = (16,000) (3) = 48,000 Shannons Limit for Information Capacity
S I = B log 2 1 + N

WDM CDM Circuit switching Message switching Packet switching

11. Switching

12. TELECOMMUNICATIONS FACILITIES TELEPHONE NETWORK Largest computer network that interconnect millions of subscribers Accommodate 2 types of subscribers Public Private

PUBLIC SWITCHED TELEPHONE NETWORK Share equipment and facilities available to all public subscribers Interconnect telephones and modems with one another over great distances - Dial-up access is a form of Internet access via telephone line. The client uses a modem connected to a computer and a telephone line to dial into an Internet service provider's (ISP) node to establish a modem-to-modem link, which is then routed to the Internet. - DSL or xDSL, is a family of technologies that provide digital data transmission over the wires of a local telephone network. DSL originally stood for digital subscriber loop, although in recent years, many have adopted digital subscriber line as a more marketing-friendly term for the most popular version of consumer-ready DSL. DSL uses high frequency, regular telephone uses low frequency. ISDN Integrated Services Digital Network Provides worldwide telecommunications support of voice, data, video, and facsimile information within the same network. Uses 64 Kbps digital connection Uses layered protocol structure and can be mapped into the OSI model.

Where:I = information capacity (bps) B = bandwidth (Hz) S/N = signal to noise ratio (unitless) Takes into account the effects of noise in the information capacity of the system

Ex. Calculate the information capacity of a standard 4 KHz telephone channel with a 32 dB signal to noise ratio. actual S/N = 1585 32dB = 10logS/N I = (3400-300) log2 (1+1585) = 32,953bps 10. Multiplexing TDM multiplexer FDM

Conventional TDM Statistical TDM Smart switching

SDH/SONET Synchronous optical networking, is a method for communicating digital information using lasers or light-emitting diodes (LEDs) over optical fiber. The method was developed to replace the Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy (PDH) system for transporting large amounts of telephone and data traffic and to allow for interoperability between equipment from different vendors. There are multiple very closely related standards that describe synchronous optical networking: SDH or Synchronous Digital Hierarchy standard developed by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), documented in standard G.707 and its extension SONET or Synchronous Optical Networking standard as defined by from Telcordia Both SDH and SONET are widely used today: SONET in the U.S. and Canada and SDH in the rest of the world. Although the SONET standards were developed before SDH, their relative penetrations in the worldwide market dictate that SONET now be considered the variation.

Equivalent to a two-point dedicated private line circuit except slower VC(Virtual Call) Equivalent to making a telephone call through the DDD network except no end-to-end connection is made DG(Datagram) Reliable only if a message will fit into a single packet Single-packet-per-segment protocol

FRAME RELAY consists of an efficient data transmission technique used to send digital information quickly and cheaply in a relay of frames to one or many destinations from one or many end-points. Network providers commonly implement frame relay for voice and data as an encapsulation technique, used between local area networks (LANs) over a wide area network (WAN).

ATM Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) is a cell relay, packet switching network and data link layer protocol which encodes data traffic into small (53 bytes; 48 bytes of data and 5 bytes of header information) fixed-sized cells. ATM is a connection-oriented technology, in which a logical connection is established between the two endpoints before the actual data exchange begins.

x.25 Packet Switching Network an ITU-T standard protocol suite for connection to packet switched networks using leased lines, the phone or ISDN system as the networking hardware. Packet switched network was the common name given to the international collection of X.25 providers, typically the various national telephone companies. Its major application is in transaction processing for credit card authorization and for automatic teller machines. 3 switching services offered PVC VC DG PVC( Permanent Virtual Circuit)