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Introduction: Metal Casting is one of the oldest materials shaping methods known. Casting means pouring molten metal into a mold with a cavity of the shape to be made, and allowing it to solidify. When solidified, the desired metal object is taken out from the mold either by breaking the mold or taking the mold apart. The solidified object is called the casting. By this process, intricate parts can be given strength and rigidity frequently not obtainable by any other manufacturing process. The mold, into which the metal is poured, is made of some heat resisting material. Sand is most often used as it resists the high temperature of the molten metal. Permanent molds of metal can also be used to cast products.
Foundry: :
Foundry: Foundry or casting is the process of producing metal/alloy component parts of desired shapes by pouring the molten metal/alloy into a prepared mould (of that shape) and then allowing the metal/alloy to cool and solidify. The solidified piece of metal/alloy is known as a CASTING.
Casting Terms: :
Casting Terms: 1. Flask: A metal or wood frame, without fixed top or bottom, in which the mold is formed. Depending upon the position of the flask in the molding structure, it is referred to by various names such as drag - lower molding flask, cope - upper molding flask, cheek intermediate molding flask used in three piece molding. 2. Pattern: It is the replica of the final object to be made. The mold cavity is made with the help of pattern. 3. Parting line: This is the dividing line between the two molding flasks that makes up the mold.
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4. Core: A separate part of the mold, made of sand and generally baked, which is used to create openings and various shaped cavities in the castings. 5. Pouring basin: A small funnel shaped cavity at the top of the mold into which the molten metal is poured. 6. Sprue: The passage through which the molten metal, from the pouring basin, reaches the mold cavity. In many cases it controls the flow of metal into the mold. 7. Runner: The channel through which the molten metal is carried from the sprue to the gate.
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8. Gate: A channel through which the molten metal enters the mold cavity. 9. Chaplets: Chaplets are used to support the cores inside the mold cavity to take care of its own weight and overcome the metallostatic force. 10. Riser: A column of molten metal placed in the mold to feed the
castings as it shrinks and solidifies. Also known as feed head. 11. Vent: Small opening in the mold to facilitate escape of air and gases.
Basic Features: :
Basic Features: Pattern and Mould A pattern is made of wood or metal, is a replica of the final product and is used for preparing mould cavity. Mould material should posses refractory characteristics and with stand the pouring temperature. When the mold is used for single casting, it made of sand and known as expendable mold. When the mold is used repeatedly for number of castings and is made of metal or graphite are called permanent mould. For making holes or hollow cavities inside a casting, cores made of either sand or metal are used.
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Melting and Pouring: Several types of furnaces are available for melting metals and their selection depends on the type of metal, the maximum temperature required and the rate and the mode of molten metal delivery. Before pouring provisions are made for the escape of dissolved gases. The gating system should be designed to minimize the turbulent flow and erosion of mould cavity.The other important factors are the pouring temperature and the pouring rate.
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Solidification and Cooling: The properties of the casting significantly depends on the solidification time cooing rate. Shrinkage of casting, during cooling of solidified metal should not be restrained by the mould material, otherwise internal stresses may develop and form cracks in casting. Proper care should be taken at the design stage of casting so that shrinkage can occur without casting defects.
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Removal, Cleaning, Finishing and Inspection: After the casting is removed from the mould it is thoroughly cleaned and the excess material usually along the parting line and the place where the molten metal was poured, is removed using a potable grinder. White light inspection, pressure test, magnetic particle inspection, radiographic test, ultrasonic inspection etc. are used
Steps involved in making a casting: Make the pattern out of Wood , Metal or Plastic. Prepare the necessary sand mixtures for mould and core making. Prepare the Mould and necessary Cores. Melt the metal/alloy to be cast. Pour the molten metal/alloy into mould and remove the casting from the mould after the metal solidifies. Clean and finish the casting. Test and inspect the casting. Remove the defects, if any. Relieve the casting stresses by Heat Treatment. Again inspect the casting. The casting is ready for shipping.
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A product may be cast as one piece, there by eliminating the need of metal joining processes. Very heavy and bulky parts which are otherwise difficult to get fabricated may be cast. Metals (like cast iron) dificult to be shaped by other manufacturing processes may be cast. Casting can be designed for equal distribution of loads and for minimum stress concentration in order to achieve more strength and increased service life. Casting process can be mechanised and usefully employed for mass production of components.
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Limitations of casting: Dimensional accuracy and surface finish of the castings made by sand casting processes are a limitation to this technique. Many new casting processes have been developed which can take into consideration the aspects of dimensional accuracy and surface finish. Some of these processes are die casting process, investment casting process, vacuumsealed molding process, and shell molding process. The metal casting process is a labor intensive process
Applications of Casting: :
Applications of Casting: Transportation vehicles Turbine vanes Power generators Railway crossings Agricultural parts Aircraft jet engine parts Sanitary fittings Communication, Construction and Atomic Energy applications, etc..
Different Sections in Foundry: Pattern making Sand mixing & preparation Mould and core making Mould assembly & handling Melting Pouring Shaking out Fettling & finishing Heat treatment Inspection & testing
Fluxes: :
Fluxes: A flux is a low melting point material. When heated up, it melts and combines with ash, viscous slags, sand, metallic oxides etc., and makes a fluid and easy flowing slag. This slag being lighter comes on to the surface of the molten metal from where it can be easily skimmed, tapped or removed before pouring the metal into the mould. Slag protects molten metal from furnace atmosphere.
Refractories: :
Refractories: Refractories are heat resistant materials. They can withstand high temperatures without being fused. Crucibles and furnace sides and bottoms containing molten metal are made up of refractories. These are used as ladles for pouring metal into the mould. Refractories constitute furnace walls and roof and thus minimize heat losses.
and shape so that it can support the weight of the core during the casting operation. Depending upon the requirement a core can be placed horizontal, vertical and can be hanged inside the mold cavity.
Pattern Making: :
Pattern Making: A Pattern is a model or the replica of the object to be cast. Except for the various allowances a pattern exactly resembles the casting to be made. A pattern is required even if one object has to be cast.
Functions of Patterns: :
Functions of Patterns: A Pattern prepares a mould cavity for the purpose of making a casting. A Pattern may contain projections known as core prints if the casting requires a core and need to be made hollow. Patterns properly made and having finished and smooth surfaces reduce casting defects. Properly constructed patterns minimize overall cost of the casting.
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The pattern material should be: Easily worked, shaped and joined. Light in weight. Strong, hard and durable. Resistant to wear and abrasion . Resistant to corrosion, and to chemical reactions. Dimensionally stable and unaffected by variations in temperature and humidity. Available at low cost.
1. Wood Patterns: :
1. Wood Patterns: Advantages: Inexpensive Easily available in large quantities Easy to fabricate Light in weight Thay can be repaired easily Easy to obtain good surface finish Limitations: Susceptible to shrinkage and swelling Possess poor wear resistance Abraded easily by sand action Obsorb moisture, consequently get wraped Cannot withstand rough handling These are used where the no. of castings to be produced is small and pattern size is large.
2. Metal Patterns: :
2. Metal Patterns: Advantages: Do not absorb moisture More stronger Possess much longer life Do not wrap, retain their shape Greater resistance to abrasion Accurate and smooth surface finish Good machinability Limitations: Expensive Not easily repaired Ferrous patterns get rusted Heavy weight These are employed where large no. of castings have to be produced from same patterns.
3. Plastic Patterns: :
3. Plastic Patterns: Advantages: Durable Provides a smooth surface Moisture resistant Does not involve any appreciable change in size or shape Light weight Good strength Wear and corrosion resistance Easy to make Abrasion resistance Good resistance to chemical attack Limitations: Plastic patterns are Fragile These are may not work well when subject to conditions of severe shock as in machine molding (jolting).
4. Plaster Patterns: :
4. Plaster Patterns: Advantages: It can be easily worked by using wood working tools. Intricate shapes can be cast without any difficulty. It has high compressive strength. Plaster may be made out of Plaster of paris or Gypsum cement. Plaster mixture is poured into a mould made by a sweep pattern or a wooden master pattern, in order to obtain a Plaster pattern.
5. Wax patterns: :
5. Wax patterns: Advantages: Provide very good surface finish. Impatr high accuracy to castings. After being molded, the wax pattern is not taken out of the mould like other patterns; rather the mould is inverted and heated; the molten wax comes out and/or is evaporated. Thus there is no chance of the mould cavity getting damaged while removing the pattern. Wax patterns find applications in Investment casting process.
Types of Patterns: :
Types of Patterns: Single piece pattern. Split piece pattern. Loose piece pattern. Match plate pattern. Sweep pattern. Gated pattern. Skeleton pattern Follow board pattern. Cope and Drag pattern.
drawn first from the molding box and thereafter as soon as the loose parts are removed, the result is the mold cavity.
5. Sweep pattern: :
5. Sweep pattern: A sweep pattern is just a form made on a wooden board which sweeps the shape of the casting into the sand all around the circumference. The sweep pattern rotates about the post. Once the mold is ready, Sweep pattern and the post can be removed. Sweep pattern avoids the necessity of making a full, large circular and costly three-dimensional pattern. Making a sweep pattern saves a lot of time and labour as compared to making a full pattern. A sweep pattern is preferred for producing large casting of circular sections and symmetrical shapes.
6. Gated pattern: :
6. Gated pattern: The sections connecting different patterns serve as runner and gates. This facilitates filling of the mould with molten metal in a better manner and at the same time eliminates the time and labour otherwise consumed in cutting runners and gates. A gated pattern can manufacture many casting at one time and thus it is used in mass production systems. Gated patterns are employed for producing small castings.
castings :
castings Gating system
7. Skeleton pattern: :
7. Skeleton pattern: A skeleton pattern is the skeleton of a desired shape which may be S-bend pipe or a chute or something else. The skeleton frame is mounted on a metal base The skeleton is
made from wooden strips, and is thus a wooden work. The skeleton pattern is filled with sand and is rammed. A strickle (board) assists in giving the desired shape to the sand and removes extra sand. Skeleton patterns are employed for producing a few large castings. A skeleton pattern is very economical, because it involves less material costs.
Pattern Allowances: :
Pattern Allowances: A pattern is larger in size as compared to the final casting, because it carries certain allowances due to metallurgical and mechanical reasons for example, shrinkage allowance is the result of metallurgical phenomenon where as machining, draft, distortion, shake and other allowances are provided on the patterns because of mechanical reasons.
1.Shrinkage Allowance: :
1.Shrinkage Allowance: All most all cast metals shrink or contract volumetrically on cooling. The metal shrinkage is of two types: 1. Liquid Shrinkage: it refers to the reduction in volume when the metal changes from liquid state to solid state at the solidus temperature. To account for this shrinkage; riser, which feed the liquid metal to the casting, are provided in the mold. 2. Solid Shrinkage: it refers to the reduction in volume caused when metal loses temperature in solid state. To account for this, shrinkage allowance is provided on the patterns.
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Almost all cast metals shrink or contract volumetrically after solidification and therefore the pattern to obtain a particular sized casting is made oversize by an amount equal to that of shrinkage or contraction. Different metals shrink at different rates because shrinkage is the property of the cast metal/alloy. The metal shrinkage depends upon: The cast metal or alloy. Pouring temp. of the metal/alloy. Casted dimensions(size). Casting design aspects. Molding conditions(i.e., mould materials and molding methods employed)
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Rate of Contraction of Various Metals :
2. Machining Allowance: :
2. Machining Allowance: A Casting is given an allowance for machining, because: Castings get oxidized in the mold and during heat treatment; scales etc., thus formed need to be removed. It is the intended to remove surface roughness and other imperfections from the castings. It is required to achieve exact casting dimensions. Surface finish is required on the casting. How much extra metal or how much machining allowance should be provided, depends on the factors listed below: Nature of metals. Size and shape of casting. The type of machining operations to be employed for cleaning the casting. Casting conditions. Molding process employed
and size of pattern in the depth direction in contact with the mould cavity. Moulding methods. Mould materials. Draft allowance is imparted on internal as well as external surfaces; of course it is more on internal surfaces.
5. Shake allowance: :
5. Shake allowance: A patter is shaken or rapped by striking the same with a wooden piece from side to side. This is done so that the pattern a little is loosened in the mold cavity and can be easily removed. In turn, therefore, rapping enlarges the mould cavity which results in a bigger sized casting. Hence, a ve allowance is provided on the pattern i.e., the pattern dimensions are kept smaller in order to compensate the enlargement of mould cavity due to rapping. The magnitude of shake allowance can be reduced by increasing the tapper.
Pattern Layout: :
Pattern Layout: Steps involved: Get the working drawing of the part for which the pattern is to be made. Make two views of the part drawing on a sheet, using a shrink rule. A shrink rule is modified form of an ordinary scale which has already taken care of shrinkage allowance for a particular metal to be cast. Add machining allowances as per the requirements. Depending upon the method of molding, provide the draft allowance.
Pattern Construction: :
Pattern Construction: Study the pattern layout carefully and establish, Location of parting surface. No. of parts in which the pattern will be made. Using the various hand tools and pattern making machines fabricate the different parts of the pattern. Inspect the pattern as regards the alignment of different portions of the pattern and its dimensional accuracy. Fill wax in all the fillets in order to remove sharp corners. Give a shellac coatings(3 coats) to pattern. impart suitable colors to the pattern for identification purposes and for other informations.
Pattern Colours: :
Pattern Colours: Patterns are imparted certain colors and shades in order to: Identify quickly the main body of pattern and different parts of the pattern. Indicate the type of the metal to be cast. Identify core prints, loose pieces, etc., Visualise the surfaces to be machined, etc.
Moulding Materials :
Moulding Materials Major part of Moulding material in sand casting are 70-85% silica sand (SiO2) 10-12% bonding material e.g., clay cereal etc. 3-6% water Requirements of molding sand are: Refractoriness Cohesiveness Permeability Collapsibility The performance of mould depends on following factors: Permeability Green strength Dry strength
1. Refractoriness: :
1. Refractoriness: It is the ability of the molding material to with stand high temperatures (experienced during pouring) with out Fusion, Cracking, buckling or scabbing, Experiencing any major physical change. Silica sand have high refractriness.
2. Permeability: :
2. Permeability: During pouring and subsequent solidification of a casting, a large amount of gases and steam is generated. These gases are those that have been absorbed by the metal during melting, air absorbed from the atmosphere and the steam generated by the molding and core sand. If these gases are not allowed to escape from the mold, they would be entrapped inside the casting and cause casting defects. To overcome this problem the molding material must be
porous. Proper venting of the mold also helps in escaping the gases that are generated inside the mold cavity.
3. Green Strength: :
3. Green Strength: The molding sand that contains moisture is termed as green sand. The green sand particles must have the ability to cling to each other to impart sufficient strength to the mold. The green sand must have enough strength so that the constructed mold retains its shape. Green strength helps in making and handling the moulds.
4. Dry Strength: :
4. Dry Strength: A mould may either intentionally be dried, or a green sand mould may lose its moisture and get dried while waiting for getting poured or when it comes in contact with molten metal being poured. The sand thus dried must have dry strength to Withstand erosive forces due to molten metal, Withstand pressure of molten metal, Retain its exact shape,and Withstand the metallostatic pressure of the liquid material.
5. Hot Strength: :
5. Hot Strength: As soon as the moisture is eliminated, the sand would reach at a high temperature when the metal in the mold is still in liquid state. The strength of the sand that is required to hold the shape of the cavity is called hot strength. In the absence of adequate hot strength, the mold may enlarge break, erode or get cracked.
6. Collapsibility: :
6. Collapsibility: Collapsibility determines the readiness with which the molding sand, Automatically gets collapsed after the casting solidifies, and Breaks down in knock out and cleaning operations. If the mould or core does not collapse, it may restrict free contraction of solidifying metal and cause the same to tear or crack.
7. Flowability: :
7. Flowability: It is the ability of the molding sand to get compacted to a uniform density. Flowability assists molding sand to flow and pack all-around the pattern and take up the required shape. Flowability increases as clay and water contents increase.
8. Adhesiveness: :
8. Adhesiveness: It is the property of molding sand owing to which, it Sticks with the walls of molding boxes, Sticks with gaggers, and Thus makes it possible to mold cope and drag.
9. Fineness: :
9. Fineness: Finer sand mould resist metal penetration and produce smooth casting surfaces. Fineness and permeability are in conflict with each other and hence they must be balanced for optimum results.
1. Base Sand: :
1. Base Sand: Silica sand is most commonly used base sand. Other base sands that are also used for making mold are zircon sand, Chromite sand, and olivine sand. Silica sand is cheapest among all types of base sand and it is easily available.
2. Binder: :
2. Binder: Binders are of many types such as: Clay binders, Organic binders and Inorganic binders Clay binders are most commonly used binding agents mixed with the molding sands to provide the strength. The most popular clay types are: Kaolinite or fire clay (Al2O3 2 SiO2 2 H2O) and Bentonite (Al2O3 4 SiO2 nH2O) Of the two the Bentonite can absorb more water which increases its bonding power.
3. Moisture: :
3. Moisture: Clay acquires its bonding action only in the presence of the required amount of moisture. When water is added to clay, it penetrates the mixture and forms a microfilm, which coats the surface of each flake of the clay. The amount of water used should be properly controlled. This is because a part of the water, which coats the surface of the clay flakes, helps in bonding, while the remainder helps in improving the plasticity.
reduced machining and cleanup costs. The materials that can be used with this process are cast irons, and aluminum and copper alloys.
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The major disadvantage of the process is that the binder is very hygroscopic and readily absorbs water, which causes a porosity in the castings.. Also, because the binder creates such a hard, rigid mold wall, shakeout and collapsibility characteristics can slow down production. Some of the advantages of the process are: A hard, rigid core and mold are typical of the process, which gives the casting good dimensional tolerances; good casting surface finishes are readily obtainable;
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Review: :
Review:
Foundry activities :
Foundry activities
Melting furnace :
Melting furnace
Knock out :
Knock out
Heat treatment :
Heat treatment
Machining :
Machining
Reference: :
Reference: A text book of Production Technology Vol. I / O.P. Khanna / Dhanpat Rai Publications A text book of Production Technology (Manufacturing Processes) / P. C. Sharma / S. Chand & Company Ltd Manufacturing Technology (Second Edition) / P N Rao / Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Ltd & http://nptel.iitm.ac.in/
Thank you... :
Thank you...