INTRODUCTION

The link between language and identity plays an important role in many different countries and ethnic groups in the world. This linkage is highly significant primarily in countries that seek to implement and execute certain language behaviors and practices among their citizens to shape and manipulate collective national or ethnic identities. They do so through formulating and applying certain language policies that reflect the policy-makers higher ideology and common beliefs (Fishman & Garcia, 2010; Schmidt, 2006; Spolsky, 2004). Obviously, educational systems are one of the ideal places where ideologies pertaining to de facto language practices can be imposed and eventually imbued as children spend several years of their lives under systematic and mandatory government control (Fishman, 2006).

The purpose of this study is to determine the characteristics of language policies practiced in the educational systems of the Israeli-Arab sector and the Palestinian Authority through examining the Arabic literature curriculum implemented in high school institutions of both places. The study also focuses on how such practices influence the shaping of the learners identities. These two curricula were selected since they represent distinct language education policies for learners. They include different objectives, standards, educational instruction material, etc. Again, both curricula provide a vast wealth of information about language policy features and practices.

The precise objectives of the study are: 1. To examine and explain language education policy expressed in both of these Arabic literature curricula for high schools. 2. To demonstrate how such policies contribute to construction of the identity of the learner. 3. To present and analyze the national themes conveyed via the curriculum and the currently used textbooks for both the Arab-Israeli sector and the Palestinian Authority high schools.

In order to provide broad explanations and elaborations for the previously mentioned objectives, the following questions were formulated:
1. What are the characteristics of language education policy (objectives,

contents, the structure of the instruction material, dedicated hours of instruction, and so forth) as presented in the high school Arabic language curriculum and current study books in Israeli- Arab and Palestinian Authority schools? Why were these characteristics chosen?
2. What are the chief principles that underline this language education

policy and why were these principles chosen? 3. What are the national values presented in the curricula and study books? How are they emphasized and why?
4. How is identity of the learner presented in the curriculum and study

books? 5. Which sub-identity is more accentuated? How is it ingrained and why?

Methodologically, these questions are to be examined by two approaches. Firstly, content analysis of documents that include Arabic literature curricula and study textbooks used in the Israeli-Arab and the Palestinian high school education systems. Secondly, a semi- structured interview conducted with Arabic instructors in both places to find out their perceptions of language policy and its reflection on their learners. The data from both methods are obtained, analyzed and categorized; then they are combined into common thematic constructs.

The significance of the study is derived from the fact that there is a notable lack of previous studies pertaining to language policy in general or language education policy in particular conducted in the Palestinian Authority. Therefore, the current study is regarded as a pilot in documenting the general features and characteristics of language education policy in the Palestinian Authority. Equally important, outlining the features of such policy and shedding light on how it relates to the educational ideology, and comparing it to the Israeli language policy, can provide deeper insights into the implemented language policy of education on the Israeli side. I am so hopeful that my study will contribute to improve the Arabic literature curriculum in both places to have more fruitful results.

THEORETICAL OVERVIEW

1. The Importance of Language

Chomsky (2006) presents language as a natural phenomena whose users replicate it rather than create it through their social interaction. Language is defined as a system of signs and symbols used as a tool of communication covering every domain of human existence (Bara, 2010; Suleiman 2004). Language is personal, creative, dynamic, changing and has no fixed boundaries (Shohamy, 2006). It serves as a vehicle for expressing thoughts, feelings, values, aspirations, attitudes and expectations (Amara & Mari, 2002; Salomone, 2010).

Amara & Mari (2002) view language as an important tool for socializing the individual and the collective in general. According to Norton & Toohey (2005), language serves individuals to expresses the way they situate themselves in relation to others, the way they group themselves, the powers they claim for themselves and the power they stipulate to others .People use language in order to demonstrate inclusion or exclusion, to determine loyalty or patriotism, and to show classification of people and personal identities (Norton & Toohey, 2005; Shohamy, 2006).

The central goal of a language is not only to link the members of a speech community to each other in the present; it also links the speakers to their cultural heritage and identity which is rooted in the past (Suleiman, 2003; 2004). It links the individuals to the past and to each other through literary forms, oral traditions, history, myths, and rituals, anchoring their identities in a common linguistic culture (Salomone, 2010: 71).

Language is considered a chief tool that transmits and represents culture; in many cases understanding a culture cannot be fully conceived in a different language (Bell, 2009). In the same respect, Berdichevsky (2004) believes that languages reflect different societal, cultural, national, and historical experiences which are considered essential ingredients in the sense of nationhood. Therefore, although the English of America, Australia and Britain, the Spanish of Spain, Mexico and Argentina, and the French of France, Canada, and Haiti each share an enormous common historic origin, vocabulary and usage, they differ as a medium of discourse that is a system of communication between people who live within a national framework of laws, enjoy a sense of patriotism and history and share many of the same social experiences (p. 3).

Shohamy (2006), on the other hand, argues that language becomes a symbol of political and national identity. She claims that language has turned into a major oppressive political tool for controlling the social order of a nation and the lives

of individuals and groups attempting to create unified and homogenous ideologies and attitudes. As a result, when a nation associates with a certain language it probably means that the use of other languages is conceived as a threat for its mono-lingual existence. Therefore, secondary languages are ignored, neglected and suppressed (Ben-Rafael, 1994; Shohamy, 2006). The preferred use of a particular language over others serves to establish and maintain the social superiority of certain members of a dominant group in relation to those outside the group (Shohamy, 2006).

2. Language and Identity

Language, which is seen as a communicative system varying from one population to another, is considered as a chief characteristic of human identity. It is one of the features that people use to declare and state their own identification with a particular linguistic or cultural group, or with a specific cultural group in a certain society in which they live (Goodfellow, 2005). Language serves as a symbol of group collective identity that stimulates a natural sense of solidarity and deliberately creates feelings of belonging to populations sharing certain language (Edwards, 2009; Liebkind, 2010). The distinction among languages eventually results in tagging the individual and the community with a unique imprint of their own (Suleiman, 2003). Therefore, when someone speaks, we can often guess the speakers gender, age, education level, origins, social class, and even profession (Fought, 2006; Spolsky, 1999).

Bucholtz & Hall (2004), conversely, argue that language does not function as a mirror that reflects ones culture and identity. It is rather viewed as an essential resource for cultural production, as well as, the production of identity and its various dimensions, politically, socially, and culturally. Similarly, Baker (2008) argues that language does not represent a pre-existent I. Rather language and thinking constitute the I, they bring into being through the process of signification. Just as one cannot have an I, so one cannot have an identity. Rather, one is constituted through language as a series of discourses. Language does not express an already existent true self but brings the self into being (p. 225).

Identity, according to Norton (2000), is not fixed, undivided, or given. It is socially constructed through language and international negotiation of meanings and understandings. When someone speaks a language or languages, it often reflects and identifies his/her history, origins, membership and culture. Identity is conveyed by language through the speakers engagements, expressions, predictions and preferences. Baker (2008), however, claims that identity is not defined merely by language; language is one of the markers that feature the constructed, shifting and multiple identity.

Notably, multiple identity suggests that the subject is decentered and hybrid which eventually results in compassing various, even contradictory, identities, and is not necessarily centered by one self-defining or true identity. Identities

are socially constructed and constructing in terms of gender, age, ethnicity, race, dress, nationality, religion, socioeconomic class, and so forth. Consequently, the multiple identities of a subject, both social and personal, are relevant to and engaged in specific social milieux and are manifest in a contextdependent manner. People engage different and multiple identities in response to the social contexts in which they find themselves at a given moment. Undoubtedly, people do not form their identities by themselves, but through social comparison, labeling by others, experience, and dialogue (Baker, 2008; Dominelli, 2002). Among the multiple identities that literature provides in this respect, only two identities will be discussed below since they are intimately interwoven with the current study. The first is ethnic identity and the other is national identity, taking into consideration their linkage with language.

2.1 Language and Ethnic Identity

Ethnic identity is only one type of identity that both individuals and collectives may display and be aware of (Fishman, 2010). Roymans (2004) defines ethnic identity as the temporary resultant of a process of developing collective selfimages, attitudes and conduct that takes place in a context of interaction between those directly involved and outsiders. Ethnic identities are by definition subjective, dynamic and situational constructs, which renders their relationship to material culture problematical. In contrast to many other kinds

of cultural identity, they are in principle archaeologically intangible, unless combined with contextual historical data (p. 2). According to Roymans (2004), ethnic identity is formulated around a group of clichs, invented histories, and stereotypes. It mainly relates to a collective of people who construct and utilize rules of belonging, role filling, and exclusion. Yet, an ethnic identity refers not only to images but also to actions. Hence, it is formed, managed, and modified through constant interaction between the group image and the praxis of individual and collective actions.

Language and ethnic identity are reciprocally interrelated. The use of language affects the formation of ethnic identity and vice versa, ethnic identity affects language use and attitudes (Thompson, 2000). Therefore, language and ethnicity are considered practices in a dialogic relationship with one another, in which it serves eventually in signifying what the individual and/or the community wants to engage in interactions considered important (Fishman, 2010). This dialogic relationship of language and ethnicity practices is significant since it illuminates processes of cultural change and continuity. This explains the process of how both groups and individuals transformed themselves and maintained these transformations by making language practices the central aspect of their acts of identity (Fishman, 2010).

Literature pertaining to the association between language and ethnic identity indicates that sometimes language will serve as a marker of ethnic identity, and

sometimes it will not. May (2001) considers language as a salient marker of ethnic identity in one instance but not in another. While a specific language may well be identified as a significant cultural marker of a particular ethnic group, there is no inevitable correspondence between language and ethnicity. In effect, linguistic differences do not always correspond to ethnic onesmembership of an ethnic group does not necessarily entail association with a particular language, either for individual members or for the group itself. Likewise, more than one ethnic group can share the same language while continuing without difficulty to maintain their own distinct ethnic identities (p.129).

One of the reasons that can explain why language is considered a central feature of ethnic identity is that linguistic variety enables the speaker to communicate with those who also speak the same variety or similar varieties. Certainly, lack of such knowledge may limit the speakers ability to do so. Communication ability builds bonds of identification which result in a sense of community developing among speakers (Wright, 2000).

2.2 Language and National Identity

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National identity is a collective sentiment based upon the belief of belonging to the same nation and of sharing most of the attributes that make it distinct from other nations. National identity is a modern phenomenon of a fluid and dynamic nature. While consciousness of forming a nation may remain constant for long periods of time, the elements upon which such a feeling is based may vary. Belief in common culture, history, kinship, language, religion, territory, founding moment and destiny have been invoked, with varying intensity, by peoples claiming to share a particular national identity (Montserrat 2007: p. 11).

Studies regarding nationalism and maintaining the existence of nations indicate that a shared language is seen as a critical component in successful nation building. Language is a symbolic marker of individual and group identity that is able to function as critical boundary tool. It separates different subpopulations from others using distinctive language habits, and it links other sub-populations with shared feelings of collective self-interest and identity. Using and promoting a standardized and common language throughout a territory, can contribute in constructing a geographically widespread community of speakers and the molding of nation-like polities (Simpson, 2007).

Tollefson &Tsui (2007) argue that the link between language and national identity serves an important political agenda. It contributes to the creation of a

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unified and cohesive national cultural identity. Similarly, (Blommaert, 2006) claims that this is a widespread phenomenon since states tend to be the guardian of the ideal linkage between language-people-country, thus, they offer certain ethno-linguistic identities for their citizens. National language is the most common and powerful ethno-linguistic identity, supposing that people are essentially monolingual and such monolingualism is regarded as a natural element of being a citizen of the country. Hence, the state functions as the actor that sustains and elaborates the belief in the existence and value of language in the sense of language names- Dutch, English, Chinese, Zulu. Initially, national identity is therefore almost invariably an ascriptive identity attributed by the state or state-affiliated institutions such as education systems, and it most often revolves around monolingually imagined one-to-one relation between national-administrative belonging and language use (pp. 244-245).

3. Language Policy: Definitions and Features

The term language policy is relatively new. It was used for the first time in a book title written by Cebollero in 1945 (Spolsky & Shohamy, 1999; Spolsky & Shohamy, 2000; Spolsky, 2004). Grin (1999) defines language policy as: a systematic, rational, theory-based effort at the societal level to modify the linguistic environment with a view to increasing aggregate welfare. It is typically conducted by official bodies or their surrogates and aimed at part or all of the population living under their jurisdiction (p.18). Language policy is

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associated with all language practices, beliefs and ideology, and language planning and administration decisions of a certain speech community (Fishman & Garcia, 2010; Phillipson, 2003; Spolsky, 2004).

According to Schmidt (2006), "language policy involves the development of public policies that aim to use the authority of the state to affect various aspects of the use and status of certain languages by people under the state's jurisdiction. Language policy normally gets onto the political agenda when the policy makers believe that something important is at stake regarding the status and use of languages in their society, and these stakes call for intervention by the state" (p. 97). However, Shohamy & Spolsky (1999) argue that sometimes public policies have no influence on language choice since they avoid the existing general language practice, or because of refusal or resistance of people who are expected to change.

Governments, in most cases, are responsible for creating, implementing, funding, and monitoring language policies with or without the approval of its citizens (Clankie, 2000; Phillipson, 2003). Language policy can be clearly found in official documents such as a national constitution, an administrative regulation, a cabinet document, or a language law (Phillipson, 2003; Shohamy, 2003; Shohamy & Spolsky, 2000). Yet, Dagut (1985) asserts that a language policy cannot be imposed on a speech community without their willingness and approval. It must grow organically to meet the socio-cultural needs.

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On the other hand, many countries and institutions do not have written language policies. In such cases, the nature of their language policy must be derived from a study of their language practices or beliefs (Shohamy, 2003; Spolsky, 2004). According to Clankie (2000), this option is called the bottomup approach, since the community that uses a certain language is responsible for planning and executing a language policy with or without the support of the government.

Language policy is constituted for several reasons. According to Spolsky & Shohamy (1999), language policy is formulated to state clearly and strongly absolute linguistic rights of the various groups. This shows that language policy tends to ventilate language ideology. Furthermore, it provides an easier access to information and cultural knowledge, especially in technology and science (Amara & Mari, 2002; Clankie, 2000). Another significant reason is related to economy. Since the global economies are correlated and connected to each other, it is highly recommended to learn the languages of other countries to become economically powerful. In this case, language is considered a national resource of a country (Brecht et al., 1995 in Amara & Mari, 2002).

Unlike the previously presented reasons, which are considered pragmatic and practical, Fishman (1985) in Shohamy & Spolsky (2000) suggests another reason that is linked to identity. He assumes that language policy in this case

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aspires to escalate the status of the national language and to tie it with the nation.

In the case of the Israeli State, language policy is enhanced by ideology rather than needs (Shohamy, 1996). Before the establishment of the State in 1948, English, Arabic, and Hebrew, were the official languages respectively; nevertheless, Arabic was more utilized than other languages. Hebrew was spoken only among the Jewish community. After the War of Independence in 1948, the new Israeli government insisted on forming a new policy by changing language dominance and practice. Removing English from the list of official languages was the first essential step taken. Practically, Arabic and Hebrew are the two official languages, yet, Hebrew is superior and given the preference in many aspects of daily life, officially and socially (Amara & Mari, 2002; Spolsky & Shohamy, 1999, Shohamy, 2006; Suleiman, 2004; Zouhir, 2008).

Language policy in Israel is comparable to that in nation-states. Shohamy (2006) remarks: In Israel, as in other countries, there is a still continuous policy and practice of using language in service of ideology and creating situations of us and them. Language is therefore still used as a means of creating Jewish Israeli identity and the Hebrew language continues to be used as an ideological tool that perpetuates different identities including

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negative attitudes to other languages as they are being viewed as threatening to the existence of the nation-state (p. 77).

4. Language Education Policy: Definition and Features

Language education policy is considered as area of study that is within language policy (Hult, 2010). It refers to "a mechanism used to create de facto language practices in educational institutions, especially in centralized educational systems. Language education policy is considered a form of imposition and manipulation of language policy as it is used by those in authority to turn ideology into practice through formal education" (Shohamy, 2006: p. 76). For policy makers, educational systems are very influential in terms of imbuing lifelong language behaviors since children spend several years of their lives under systematic and mandatory government control (Fishman, 2006).

Language education policy is regarded as a powerful instrument for implementing and executing a language behavior in a system which is obligatory for all children to participate in (McGroarty, 2002). It can decide criteria for language correctness, force people to adopt certain ways of speaking and writing; in addition, it can create definitions about language and determine the priority of certain languages in society and how these languages should be used, taught and learned (Shohamy, 2006).

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Language education policies are generally stated explicitly through official documents. Such documents can be mission statements and curricula (McGroarty, 2002; Shohamy, 2003; Shohamy, 2006). Nevertheless, in other cases, language education policy is not stated clearly but has to be derived implicitly by examining and studying a variety of textbooks, teaching practices and testing systems (Shohamy, 2003; Shohamy, 2006).

Teachers, principals, and inspectors are responsible agents for implementing language policies in classes, schools and any other educational institutions. In most cases, such policies are often applied unquestionably regarding their quality, appropriateness, relevance and validity (Auerbach, 2000; Shohamy, 2006). Thus, those agents, as Shohamy states, "serve as "soldiers" of the system who carry out orders by internalizing the policy ideology and its agendas as expressed in the curriculum, in textbooks and other materials and the very perceptions of language" (p. 78).

4.1. Language Education Policy in Israel

The Israeli society consists of different ethnic, linguistic, and cultural groups who use different mother tongues and belong to varied backgrounds and identities (Shohamy & Spolsky, 1999). Hebrew is the dominant language since it is spoken by the majority of the population. Arabic, Russian, Amharic, Tigrinya, Yiddish, and other heritage languages such as Spanish, Polish,

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French, and English are also spoken by other residents in Israel (Shohamy 2003; Shohamy, 2006; Shohamy & Spolsky, 1999). There was no clear-cut document presenting the language education policy for the Israeli education system until 1996. Both the Arab and Jewish communities taught Hebrew and Arabic as languages of instruction, and both communities taught English as a foreign language. Arabs studied Hebrew as a second language. French or Arabic was taught to about 40% of the Jewish population. Yiddish was taught in some Ultra-Orthodox schools (Hallel & Spolsky, 1993; Shohamy, 2006).

In September 1996, the Israeli Ministry of Education introduced the first language education policy document for the educational system. The document presented a principal called "3+" which means that each community is required to learn three languages. This language education policy implemented a multilingual approach to reflect the diversity of language of the society in which numbers of languages are used for different purposes. The prime importance of Hebrew and Arabic as languages of instruction for both communities was reemphasized, and there was recognition of the need for each community to learn the language of the other. English is restated to be the first foreign language taught in the Israeli schools, and permission was given to start teaching it in the third grade. Other languages such as French and Russian were encouraged as languages of special significance (Shohamy, 2003; Shohamy, 2006; Spolsky & Shohamy, 1999).

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Although language education policy in Israel is constantly advancing, it is still doubtful whether the presentation and practice of the language education policy follows essential elements of democracy, values, and ethics, and whether it acknowledges the educational principles and linguistic realities (Shohamy, 2003).

4.2. Language Education Policy of the Arab Sector in Israel

Arabic is the major mother tongue and the main national language of all Arab citizens in Israel. It serves as the only official language of the neighboring countries of Israel and enjoys a unique status in most Muslim countries (Amara, 2001; Amara & Mari, 2002; Suleiman, 2004; Zouhir, 2008). Arabic is considered, for its speakers, a substantial value and an absolute perfection for many centuries. The fact that the Quran is written in Arabic, has added glory and uniqueness to the language among Arabs and Muslims (Burckhardt, 2009; Suleiman, 2004).

Language education policy in the Arab sector of Israel is formulated and monitored under the supervision and responsibility of the Ministry of Education. The policy is essentially implemented in the curricula, in the number of hours assigned to language instruction, in hiring of teachers, and the approval of textbooks (Amara, 2001; Amara & Mari, 2002).

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Arabic in Israel is unique in a way that it is both a minority language and a recognized second official language. It was considered as a major language until the foundation of Israel, and due to changes in socio-political circumstances, it has been marginalized (Amara, 2001). Although the Israeli law maintains rights to Arabic as an official language, it has failed to form an official bilingualism that would put Arabic in an equivalent status of Hebrew (Saban & Amara ,2002).

A closer review of the theoretical framework reveals the inferior status of the Arabic language in Israel. Saban & Amara (2002) argue that the economic dependence of the Arab minority on the Hebrew majority in the labor market, cultural hegemony, and almost exclusive use of Hebrew in government offices have strongly contributed to weakening of the status of Arabic in the Israeli state. Additionally, Amara (2006) attributes the low status of Arabic to the educational system in Israel. He argues that although Arabic is used in the school system of the Arab sector as a language of instruction, it is not used in higher education except in three institutions for teacher training. The IsraeliArab students are obliged to study at Israeli universities in Hebrew. In the same respect, Lefkowitz (2004) articulates that Israels control over teaching, learning and use of Arabic is clearest at the university (p.154). He points out that Arabic literature courses are taught by Jewish professors in Hebrew. In most of the cases these courses are learned by Jews for the sake of military, official or surveillance purposes.

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Amara & Mari (2002) have argued convincingly that the instruction materials do not meet the needs of the Arab students. They are rather designed to educate learners about the values of the Jewish society and its customs. For instance, in Hebrew language classes, Arab students learn more about Judaism than Jewish students do in state-sponsored public schools. In English classes, there are many texts imbued with Jewish themes and Western culture, which are distant and alien to the Arab pupil's world. In comparison, in Arabic classes more literary texts from the classical period, which are often distant from the life of the Arab learner, are learned rather than from the modern period (Amara, 2001; Amara & Mari, 2002).

5. The Arab Minority in Israel

Israeli-Arabs is a concept coined to describe the Arab residents who lived in this area before 1948 and stayed there after the establishment of the state of Israel. Simultaneously, Arabs use more one than term to describe the IsraeliArabs such as, Palestinian Arabs living in Israel, 48 Arabs and so forth (Rekhess, 1993).

After the 1948-1949 war, the conflict between Arabs and Jews in Israel became significantly stronger. Many Palestinians were discriminated against and many became refuges in other countries (Bar-Tal & Oren, 2000; Ganim, 2001).

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The Israeli-Arab conflict strongly influenced the conception of Palestinian residents in Israel. They were perceived as a hostile minority which rejects the formal ideology of the new states existence (Ganim, 2001; Smooha, 2001). This conception together with ethnocentric beliefs led to negative stereotyping and preconceived judgments and opinions, even to a delegitimization of IsraeliArabs (Bar-Tal, 1990; Bar-Tal & Teichman, 2005). Classification of the states citizens based on ethnicity, Arab and Jew, dominance, control, and superiority for the latter group, has led to discrimination against the other (Ghanem, 2001).

Bar-Tal (2004) argues that Arabs in Israel have encountered continuous discrimination. Inequality has been expressed in many domains: socioeconomical, education, employment, welfare, and many other aspects.

However, Gavison & Abu-Ria (1999) have pointed out that after the Six-Day War, the Arab-Israeli population experienced various drastic changes in terms of academic education among young men and women, changes in terms of occupation patterns, assimilating modern values like, freedom, equality and democracy. According to Gavison & Abu-Ria, the Arab community in Israel, on one hand, appreciates its citizenship and utilizes it effectively to improve its status; however, on the other hand, it resists the definition of the Israeli state as a democratic Jewish state. It is claimed that the Israeli government cannot be defined as democratic as long as a minority exists that is not treated equally and whose collective rights are not acknowledged practically.

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5.1 Identity Construction among Israeli-Arabs

The issue of identity is rather complicated and entangled among the Arab population in Israel (Ghanim, 2001; Smooha 2001). The identity of IsraeliArabs is constructed of two major components: the civic component, which refers to the status of Arab minority as Israeli citizens, and the national component which emphasizes the fact that they are part of the Arab world in general and the Palestinian people in particular (Al-Haj, 2000; Bligh, 2003). Dichter (2003) indicates the importance of the shared citizenship and the existence of two nations in Israel. Although citizenship is a problematic issue among Jews and Arabs, it is considered a feature that differentiates IsraeliArabs from Palestinian inhabitants. Yet, it does not influence the national identity (Bishara, 1999; Bligh, 2003; Ghanim, 2001).

Horenczyk & Ben-Shalom (2006) review several suggested models for analyzing the identity of Arabs in Israel. Suleiman (2002a & b), for instance, outlines the bipolar model in which he indicates the contradiction of the national (Palestinian) and civic (Israeli) identities because of the PalestinianIsraeli conflict.

Smooha, cited in Yiftachel (2006), on the other hand, emphasizes the integration model arguing that Israeli-Arabs experience two parallel processes: Palestinization and Israelization in which its ultimate outcome is a new

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Arab, principally bilingual and bicultural.

Once he or she successfully

integrates the Palestinian and Israeli components of collective identity, he or she will feel solidarity with the Palestinian people and at the same time loyalty to the state of Israel. The current approach strongly highlights the combination between both identities rather than the contradiction between them, for instance, Palestinian-Israeli or Palestinian in Israel are concepts that can be coined accordingly.

Similarly, Amara and Schnell (2004) introduce the repertoire of identities approach which basically focuses on other neglected identities, such as religious identity, which exists individually of other identities. Unlike other approaches, they argue that the Arab-Israeli identity is multi-dimensional and complicated because of a wide range of attainable identities. Each one of these identities relates to a different context of meaning, and plays a different role in their identity repertoire (p. 296).

However, Rouhana (1997) draws attention to the prominent Palestinian identity approach which claims that as the Israeli state is characterized by its JewishZionist features, eventually its Arab population will be compelled to adhere in an exaggerated way to their Palestinian identity as an alternative. This approach is called the accentuated identity model. Renawi (2003) sheds light on the socio-cultural dimensions of the Israeli-Arab identities. He claims that both Palestinian and Israeli identities are socially
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expressed in two distinctive aspects and levels.

The former identity is

embodied chiefly in the traditional and oriental way of life, whereas the latter is rather manifested in a secular and western lifestyle. Both identities influence the lifestyle, thinking patterns, perceptions, and behaviors of Israeli-Arab sector as well as completing each other.

5.2 The Education System of Arabs in Israel

Education is a fundamental factor in maintaining and prompting political schemes and ideologies. Auerbach (2000) argues that the essential objective of education is to socialize learners for particular life roles, not just on the level of policy and planning but through differential content and process of educational interactions. Bianco (2010) remarks that education systems are under the control of states since they are regarded as their property. Even if authority is developed to semi-autonomous bodies such as religious, ideological, regionalethnic, or other parental-controlled agencies for the delivery of schooling, or higher or specialized education, states typically license, authorize, fund or certify educational practices. Therefore, in a diverse range of ways all education systems carry the imprimatur and conditioning of political systems. State interest in educational practice is therefore governed either by overt control, by investment, or by toleration conditions. The overreaching interest of states for what happens in formal systems of education is therefore deep and longstanding (p.133).

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Since the establishment of the Israeli state in 1948, constant and significant changes have occurred in the Arab educational system. Such changes have contributed to the improvement of the educational standards in Arabic public schools in terms of expansion of the educational facilities, services, and allocations, increase in the amount of qualified and accredit teachers, and a remarkable raise in the percentage of girls joining schooling institutes (Amara & Mari 2002; Lavy, 1998). According to Mazawi (1997), such changes are strongly tied to three societal levels. Firstly, the collectivenational level: as a result of the Israeli land expropriation policy, Palestinians in Israel have lost their economic power and alternatively they been highly motivated to consider education as a foremost component of social promotion and mobility that cannot be expropriated. Education has been conceived as a fundamental tool for resistance. Mazawi discuses this point by stating : this policy led to a nationalization of the concept of education as a resource which cannot be confiscated; it is considered as a major tool for the struggle to exist as a collective whose roots are in the country and whose identity is defined (p. 172).

The second level refers to educational and social stratification. Mazawi indicates that the easier schooling access of different socio-economical groups is tightly linked to the process of growing a bourgeois Arabic status that is derived from the ability to provide various services based on professional

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apprenticeship in multiple domains rather than as a function of traditional land ownership.

Thirdly, the local-public level shows that the expansion of educational services for variant social classes led to a decrease in the significance of the correlation between traditional class affiliation and social mobility. Still, Mazawi argues that the inequality in educational services allocations between Arab and Jewish public schools, led to an increase in independent public funding for those aspects that are neglected by the official educational authorities.

The educational system of the Arab sector, though, encounters several public and political conflicts which hinders its functioning at various levels. In the micro-institutional level, the low level of inner democratization emphasizes hierarchic relations of official authorization and institutional formalism that impede positive and crucial change in terms of instruction methods and approaches, learning strategies of students, and the reciprocal bonds between school and society (Al-Haj, 1995; Jamal, 2009; Mazawi, 1997).

At the macro-organizational level, the educational system has provided curricula that highlight the academic tracks. Vocational high schools are absent, which led to only a third of Arab students aged 14-17 enrolling in any schooling institute (Mazawi, 1997).

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On the curricular level, education goals of Arab public schools aim to develop functional and technical skills. Moral and ethical education is not clearly specified and formulated in the official curricula. Nor do the educational goals of the Arab schools accentuate the Palestinian Arab national identity (AbuAsbi, 2001; Amara& Mari, 1999; Amara & Mari, 2002; Mazawi, 1997). The curricula of the Arab sector are imbued with Jewish contents and less with cultural Palestinian Arab contents (Al-Haj, 1995; Al-Haj, 2002; Mazawi, 1997). The inequality in planning and structuring of school curricula acts to minimize the Palestinian national identity among Arab students and, instead, to assimilate a submissive personality in them which eventually facilitates the prevailing hegemony of political and economic control (Al-Haj, 1996; Mazawi, 1997).

5.3. Arabic Curriculum for Israeli-Arabs: A Brief Historical Review

According to Al-Haj (1995), the chief goal of teaching Arabic as a mother tongue is to provide the learner with a tool of correct self-expression. Yet, the Ministry of Education has made tremendous efforts to ensure that teaching Arabic would not serve as a means for conveying national symbols. In other words, Arabic is taught generally ignoring the national element in teaching language and literature.

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The Arabic Curriculum of Arab-Israeli speakers has gone through different phases of change since the establishment of the state of Israel (Amara & Mari, 2002). Hereinafter, the chronological order of the distinguished developments of the Arabic curriculum:

1. The Old Curriculum from 1948-1967: after the establishment of Israel there were no changes in the curriculum. Teachers continued teaching in the same old textbooks that were used through the Mandate period for several years. Simultaneously, the Ministry of Education assigned a committee to construct a suitable curriculum for Arab schools. The curriculum was finally completed in 1967. However, many issues and difficulties arose in that period of time. Firstly, most of the teachers taught without textbooks as the Ministry of Education banned plenty of textbooks that conveyed national symbols without supplying immediate substitutes. Secondly, the distinguished difference between literary language and spoken one caused several difficulties for the learner. Thirdly, the teaching methods of the Mandate period, memorization and repetition, were not suitable since they are not able to promote comprehension and self-expression. In addition, following the 1948 war, most of Palestinian teachers were expelled or left, which engendered a lack of trained teachers (Amara & Mari, 2002).

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2. The 1968-1980 improved curriculum: new curricular materials were developed written by Arab teachers and inspectors for the different school ages (Amara & Mari, 1999; Amara & Mari, 2002; Spolsky, 1999). In this period, there were no drastic changes occurred in the Arabic curriculum. The teaching of Arabic continued to be traditional, emphasizing grammar. The taught literary pieces were mostly classical rather than modern, and were mostly concerned with history and biographies of writers. The subjects and the themes of such literary works did not match the requirements of modern life (Spolsky, 1999).

3. The 1981-1995 curriculum: the Ministry of Education assigned a committee of inspectors, academics, teachers, and curriculum specialists to develop curricula for teaching Arabic for grades 1-12.

In 1981, the Arabic literature curriculum for high schools was published. It was constructed of three main units: Arabic literature, world literature, and Arabic grammar (Amara & Mari, 1999; Spolsky, 1999). The objectives of the newly published curriculum encouraged students to foster pride from literature through learning their mother tongue; to develop and enrich their vocabulary and knowledge of classical language; to acquire values expressed in different genres of literature; to learn about literary movements and schools of arts; to develop various reading skills, to encourage further reading; to develop expressive ability; to enhance creative and expressive

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tools and skills; to learn to write correctly and legibly; and to learn how to use original sources. To that end, four textbooks were prepared and published for teaching Arabic literature. In 1981, the first book was published and it included selections from classical Arabic literature. The following year the second textbook was published. It contained modern literary pieces from the Enlightenment era until the present that also included pieces of poetry composed by Israeli-Arab poets. The third textbook was published in 1982 and included modern short stories and four short plays. In 1983, the fourth was published and it included selections of literary and critical historical articles (Spolsky, 1999). However, Amara & Mari (2002) claim that the objectives of the curriculum refer mainly to pedagogical and sociolinguistic aspects rather than the function of language in the national and cultural educational sphere of the Arab learner.

In 1985, the curriculum of the junior high schools was published. The essential goals for teaching Arabic and literature were similar to those assigned for the high schools (Amara & Mari, 2002; Spolsky, 1999). The current curriculum is characterized by its structure, character and content. The chosen teaching material is relevant to the world of the learner. Various literary genres were included. Illustrations and attractive pictures were accompanied the written texts. Furthermore, explanation of new words and a short biography of the authors are attached to each written text (Amara & Mari, 2002; Spolsky, 1999).

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The curriculum for elementary school was published in 1989. It consists of two parts. The first is assigned to the first grade, providing a textbook based on a global approach for teaching reading, in other words, students learn the full sentence as a first primarily unit in learning to read (Amara & Mari, 2002; Spolsky, 1999). The second part of the curriculum focuses on the grades 2-6. It is divided into two dimensions: the literary dimension, which means that the studied texts provide various types of reading such as, literal, applied, interpretive and so forth. The second, linguistic dimension aims to encourage the student to use the language in a standard and correct way in terms of sentence structure, vocabulary, spelling and handwriting (Amara & Mari, 2002).

However, Amara & Mari (2002) indicate that although crucial advancement of teaching Arabic and tangible changes have taken place, still there are deficiencies and technical difficulties in the curriculum. To begin with, the curriculum was prepared in a reverse chronological order; high school curriculum was published first, then junior high and elementary curriculum. According to Boulos, cited in Amara & Mari (2002), this procedure is flawed from the pedagogical point of view, as the natural process is to develop programs first for elementary schools, then for post-elementary. Furthermore, the number of teaching hours in Arabic was reduced from 6 hours to 4 hours per week, regardless of the fact that the number of the selected texts increased

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compared to the old curriculum. Another additional shortcoming was the insufficient amount of Palestinian authors and poets and literal pieces that reflect the national spirit.

6. The Palestinian Educational System

Education has been viewed as a tool of empowerment within the Palestinian community and has played a significant role since 1948. The educational system has been run principally by the UNRWA, the private sector, and by successive Egyptian, Jordanian, and Palestinian authorities (Asaad, 2000; Mazawi, 2000; Rihan, 2001).

It has been argued that the Palestinian educational system has never been independent. It has been controlled by several rulers who have represented a different culture and nationality (Adwan, 2006). In the Turkish period, Palestine education served as a mean at the hands of the Turkish regime whose chief purpose was to train a generation of Palestinians who would help in running of everyday affairs under the central control of the Turkish Government. The language of instruction ultimately was Turkish (Al-Haj, 1996; Amara & Mari, 2002; Hassuna, 2004; Spolsky, 1999). In the British Mandate period, although the language of instruction was Arabic, Palestinian education system did not change either formally or in terms of content, and remained in control of the British who gave Palestinian underlings

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the running of Palestinian education according to colonialist English purposes (Al-Haj, 1996; Amara & Mari, 2002; Hassuna, 2004; Spolsky, 1999).

After the events of 1948, the West Bank was adjoined to Jordan and Gaza was administered by Egypt. Accordingly, the educational system in the West Bank adopted the Jordanian curriculum, whereas, the Gaza Strip followed the Egyptian curriculum (Brown, 2001). Until 1967, both the Jordanian and the Egyptian authorities were responsible for developing and handling issues related to curricula, establishing schools and their maintenance, qualifying teachers and their employment, and funding wages (Amara, 1997).

After 1967 Israel took control of the West Bank and Gaza Strip, and the management of the educational system passed into their hands (Hassuna, 2004). Israel retained comprehensive control over Palestinian education; yet, it maintained the Egyptian and Jordanian curriculum. However, many researchers convincingly argue that the state of education became worse after this time. Dozens of textbooks were confiscated and banned for use in schools because it was claimed that they included objectionable materials against Israel (Brown, 2001; Hassuna, 2004). It is also claimed that many books were completely disqualified or partially censored since they contained words like Palestine and Al-Nakba (Brown, 2003). Israeli rejected establishing an organization for teachers. Actions were taken against many teachers, such as numerous dismissals of teachers, expelling teachers for an earlier pension, transferring

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some teachers form certain duties and jobs, and detentions (Brown, 2003; Hassuna, 2004).

The situation of the educational system in Palestine embarked upon changes after the Oslo negotiation between the PLO and Israel in 1993. Education services were handed over to the Palestinian Authority in August, 1994 (Amara, 1997; Brown, 2001; Brown, 2003; Hassuna, 2004; Nakhli, 2004). The new Palestinian National Authority founded immediately a Curriculum Development Center, which was chiefly responsible for formulating its own unified curriculum and new textbooks (Adwan; 2006; Brown, 2001; Hassuna, 2004). Simultaneously, it started implementing a plan under the title FiveYear Education Development which covers all aspects of educational reform. The plan set five general goals: 1. Providing access education for all. 2. Improving the quality of education by reducing the class size and providing suitable facilities in schools. 3. Developing formal and non-formal education. 4. Developing management capacity for planning, administration and finance. 5. Developing human resources of the educational system. This includes improving pre-service and in-service teacher training and developing staff administrative skills (Rihan 2001).

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It is worth mentioning that this was the first time ever that Palestinian people received the possibility for a full possession and control over education in the West Bank and Gaza Strip (Asaad, 2000).

6.1. The New Palestinian Curriculum

As mentioned previously, the first Palestinian Curriculum for public education was published in 1996 by the Palestinian Curriculum Development Center in Ramallah. It wasvwritten under the guidelines and supervision of Professor Abu-Lughud, a Palestinian intellectual and educator who accompanied the PLO from the very beginning (Asaad, 2000).

The first Palestinian Curriculum Plan identifies four foundations which are based on Palestinian values, heritage, the Islamic religion, its Declaration of Independence, and educational, psychological and social theories (Adwan, 2006). The four principals as stated in Rihans study in (2001) are:
1. Intellectual and national foundation: belief in God; promotion of Islamic

culture and respect for other cultures, respect for humanity, loyalty to Palestine, Palestine has its own cultural, religious and geographic significance as the crucible of cultural interaction and as the birthplace of the three revealed religions; Palestine is a democratic peace-loving state, belief in human values and principles; and active participation in the advancement of human civilization.

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2. Social foundations: adherence to social and religious values; promotion of the rule of law; respect for individual and group freedom; participation in social and political activities within the legal framework; social justice and equality, directing education towards the provision of needed human resources, preserving the national cultural heritage; and fostering the family.

3. Cognitive foundations: adoption of the essence of the Islamic faith;

promotion of the use of the Arabic language; openness to world cultures and competence in at least one foreign language; promotion and development of technology; conservation of Palestinian environment and natural resources; interaction with the social environment; adaptation to contemporary needs; aesthetic appreciation; and use of critical thinking, the scientific method and problem-solving.

4. Psychological foundations: pride in the national, Arab and Islamic

identity, in Palestine, and in the Arabic language; awareness of the national heritage; encouragement of individual and group initiatives; cooperation with all Palestinians to achieve a democratic society which fosters positive competition, justice, prosperity and scientific progress; promotion of peace with oneself and among individuals and nationally and internationally; appreciation of the humanity of mankind with

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positive attitudes towards others; and ability to adapt on the basis of the social and ethical principles of behavior.

According to Nakhli (2004) the Palestinian curriculum attempts to encourage its learners to foster a positive self-image as Palestinians in terms of Arab history, culture and heritage.

The Palestinian curriculum was implemented through sequential phases that started from 2000 and ended in the academic year of 2006/2007. The high school curricula were introduced from 2002-2004, beginning with 10th graders and ending with 12th graders respectively (First Palestinian Curriculum Plan, Ministry of Education, Palestinian Curriculum Development Centre, 1998).

METHODOLOGY
Overview: In this chapter I will present the research objectives and questions, then I will explain the chosen methodology thoroughly. Subsequently, I will explicitly explain how participants were chosen, how the study was performed, and how the data was analyzed. The chapter will close with description of how the validity and ethics of the study were assured.

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Research Objectives This study is a comparative study that compares the high school Arabic literature curriculum of the Israeli-Arab sector, published in 1981, with that of the Palestinian Authority, which was published in 1998. This study aims to: 4. Examine and explain language education policy expressed in both of the Arabic literature curricula for high school. 5. Demonstrate how such policies contribute to construction of the identity of the learner. 6. Present and analyze the national themes conveyed via the curriculum and the currently used textbooks for both the Arab-Israeli sector and the Palestinian Authority high schools.

Research Questions

The leading research question of this study is:

How is language education policy reflected in the Arabic literature high school curriculum of the Israeli-Arab sector and the curriculum of the Palestinian Authority, and how does this construct the learners identity?

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In order to answer this chief question, the following detailed inquiries were undertaken:

6. What are the characteristics of language education policy (objectives,

contents, the structure of the instructional material, dedicated hours of instruction, and so forth) as presented in the high school Arabic language curriculum and current study books in Israeli- Arab and Palestinian Authority schools? Why were these characteristics chosen?

7. What are the chief principals that underline this language education

policy, and why were these principles chosen?

8. What are the national values presented in the curricula and study books? How are they emphasized and why?

9. How are identity and self-image of the learner presented in these

curricula and study books? 10. Which sub-identity is more accentuated? How is it ingrained and why?

Choice of Methodology

This study attempts to provide a broad comparison of high-school Arabic curricula applied in the Arab-Israeli and the Palestinian Authority schools. Its purpose is to examine, analyze and interpret the language education policy
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reflected in the curricula. Furthermore, it reveals the various entrenched national signals as presented in the study books, and strives to account for the way they mold the learners identity and self-image in terms of nationality.

Therefore, the chosen research techniques should provide as thorough and interpretive details and descriptions as possible. Qualitative research techniques are most likely to do so. As Trumbull (2005) notes: the qualitative approach is inductive, with the purpose of describing multiple realities, developing deep understanding, and capturing everyday life and human perspectives.. (p. 101).

Among the different qualitative techniques, this study uses the comparative method. The comparative study is an effective means of analysis since it employs the power of description and forms concepts by underlining suggestive similarities and contrasts among cases (Collier, 1993). Ragin (1989) states that comparison provides the key to understanding, explaining, and interpreting diverse historical outcomes and processes and their significance for current institutional arrangements (p. 6). Participants As previously mentioned, qualitative research strives to understand the perspective and conceptions of people, describing their world and experiences and how they make sense of such experiences (Merriam et. al, 2002). As a result, I decided to interview 20 subjects of both the Arab-Israeli sector and the Palestinian Authority. The respondents are teachers who work in different

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secondary schools. The participants were chosen from educators known to the researcher, with an attempt to gather participants from different areas of both places.

Data Collection

This study uses mixed methods to form comprehensive insights of the study. The following section is a detailed description of the methodology.

1. First method: examining and analyzing documents including the curricula

and school study books According to Merriam et.al (2002), the strength of documents as a data source lies with the fact that they already exist in the situation; they do not intrude upon or alter the setting in ways that the presence of the investigator might (p.13).

Therefore, curricula of Arabic language of both the Israeli-Arab and the Palestinian high schools were collected. Arabic literature textbooks from both sides were collected as well.

The Arab-Israeli study books consist of four textbooks:

Al-Mokhtar Min Aladab Alarabi Alhadith Kesah Kaserah Wamasraheya. (Selected Texts of Modern Arabic Literature - Short Story and Play).

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Al-Mokhtar Min Aladab Alarabi Alkadim. (Selected Texts of Classical Arabic Literature).

Al-Mokhtar Min Aladab Alarabi Alsheir. (Selected Texts of Arabic Poetry).

Al-Mokhtar Min Aladab Alarabi Alnathir. (Selected Texts of Arabic Prose).

It is worth mentioning that these books accompany the learner from the 10th grade through the 12th grade. In other words, these textbooks are suitable for all high school students and no specific textbooks are assigned for each grade.

Unlike the Israeli-Arab textbooks, the Curriculum Development Center of the Palestinian Authority has published suitable course books for each grade:

10th graders: Almotalaah Walnosos. (Reading and texts) two parts. 11th Graders: Almotalah Waladab Walnakd. (Reading, literature and criticism) two parts.

12th graders: Almotalah Waladab Walnakd. (Reading, literature and criticism).

2. Second method: Interviews with high school Arabic teachers

Since the purpose of the current study is to understand the issue of identity and the national themes represented in curriculum and school study books in depth, we have found that it was rather important to use the method of interviewing. According to Gaskell (2000), the qualitative interview provides the basic data

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for the development of an understanding of the relations between social actors and their situation. The objective is a fine-textured understanding of beliefs, attitudes, values and motivations in relation to the behaviors of people in particular social contexts (p.39). Thus, an interview ranging from one hour to one hour and a half long was conducted with each participant. The interviews, as mentioned previously, sought to elicit information on the national language patterns and themes presented in different domains of Arabic literature.

The kind of qualitative interview used was the standardized open-ended interview. Following this approach, a group of questions are determined in advance. All the interviewees are asked the same basic questions using the same wording and sequence in order to increase the comparability of responses, furthermore, to facilitate organization and analysis of the data (Patton, 2002).

The interview questions are based on Pattons (2002) suggested questions that basically focus on: Experience / behavior questions. Opinion / value questions. Feeling questions. Knowledge questions Sensory questions Background / demographic questions.

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The exact interview questions used in the current study are attached in the appendix (see appendix 1).

Data Analysis

Content analysis was the method used for analyzing the collected data. Schwandt (2007) defines content analysis is as: a generic name for a variety of means of textual analysis that involve comparing, contrasting, and categorizing a corpus of data in order to test hypotheses (p.41). This method sheds light on objective, systematic and quantitative description of content based on the researcher created categories. It includes both numeric and interpretive means of analyzing data (Neuendorf, 2002; Weber, 1990).

Krippendorff (2004) argues that content analysis is regarded as a significant research technique in the social sciences since it allows researchers to address important everyday social life issues important for human communication, behaviors, commitments and coordination among them and the conceptions of society they aspire to. He emphasizes that content analysis is not the only research method that takes meaning seriously, but it is a method that is both powerful and unobtrusive. It makes sense of what is mediated between people textual matter, symbols, messages, information, mass media content, and technology-supported social interactions without those who handle that textual matter (p. xiii). perturbing or affecting

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The current study focuses on words, phrases, and any mentioned utterances. The analysis of documents and interviews is based on Flicks (2006) central steps to the content analysis procedure which includes: a. Categorizing a group of codes. b. Applying those codes to a set of a textual data. c. Creating a matrix of variables from the texts and codes. d. Analyzing the matrix. In this case both interpretive and numeric frequencies of codes may be provided. Regarding the interviews in particular, data analysis began immediately after data were collected using a constant comparative approach (Strauss, 1967). Audio tapes of each interview were transcribed in order to summarize the data into themes. Each response was compared to the previous response after each interview. Most importantly, the data from each teacher interview were transcribed and summarized to identifying recurring themes or categories. After all interviews, the full set of categories was reviewed to ensure that all comments by the participants were included. Finally, four copies of the transcribed notes were provided and attached to the appendix of this study as a sample to contribute to validation of the information collected.

Validity

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In order to ensure that the conclusions are truly representing the data, the data were triangulated. While classic triangulation means using three different data sources, two different kinds of data also constitute a kind of triangulation. Conclusions in this study are based on combining two sets of methods and give them equal relevance: documents and interviews.

Since I belong to one of the studied ethnic groups, I strived to be as neutral as possible and not let my self-definition bias my data. However, it is worth mentioning that the researcher is the ultimate significant tool in interpreting data (Merriam et.al, 2002; Patton, 2002). Merriam et.al (2002), state that the researcher can expand his or her understanding through nonverbal as well as verbal communication, process information (data) immediately, clarify and summarize material, check with respondents for accuracy of interpretation, and explore unusual or unanticipated responses (p.5). On the other hand, since the human instrument has shortcomings that may affect the study, it is rather important to eliminate biases by identifying and monitoring them (Merriam et.al, 2002; Patton, 2002).

Ethics In order to keep the current study ethical, I informed all participants that the interviews were being recorded and asked permission to record. The records and the transcript of the interviews were saved in my personal computer that

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only I can access. Personal information and details were omitted from the transcripts to ensure the anonymity and privacy of the respondents.

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FINDINGS
Overview In this chapter, I will present the findings of the data analysis. First, I will present background information of how the written data (documents) was analyzed by setting the criteria that were followed. Afterwards, I will present the interview findings by providing suitable and representative categories. Finally, I will tie all these findings together to crystallize unified results and conclusions.

Criteria for analyzing written documents

Curricula and study books were analyzed with the purpose of identifying common patterns. Criteria for analysis were guided by the research questions. Three central criteria were followed. The first criterion is the characteristics of language education policy, which includes objectives, contents and structure of the instructional material, the dedicated hours of instruction, the chief principles that underlie language education, and the role of the teacher. The second criterion deals with national symbols and values, as well as identity presented in such documents. The third criterion presents mainly the accentuated sub-identity as it appears in curriculum and study books.

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1. Content Analysis of Curricula and Textbooks

1.1 Arabic curriculum of Arab-Israeli high schools: In 1981, the Arabic curriculum of high schools in the Arab sector was published. It is a comprehensive curriculum for all the grades of secondary education, meaning, students are expected to study certain instructional material through the three years of high school education without indicating which specific written pieces are to be taught in each grade.

The curriculum is divided into four main chapters: classical Arabic literature, modern Arabic literature, the history of literature and literary criticism, and extensive reading. The curriculum is vivid with various kinds of texts, prose and poetry, from a wide variety of writers and poets. In the preface of the curriculum, it is stated that students and teachers are not obliged to learn or teach all the provided texts, yet, they are asked to study the minimal number of these texts which are assigned by the Ministry of Education. Thus teachers have plenty of literature options to choose from.

Modern literature, in the first place, is strongly reinforced by dedicating the biggest share of instructional hours. Classical literature comes in the second place with 100 dedicated hours. History of literature and extensive reading come in the third and forth priority respectively.

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Table 1.1 shows the dedicated hours for each unit of literature in the curriculum. Dedicated hours per unit Modern literature Classical literature History of literature Extensive reading Table 1.1: Dedicated Hours per Unit Number of hours 121 100 25 24

The objectives of the curriculum are divided into two parts. In the first part, the general goals and principles are stated. The second part presents the specific goals of teaching literature. Both parts shed light on language techniques. For instance, they attempt to narrow the gap between classical and spoken Arabic, in which classical Arabic becomes the natural tool for correct and appropriate performance (Arabic High School Literature Curriculum, 1981). Moreover, they not only attempt to convey basic skills of reading, listening properly, and comprehending texts, but also, they are encouraging the learner to enrich his\her vocabulary so that he/she will be able to express his\her feelings, ideas and thoughts appropriately (Arabic High School Literature Curriculum, 1981). Yet, very few goals mention language as a tool of strengthening identity or imbuing the values and heritage of Arabs among the students.

Table 1.2 shows that teaching language techniques and skills is a significant pattern in the curriculum objectives. Curriculum objectives Language techniques Sensing the aesthetic aspects of literature
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Frequency in percentage 60% 20%

Language, values and heritage 10% Language and identity 5% Promoting creativity 5% Table 1.2: Main Objectives of the Israeli-Arab Curriculum

It is rather important to note that in terms of identity only one statement refers to the national identity of the student as an integrative principle in the learners personal features. This statement is: to awaken the pride of the learner in terms of his Arabic language as his national language and as an integrative principle of his personal make-up (Arabic High School Literature Curriculum, 1981).

Another notable feature is that the curriculum emphasizes the importance of the principle of self-studying among students. It is claimed that the traditional approach mainly focuses on spoon-feeding and memorizing in which students are passive while the teacher is active and controlling. Therefore, in order to achieve the set goals of the curriculum, it is important to get the students to embrace the approach of extensive reading and self-studying, and turn this into an integral part of the process of learning.

1.2 Arabic Curriculum of Palestinian Authority high schools:

The first Palestinian curriculum was introduced in 2000. It demonstrates the aspirations of Palestinians for the future and their understanding of the role that education plays in the development of society.
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The curriculum presents plenty of objectives with various themes in two sections. The first section explains the principles which underline and shape the Arabic curriculum. These principles are specifically based on the general philosophy of the Palestinian society, cultural heritage, values, traditions, and the Declaration of Independence.

The objectives in the second section can be divided into five main categories. These categories primarily include language and identity, language and social values, language and cultural heritage, language techniques, and sensing the aesthetic aspects of literature. These objectives express the importance of learning Arabic due to the fact that it plays a vital role in different aspects of development.

Analyzing the curriculum reveals the fact that it emphasizes language as an effective tool for imbuing social values for the Palestinian learners. These values encourage a spirit of a good citizenship and consolidate democratic basics: to encourage a spirit of good citizenship and consolidating democratic values by reinforcing the awareness of the humanity of persons, as well as the importance of protecting peoples rights and renouncing all forms of discrimination (Palestinian High School Arabic Literature Curriculum, 2004). In addition, they promote a positive interaction with the society to understand

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its needs and issues, and eventually, participate in finding effective solutions for its daily problems.

Table 2.1 presents the significant pattern of social values imbued by teaching Arabic language. Curriculum objectives Frequency in percentage Language and social values 35% Language techniques 30% Language and identity 16% Sensing the aesthetic aspects of literature 11% Language and cultural heritage 8% Table 2.1: Main Objectives of the Palestinian Curriculum

The cultural heritage of a language, according to the objectives, is conveyed by strengthening the attachment of the Arab heritage of Islam as a significant means of outlining the present and foreseeing the future (Palestinian High School Arabic Literature Curriculum, 2004). Furthermore, learners are encouraged to foster the belief that they are an integral part of a wide world that affects and get affected by different renewals (Palestinian High School Arabic Literature Curriculum, 2004). Thus, there is high appreciation for communicating with other cultures to support the cultural encounter.

It is worthwhile noting that the stated objectives of language teaching in the Palestinian Authority curriculum are almost compatible with those objectives mentioned in the Israeli-Arab curriculum. Again, they feature the importance of constructing linguistic skills in terms of reading, listening, speaking and writing

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to convey messages, feelings and thoughts correctly and clearly. To illustrate, it is stated in the Palestinian High School Arabic Literature Curriculum that it aspires to develop the ability of reading different literal texts, understand them, sense them, experience their beauty, analyze and criticize them (2004). Similarly, some of the objectives of the Israeli Arabic High School Literature Curriculum for Arab learners encourage them to imbue the love of reading among learners, and to develop the ability of the learner to be aware of the aesthetic, harmonic, organizational aspects in each piece of written work he / she reads (1981).

Although the exact term identity is not explicitly mentioned through the objectives of the curriculum, its conceptions can be easily traced in nine of them. These objectives determine the significance of classical Arabic as a national language structuring the nation and symbolizing its unity. Equally important, dividing the general identity into sub-identities shows that there are four interlinked types of sub-identities: religious, social, global, and national sub-identity. The latter sub-identity is the most accentuated among the others (36%). Still, the religious sub-identity also plays an imperative role in

constructing the general identity of the Palestinian learner (31%).

It is evident that the religious sub-identity is fairly underscored since Arabic is a major means to enhance the relationship among Arab nations which have the Islamic religion in common. Referring to the objectives of the Palestinian

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curriculum, teaching Arabic aims to strengthen belief in god, and to consolidate the pride of Islam as a religion and as a way of life, as the Quran and the Hadith Sharif (the sayings of the prophet) are the two main resources for improving Arabic language, and enhancing the relationship between Arabism and Islam. Besides, the curriculum seeks to strengthen the linkage to the Arab and Islamic heritage as a significant mean of outlining the present and foreseeing the future (Palestinian High School Arabic Literature Curriculum, 2004). Again, on a deeper level, learning Arabic literature contributes not only to pride in Islam and the adoption of its conceptions as a way of daily life, but also it intends to intensify the bonds among Arab nations and to point to the existence of Palestine as an integral member of the Arab countries. The national sub-identity, on the other hand, stresses the crucial part national identity plays in constructing the learners dominant identity, as well as, his/her perception of the Palestinian nation as a unified entity. To elaborate, one of the objectives clearly expresses this importance by stating: Arabic literature aims to deepen the belief that classical Arabic is a national language since it is a significant tool in forming and featuring the nation and it is a sign of its unity. Furthermore, it aspires to intensify the pride of Palestine as a homeland, its people, civilization and history (Palestinian High School Arabic Literature Curriculum, 2004). In addition, cherishing classical Arabic as an official language in Palestine is essential to the attainment of education, knowledge or any other domain in daily life. All together, these objectives radically suggest

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the privileged position a mother tongue can play in forming a national identity among Palestinian learners who are required to be proud of their homeland and to show devotion and full participation in the daily issues a nation may encounter.

As for the social identity, the curriculum particularly conveys a message of infusing values and virtues of cooperation, tolerance, respecting rules, rights and justice, devotion and belonging, animal welfare, voluntary work, collective work, encouraging the customs and positive traditions and maintaining public facilities and properties. The curriculum also attributes the development of a society to respecting and evaluating the role of the family. It states that: to respect family, and realize its positive and effective role in serving the society to develop it (Palestinian High School Arabic Literature Curriculum, 2004). In addition, it encourages renouncing all forms of discrimination to build a harmonious society. Obviously, adopting a social identity serves in building a unified community which shares the same aspirations and future views. This consequently leads to a positive interaction among the members of the Palestinian society, understanding the various social issues and taking part in finding solutions for its daily problems, as expressed in the objectives of the curriculum.

The Palestinian curriculum attempts to effectively collaborate with the larger global community by providing higher communicative tools for its learners.

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The global identity, which is introduced in a number of objectives, prompts learners to interact with the wider world and the residents of the homeland positively by showing respect for other civilizations, thoughts, rights and respecting the humanity of the others. Again, Palestinian learners are encouraged to achieve a communication with the human dimension in different cultures, through belief in the cultural encounter, and the belief that the Arab Palestinian resident is an integral part of a wide world that affects and gets affected by different renewals. Additionally, the curriculum seeks to strengthen the learners self-confidence by acknowledging the role the Islamic Arab civilization plays in other global civilizations (Palestinian High School Arabic Literature Curriculum, 2004). Moreover, it strives to delineate the ability of Classical Arabic to absorb the different modern sciences and disciplines and to underline its capacity in meeting the requirements of different civilizations and other cultures.

Table 2.2 indicates the various sub-identities and their frequencies. Curriculum objectives Frequency in percentage National identity 36% Religious identity 29% Social identity 24% Global identity 11% Table 2.2: Sub-identities and Arabic Literature

Some objectives mention interesting values which are indirectly connected to the process of learning Arabic language. Such objectives demonstrate the importance of protecting the environment to keep the environment and protect
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it from pollution, and to realize the importance of womans vital and effective role, and her participation with the man in building the society in various fields of life (Palestinian High School Arabic Literature Curriculum, 2004). Respecting the family and realizing its positive role in serving and developing the society is pointed to as well. Furthermore, the usage of new technology such as computers and the internet and tracking current and future developments is highly encouraged. These conveyed values obviously give the impression that the Palestinian curriculum is not only focusing on instructing Arabic as a mother tongue, but also make it play a vital role in constructing an active community seeking change and development.

Another interesting finding is that the curriculum is indirectly alluding to the hostility between Palestine and Israel and demands the learners: to recover what has been occupied, as stated in the objective (Palestinian High School Arabic Literature Curriculum, 2004). Israel for Palestinians is undoubtedly considered an enemy that occupied their lands; hence, it should be fought to regain their properties.

Regarding the content, there is a wide variety of written pieces with distinctive literary components that the curriculum provides. Unlike the Arab-Israeli curriculum, all the included texts must be taught. The 10th graders for instance, study prose and poetry derived from religion, Arabian and human heritage, Palestinian culture, history, and geography, as well as, technology and the role

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of women in building a sophisticated Palestinian culture. At the end of the year, students are required to memorize nearly 120 lines and verses.

11th graders must study six units of classical literature, Islamic literature, Abbasid literature, literature in the Crusades and Mamluks era, Andalusian literature, and general reading texts. Similarly, these literary works are also characterized by both the Palestinian and the Islamic heritage. As for the 12th graders, they are required to study 5 units of literature. These units include literature in the Ottoman era, modern poetry and its vivid arts, modern Palestinian poetry, modern Arabic prose, and general reading texts. In this level, the curriculum supplies a largest share for modern poetry by providing different schools of arts and a wide variety of various suitable poems.

By contrast with the Israeli-Arab curriculum, the Palestinian curriculum does not mention the dedicated hours for each unit. However, only the study books of the 11th graders mention the assigned hours for each unit and the provided text, which is 85 hours in total. The curriculum introduces the broad outlined objectives as well as the prescribed goals of each in great detail, leaving a flaw of ignoring the dedicated hours for each unit respectively.

Equally important, students are stimulated to be independent in acquiring knowledge by developing skills and abilities of searching, exploring reading,

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and utilizing the different kinds and means of resources. They are urged to enhance the confidence of the ability of Classical Arabic to absorb modern sciences and disciplines, and its ability to meet the requirements of different civilizations, cultures and sciences, and to express the needs of both individuals and groups in the present and the future (Palestinian High School Arabic Literature Curriculum, 2004).

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1.3 Arabic study books of Israeli -Arab high schools Four study books have been examined and they mostly present written pieces of classical and modern literature. The classical literature is divided into three main chapters: classical poetry, classical prose, and Quran, Hadith (the sacred sayings of Muhammad), and the prophetic autobiography of the prophet. On the other hand, the modern literature introduces five different components of literature: poetry, essays, short stories, novels and plays. The number of literal works emphasizes the fact that modern literature wins with the biggest proportion, 62%, which underline the importance of connecting the learner to current issues and modern world.

Table 3.1 presents the components of classical and modern literature and their percentages. Classical and modern literature components Frequency in percentage Modern poetry 27% Classical poetry 14% Short story 14% Classical prose 12% Quran, Hadith, and the prophetic autobiography 12% Essays 9% Novels 7% Plays 5% Table 3.1: Classical and Modern Literature Components Examining the previously mentioned study books of the Arab sector in Israel has revealed the following common themes:

1. Sensing the linguistic uniqueness of Arabic

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The study books present different styles of writing to show the uniqueness of Arabic through different texts from different eras. For instance, the selected verses of Quran emphasize the sanctity and the powerful utterances Arabic language is distinguished by. The chosen classical poetry and prose show the elegance and the abundance of the various expressions used in Arabic; whereas, modern poetry and prose underline the fact that Arabic can be adapted to modern issues and contents.

The reasons behind exposing the learners to a variety of literary pieces in terms of themes, tools, styles, and types, based on the curriculum objectives, are to enable them to distinguish between the different writing styles affected by the aim of writing, era, or the writer. Besides, it qualifies them to compare among the distinctive literary works to strengthen both their understanding and sensing of literature. For example, the pre-Islamic poetry may differ from any other era in terms of theme, language and expression used, and style. It is characterized by the role the poet played as a historian and the topics he related to such as, praise of the tribe or denigrating other tribes. It can be concluded that the variety of written pieces of literature contributes to crystallization of the personality of the learners since in this phase of development they obviously require tools to build their own sense of self, enrich their inner world, and achieve their identity and emotional balance.

2. Identifying with the Arabic literary heritage

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Classical literature previews four different eras: pre-Islamic (El-Jahiliya), Islamic and Umayyad, Abbasid, and Ottoman and Mamluks era. These eras represent different historical events, traditions, and philosophies, which eventually lead the learners to appreciate their literary heritage of their mother tongue. Each era has contributed to classical Arabic literature and, consequently has led it to thrive, become more vivid, and be worthy of study. For instance, classical poetry of the pre-Islamic era is distinguished by a wellknown form of poetry called (Muallaqat) meaning the hung poems since they were hung on the Kaaba; whereas, in the Islamic era, literature gained great popularity in different parts of the world especially when Quran has become the central source of literary studies. Literature on the Abbasid Era, on the other hand, deviated slightly from the former themes, presenting new topics and philosophies such as Sufism. All together, these different eras and styles of literature have contributed in promoting the pride of learners toward their native language as an inseparable heritage.

It is fairly important to note that both classical poetry and prose pieces emphasize the glory of Arabs and their literary and social contributions universally. In other words, they underline the earlier history of Arabs by presenting different schools of art that convey varied anecdotes of wisdom and philosophy. In fact, this indirectly enhances the significance of the learners national identity. Nevertheless, admittedly, this national identity is quite limited

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since the curriculum does not include Palestinian literary pieces. Furthermore, the Israeli-Arab national identity is rather correlated with the history of literature and not with the content of literary works. These works, as a matter of fact, discuss all sorts of general issues; still, they do not explicitly or implicitly indicate the issue of national identity. Amara & Mari (2002) argue that the main goals of education in the Arab public schools aim to develop functional and technical skills neglecting molding a Palestinian national identity. The curricula of the Arab sector in general are rather imbued with Jewish contents and less with cultural Palestinian Arab themes (Al-Haj, 1995; Al-Haj, 2002; Mazawi, 1997). This can be attributed to the fact that education plays an essential role in maintaining and prompting political schemes and ideologies. Education systems are under the control of states since they are regarded as their property, as a result, they carry the imprimatur and conditioning of political systems (Bianco, 2010)

3. Literature as a reflection of social values

Social values are given special importance mainly in classical prose, primarily, in order to highlight the significance of having a well formed and unified society. To illustrate, in the text of Omama Bent Il- Harith we come across marital principles. Omama, the mother is conveying to her daughter wise words of commandments to advise her how to maintain a happy married life. Analyzing the text uncovers messages like patience, unity, understanding and

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appreciating the other, giving away, and so forth. The sacred verses of Quran and the autobiography and sayings of the Prophet Muhammad also reflect numerous values showing the reader how to react in certain circumstances and what ethical approach they should follow. Generally, the majority of the texts, specially the religious pieces, intend to convey a wide variety of code of values such as showing respect for the family and the other, obedience, flexibility and tolerance, silence as a principle of wisdom, honesty and loyalty, modesty, hospitality, and helping others. Students are expected to follow these virtues, adopt them as their own personal system that guides them through many daily life obstacles they may face.

4. The lack of reflecting the issues of the modern Israeli-Arab society

Short stories, essays and plays essentially discuss plenty of social, political, and educational issues. The chief goal of learning such literary pieces as it is stated in the curriculum is: to get the learners to know the current issues that engage the society in general and the individual in particular. Thus, they introduce different works of several writers and journalists who come from different parts of the Arab World like, Yusuf Idris, Kadri Toqan, Gibran Khalil, etc. These issues mainly argue equality of men and women, womens role in modern society, education of parents and children, how to raise children, cultural development and degradation, happiness, and successes. In addition, modern prose sheds light on the flaws of the Arab society by criticizing the negative

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influence of traditions and customs, social injustice, poverty, generation gap, and daily-life challenges.

Analyzing the textbooks shows clearly that most of the selected texts are written by Egyptian authors reflecting the Egyptian community, traditions, and social affairs. In other words, some of these texts are not communicative enough for the Israeli-Arab learners who have special and unique identity and entity among other Arab nations. There is a noteworthy shortage of literary pieces written by Israeli-Arabs or Palestinian authors. Alternatively, in spite of the fact that Palestinian poets and authors such as, Mahmud Darwish, Samih Al-Qasim, Fadwa Tuqan, and Ibrahim Tuqan, are slightly represented in the modern literature and fiction, still their works do not discuss or deal with national Palestinian issues. They mainly present contents of universal themes such as, love and romantic experiences and not beyond that. Reviewing the literature in this respect indicates the importance of language as a tool for ethnic and nation building. Edwards, (2009) and Liebkind (2010) argue that language serves as a symbol of group collective identity that stimulates a natural sense of solidarity and deliberately creates feelings of belonging to populations sharing certain language. It is one of the features that people use to declare and state their own identification with a particular linguistic or cultural group, or with a specific cultural group in a certain society in which they live (Goodfellow, 2005).

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5. Acquiring language techniques All the components of both classical and modern literature underline the importance of the acquisition of language techniques as a tool of narrowing the gap between written and spoken Arabic, in which written Arabic becomes the natural tool for correct and appropriate performance (Arabic High School Literature Curriculum, 1981). Providing a wide range of various literary texts, learners are highly encouraged to adapt tools of correct reading, oral and written expression, using external references, being a critical reader, using literary elements to analyze texts, etc. Additionally, they are expected to be familiar with the various features of poetry, short stories, novels, essays, and plays. Ultimately, these techniques result in developing the skills and the abilities of the learner in terms of presenting and elaborating ideas, expressing feeling and emotions clearly, forming correct speech, writing reports and summaries correctly and comprehensively, and taking into account the rules of punctuation and the divisions of paragraphs accordingly.

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1.4 Arabic study books of Palestinian Authority high schools The Palestinian Curriculum Development Center (PCDC) published five study books for Arabic literature in 2005 for secondary schools: two course books for each 10th and 11th graders and one course book for the 12th. The study material is organized respectively, that is to say, each grade has its own study material that includes different styles of writing of different eras and schools of art.

The study books primarily present three main components: extensive reading, classical literature, and modern literature. Unlike the Israeli- Arab curriculum of Arabic literature, classical literature is relatively highlighted more than the rest of the other components by scoring (41%).

Table 4.1 presents the components of the Palestinian textbooks and their percentages. Classical and modern literature components Frequency in percentage Classical literature 41% Modern literature 38% Extensive reading 21% Table 4.1: The Components of the Palestinian Arabic Study Books

The extensive reading chapter includes texts of the Holy Quran and other religious texts, social topics in which some of them are related to Palestinian issues such as, The Agricultural Development in Palestine and The Traditional Culture of Architects in Palestine. The classical literature includes texts of different eras such as, pre-Islamic (El-Jahiliya), Islamic, Abbasid,

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Crusades and Mamluks, Andalusian, and Ottomani era. On the other hand, the modern literature chapter includes a review of the different schools of literary arts and compatible pieces, the modern Palestinian poetry, and finally modern prose.

The following five themes have been emerged while analyzing the study books of the Palestinian Authority:

1. Arabic as a historical and lingual heritage

The proportions mentioned previously show that the Palestinian study books chiefly underline the importance of the Arabian history and heritage. Similar to the Israeli study books, they overview different styles of literature in different eras highlighting how each era contributed to the development and prosperity of Arabic literature. It seems obvious that the Palestinian study books accentuate the history and the heritage of Arabs by not only mentioning historical events and details related to each era, but also by providing more information and explanations in terms of social and political aspects, poets background and personal features, literary phenomena and characteristics, and criticism features.

Arabic and modern life has been highlighted as well. A number of texts discuss how Arabic language has customized itself to the technological and cultural development to meet the needs of its speakers in terms of higher education,

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Arabization of scientific foreign terms, and media. That is to say, these texts attempt to convey the theme that Arabic is a flexible communication tool that has been changed and affected by different eras and social changes. In addition, some of these texts emphasize the importance of translating books and literal pieces from other languages or vise versa as an effective tool of transforming and revealing Arabic literal and cultural heritage to other cultures and to be exposed to different cultures at the same time. Consequently, learners are able to have a window of opportunity to get to know about different cultures and traditions, which eventually enrich their world and horizons.

2. Schools of literary arts and language techniques Each chapter of the different units of literature specifies three lessons to introduce and explain the different schools of arts and their features. They also present the obstacles that Arabic language face nowadays, and suggest ways and solutions to overcome such obstacles. One of these difficulties is the diglossia of Arabic. Arabic has two versions; one is spoken and is more informal and the other is written and more official. In both versions, frequently different terms and utterances are used. As a result, speakers often face problematic issues in their every day interactions. However, in order to overcome this ambiguity, the Palestinian Arabic curriculum and study textbooks strive to provide interactive texts that are derived from the world of the learner. These texts mainly emphasize the importance of classical Arabic and its vital role that plays in different aspects of development; underline the

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ability of Classical Arabic in absorbing modern sciences and disciplines, meeting the requirements of different civilizations, cultures and sciences, and expressing the needs of both individuals and communities in the present and the future; and encourage the learner to cherish classical Arabic as an official language in Palestine, and to use it in attaining knowledge, education, and in all other domains of life (The Palestinian Arabic curriculum, 2004).

Furthermore, learners are given the chance to have an extra reading at the end of each text. They are suggested a number of additional texts to be looked for in other sources and references. This gives them more independence and widens their knowledge and horizons. Eventually, this leads to a comprehensive understanding of the obstacles face Arabic and suggest solutions of their own. Based on the curriculum objectives, reading extra articles and essays of different writers and researchers prompts to develop the sense of esthetics, refined taste, awareness of feelings, and expanding imagination of the learners (The Palestinian Arabic curriculum, 2004).

It is important to mention that the included texts reflect the world and the interests of learners. These texts debate various political issues, as well as, social and psychological aspects. For instance, there are texts that deal with laughter as the best cure for psychological and physical disorders, smoking, space tourism, extensive reading as a need of daily life, and the importance of time. That is to say, students are introduced to different types of texts

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belonging to different schools of art which help them to be exposed to various language techniques and eventually master them. Yet, the ultimate aim of these texts is not only conveying language techniques and introducing schools of literary arts, but also to furnish the learners with communicative topics that can be tied to their own world of interests.

3. Imbuing social values and virtues Analyzing the Palestinian textbooks has also introduced remarkable instances of social values and qualities. These virtues can be traced in a number of literary works particularly the religious texts. In the first place, students are urged to assimilate virtues of cooperation, honesty, patience, respecting the other, appreciation of science and scientists, and so forth. Accordingly, embracing such values results in a positive interaction with society and its issues. Another set of virtues is ingrained as well. It is expressing rather universal values in which learners can link themselves to the general humanity and indicate the essence of human condition. Such values are cultural and religious tolerance, love, respecting humanity, brotherhood, charity, bliss, belief, and truth. Definitely, these codes of values contribute in providing a healthier communication between the individuals and the outer world. Alternatively, as it is phrased in the curriculum: to communicate with the human dimension in different cultures, through the belief in the cultural encounter, and the belief that the Arab Palestinian resident is an integral part of a wide world that affects and gets affected by different renewals. In addition, to

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strengthen the learners self-confidence by recognizing the role that plays the Arab Islamic culture in other civilizations (The Palestinian Arabic Curriculum, 2004).

4. Palestinization The various social, cultural, and political issues that the Palestinian society encounters in daily life directly and indirectly is discussed in a prominent number of texts. Most of the analyzed texts evidently show the importance of introducing these issues to the learners and make them aware of their social and political dimensions. The curriculum itself underlines this significance by stating that learning Arabic is a national language; it forms and features the nation and it is a sign of unity (The Palestinian Arabic Curriculum, 2004).

Learners are inspired, socially and politically, to relate several written texts to their own world and reality. For example, Agriculture in Palestine is a text that discussed the conditions of agriculture in Plastine to show its importance as an essential source of national economy. The text also presents the possible problems agriculture may encounter in Palestine and suggests how to cope with them to maintain its prosperity in the future. Furthermore, old popular chants are included to get the learners acquainted with their own Palestinian traditions and customs, they also aim to consolidate the attachment to the Arabian and Islamic heritage (The Palestinian Arabic Curriculum, 2004).

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Political themes are clearly tagged, especially in a specified unit of the 12th graders study book, which pertains to modern Palestinian poetry. In this unit both Nakba (1948 Palestinian exodus) and Moqawama (resistance) poetry are presented. It includes poems written by well-know poets, Ahmad Dahbor and Abd El-Karim Al-Karmi. Their literary pieces bluntly portray themes and ideologies related to the agony, pain, disappointments, hope, dreams, the importance of resistance to recover the occupied lands and maintain what is left, and the struggle of Palestinians to establish their own homeland. To confirm, the Palestinian Arabic Curriculum, (2004) distinctively states this theme when it notes the eminence of teaching Arabic as a tool to reinforce the importance of defending the homeland of Palestine and recovering what has been occupied, and facing all kinds of invasion, settlements, and division.

Modern Arabic prose gained a new identity in the Palestinian textbooks as well. The majority of the adapted works strikingly revolved also around Palestinian affairs in particular. For example, Samira Azam, a Palestinian female writer, Ehsan Abass, A Palestinian author, Hussin Mhana, a Palestinian poet, and many others, have become metaphors for the various issues and conflicts of Palestine through out their popular literary works. They all address themselves to represent the anguish of dispossession and exile, social degradation caused by the Israeli occupation, oppression, the undefeated rebel, aggression, exploitation, and many other themes.

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The striking feature of both previously mentioned literary genres is that Israel is a permanent enemy for the Palestinian Statehood. A candid proof contributing to such assumption is the text Sibak Al-Okban Walnosor meaning the Race of Vultures and Eagles. In this symbolic story, the writer uses many metaphors to urge the learners to embrace the idea of Israel as an occupying and aggressive entity. He firmly complains and criticizes Israel and its dominating activities over Palestine. Students, accordingly, are demanded to cooperate and fight against the oppression to regain their territories.

5. Building bonds The objectives of the Palestinian Arabic curriculum have spread the gasp of Arabic literature wider as a mean of forming bonds among learners and their homeland by emphasizing the significance of the religious and national identity. It lucidly and straightforwardly states that the aim of learning Arabic is to strengthen belief in god, and to consolidate the pride of Islam as a religion and as a way of life, as the Quran and the Hadith Sharif (the sayings of the prophet) are two main resources for improving Arabic language, and enhancing the relationship between Arabism and Islam. In addition, it emphasizes the importance of intensifying the pride of the Palestinian state, its people, civilization and history. These objectives are clearly crystallized in a remarkable number of texts. Texts like The Migration of the Arab Potentials, Islam and Freedom of Speech, and the Race of Vultures and Eagles, and poems like, Abu- Tamam and Current Arabism and Al-Kudsiyat Poetry (Jerusalem

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related poetry)

emphasize these themes by presenting the importance of

imbuing and increasing the awareness of the religious and national identity.

In the text Khubz Al-Fidaa, which means the Bread of Sacrifice, by Samira Azam, for example, students are exposed to a new dimension of the utterance Homeland. According to the text, homeland is not a static geographical territory separate from the ones emotions and thoughts. It has become a purely and ideal image of beauty of the present and the promising future. The author expresses the vital role women play in the struggle against occupation. She also narrates the cruel reality Palestinians live after 1948. This demonstrates the fact that the Palestinian curriculum radically asserts the importance of maintaining a well-unified people to struggle against all sorts of aggression and oppression, as stated in the curriculum objectives.

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Concluding content analysis results of written documents

Comparing the study books of both Palestinian Authority and the Israeli Arabs reveals the following:

First and most importantly, the Israeli-Arab curriculum aims to provide plenty of texts, styles of writing, and writers and poems who come from different parts of the Arab world. Conversely, the number of the included texts in the Palestinian study books is relatively limited. Besides, most of the writers and the poets are originally Palestinians. In such case, students are prevented from being acquainted with other styles and literary pieces of other modern and classical writers and poets to expand their ethnic and universal belonging or to enrich his literary knowledge and evaluation.

The Israeli-Arab study books mostly deal with general issues that reflect the Arab world and its difficulties in handling various social issues. The Palestinian study books, comparatively, introduce articles, short stories, and poems that speak to the minds of the learners as they are derived from their own world and reality.

The Israeli-Arab textbooks basically present language techniques using different styles of writing and literary pieces that are derived from different parts of the Arab world, especially the Egyptian society. Instead, the Palestinian study books present such techniques by discussing Palestinian

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issues that matters the students in terms of identity and Palestinian heritage and traditions. They aim to increase the national awareness and the current issues facing the Palestinian society.

A number of texts included in the Palestinian study books deal with themes like: war, rebel, resistance, and exudes. The hostility against Israel is not explicitly mentioned in such texts; yet, between the lines there are messages and hints that largely reveal such hostility in a way or in another. To demonstrate, Obsir, Al-Harb, and Al-Jihad Poetry are a group of literary works that deals with Israel as an eternal enemy that brought to the Palestinian people pain, disasters, agony, and disappointment. Hence, the readers are strongly urged to struggle against such an Israeli oppression. Most of the texts and poems of the Israeli-Arabs textbooks, on the other hand, present themes of love, romance, and descriptions of nature, women, beauty, and so forth. Therefore, Israeli-Arab learners are exposed to general themes that discuss neutral, or in other words, politically free social matters which enhances their awareness and appreciation of Arabic Literature as a mother tongue.

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2. Interviews Analysis

2.1 Analysis of Israeli-Arab teachers interviews: Analyzing the ten interviews conducted with Arab Israeli teachers has devised the following themes:

Language techniques are a prime priority The interviewees argued that Arabic curriculum of the Israeli-Arab high school chiefly underline language techniques as an ultimate aim for learning Arabic. One of the interviewees explains that: teachers are expected to teach reading, writing, and speaking skills for the purpose of filling in the gap between spoken Arabic and the Modern Standard Arabic. Students are encouraged to use correct classical Arabic as an effective mean of communication. In addition, according to the statement of another respondent, learners are introduced to new vocabulary and literary tools which highlight the beauty and the richness of the Arabic language. She precedes her statement by arguing that: Arabic is one of the languages that are vivid with so many expressions, proverbs, and wisdom sayings. Students should be exposed to such linguistic heritage and treasure explicitly so that they will be able to appreciate their mother tongue and be proud of it.

However, teachers are against pointing to language techniques as a supreme goal of the curriculum. One of the participating teachers claims that: teaching

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a language should involve also tutoring tools which promote creativity, stimulate thinking, and encourage the students to analyze texts and conclude educational and social morals through the selected literary works. Another interviewed teacher articulates that: as a matter of fact we are not totally against the current curriculum, but we need to admit that it has flaws and lacks important features. Teachers should not be expected to let learners speak classical Arabic fluently or memorize certain poems by heart, they must be qualified enough to urge their students to get interested in reading, writing, and speaking. Equally important, they need to be trained how to be critical readers who do not take written or said things for granted. Arabic curriculum must supply such desirable requirements.

Furthermore, Arabic teachers are craving to replace the dictation and lecturing method with more sophisticated strategies to handle various styles of writing and excerpts. One interviewee expressed her opinion by articulating that: teachers must become facilitators instead of dominators of the class. Students should not rely on what their teachers say or dictate, they must search for knowledge and discuss it. That can be achieved certainly by providing three main conditions: a well-planned curriculum, suitable study books, and qualified teachers.

Language is not only about a means of communication

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Most of the interviewed teachers complained about the fact that Arabic is taught only as a means of communication among its speakers. They protest that students learn Arabic in order to function effectively and express themselves properly in their daily discourses, underestimating the fact that learning a mother tongue also must be a link that ties the speaker with his/her heritage and nationality. The following statement of one of the participants, exemplifies this idea: language is not merely a symbolic communication system; it is rather a symbol of unity, identity, and cultural heritage. Another participant explains: language is the essential basic that make us human and different from any other entity. It indicates who we really are. It simply features the personalities of the speakers and provides help to define their cultural and personal identity. She further urges that: Arabic curriculum must regard this fact and its objectives must espouse the idea of enhancing the image of Arabic as a precious language that has cultural and historical importance besides the religious one. It is quite important to note that the various written texts of different eras do not intend to present mere historical events and literary features, they rather represent historical continuity of a culture and indicate an integral part of a national heritage.

To sum up, the majority of the interviewees are recommending taking into consideration the fact that language is chiefly representing its speakers and indicating the way they think. An interviewed participant illustrates the previous claim by stating: Arabic is a beautiful language and we need to

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experience it not only for reading and speaking. We need to be qualified native speakers in order to know who we are and what our goals are, and above all to construct a strong, affecting, and independent individual who is respected, seen and heard. Thus, students must be imbued with pride in their native language and master it extremely well since it is an important component of their identity and culture.

The teacher is the heart of the class Arabic teachers play a fundamental role in teaching Arabic. They are considered the center of the class. One of the interviewed teachers describes the role of instructing by saying: I think that the main role an Arabic teacher can play is his \ her ability to convey certain messages that are both educational and ethical for the target audience. Definitely, it is important also to expand the students knowledge and vocabulary. In addition, an Arabic teacher has to be aware of the differences among his students, I mean in terms or achievement, and to provide them with suitable educational tools accordingly to maximize their grasping of the taught material and ways of analyzing and applying it to move forward.

Since the current Arabic textbooks do not provide enough explanation of the selected literary works for the readers, teachers are expected to furnish learners with the needed interpretations and illustrations, as well as tools that help them perform an activity or certain task by preparing extra worksheets and

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workbooks. A participant comments that: teaching Arabic is such a heavy burden. It is not easy to teach Arabic though it is our mother tongue, but you need to prepare extra work in order to instruct the required material. In our school, Arabic teachers work as a team and we prepare extra worksheets and guide sheets. We type these and make them into booklets to save individual efforts and time.

Moreover, they believe that they are responsible for their students success even in other subjects since they need to supply them with correct writing tools to express their opinions and explanations suitably. One of the participants illustrates the former statement by explaining that: subjects like history, geography, sociology, and even sciences like chemistry, biology and physics, are based primarily on a higher level of comprehending and writing. If students are not able to understand properly the instructions of the given tasks, in history for example, they will probably accomplish them incorrectly. Similarly, written proficiency is urgently required in order to enable the learners to cast their answers explicitly and clearly. If students lack such skills, certainly they will not be able to succeed.

Yet, the majority of the respondents complained about the fact that they are responsible even for supplying the explanations of the literary pieces. One of the interviewees points out that: instead of discussing, analyzing or criticizing a piece of literature, we are busy dictating for our students. We want to make

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sure that they have the correct analysis. In the exams we simply expect them to memorize what we have noted down and write our own ideas and in many cases students even use our own words! I think this calls for a dramatic and urgent change. Unfortunately, we spoon-feed them; alternatively, we need to graduate students with independent thinking who are able to express their opinions freely and individually without the interference of other factors. Another participant sums up her supposed role as a teacher by explaining that: Teaching is not only about conveying material for learners; it is about creativity and art. A teacher has to be an artist with a unique style. An excellent teacher, in my opinion, is the one who owns so many methods that can affect the lives and mentalities of others. Language teachers, in particular, need to be talented and very educated. They are expected to know how to introduce and even market their products differently and in an attractive way. Involving the learners in the process of learning is also important. They need to be as active as possible to produce their own work and be as creative and innovative as possible, as well, to create outstanding works.

Social virtues are my super goal Arabic teachers are regarded as social agents whose mission is to socially refine the behaviors of the learners through imbuing social values, educational basics, and moral qualities. Through novels, articles, poems, and short stories they are able to teach principles and values such as, tolerance, respect, honesty, loyalty helping the other, generosity, etc. The respondents are strongly in favor

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of this educational task. They profoundly believe that social values are an integral part of the educating process. According to one of the respondents, social morals give the learners the opportunity to be socially intelligent. They offer the speakers useful tools of correct and accepted interaction. Besides, these social manners unify members, as well as encourage them to be initiators of change who are devoted to developing and pushing forward their community. Another participant stresses the importance of ingraining social manners by saying that they can define the culture. Any culture has it own value orientations and an accepted system of manners. They uphold the culture and help it flourish. Keeping your cultural values makes you happier and more successful.

On the other hand, some participants claim that the current curriculum does not mention Palestinian cultural values; instead, it presents rather general Arabic values, mainly the Egyptian, as well as the religious morals that reflect Islamic orientations. One of the participants explains this idea by arguing: unfortunately, the current curriculum does not consider national values that we need to underline to get our students aware of their own culture and be proud of it. Each culture has their own system of values, norms, and traditions. They characterize it and make it distinguished from any other culture. It is desirable to learn about other cultures but still we need to learn our own. These cultural values and elements can be reflected obviously through fables and folklore tales. To my deep sorrow, the current curriculum lacks such things.

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In conclusion, according to the participants, social values are not only an important element to rehabilitate students behaviors, but also, they contribute in crystallizing their personalities and identities. One of the participants clearly states this point by demonstrating that: social morals are an important element in building a healthier and effective society, and the current Arabic curriculum is vivid with such morals but we need to present them suitably so our students will identify with them and refine certain behaviors they unfortunately gain from their surroundings.

Voices for change The majority of the interviewees strongly agreed that it is essential to change the current curriculum. They argued that the curriculum expired a long time ago. An interviewed teacher comments that: A 28- year-old curriculum is not able to meet the students needs and requirements anymore. Therefore, it is advisable to substitute it with an updated one which supplies learners with new sources of information and different social, educational, and national issues of interest. Another participant expresses the importance of changing the current curriculum by stating: I can see that all the curricula of different subjects have been changed, apart from the Arabic curriculum, which is not fair. I call this neglecting and underestimating our mother tongue. We need to change it as soon as possible and be creative and authentic.

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The interviewed teachers vocally claim that some of the selected literary works, especially modern prose, do not meet the needs of the learners and do not contribute to the process of learning a language at all. A participant justifies that need by expressing: our students are different from those who learned 20 years ago. They have different mentalities, aspirations, and orientations. They are exposed to the internet and other technologies. They simply live in a world that is considered a global village where the transformation and movement of information has become so fast. Undoubtedly, the issues and interests that concern our present learners are completely different, whether they are social, political, educational, or cultural issues. They are more open-minded than before. They discuss and do not take things for granted. I deeply believe that we need to help in producing, let me say, independent individuals who think rationally and above all freely without limitations. Our Arabic curriculum is not in favor of such needs, thus, it is very important to change it as soon as possible.

The interviewed Arabic teachers suggest that modern prose and classical literary works should be replaced. One teacher emphasizes this point by venting: I think they [classical Arabic texts] dont match or meet the needs of the learners. They come from a different world which is difficult to convey to them. Hence, they recommend replacing them with novels and modern poems that handle issues of nationality and the Israeli-Arab conflict. One participant illustrates: I would include national poetry and national novels that deal with

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the issues of both Jewish and Palestinian people in order to fill in the gap between them which eventually leads to an understanding of each others mentality and point of view. He also advises the inclusion of international novels, prophetic sayings and autobiography by clearly stating: it is recommended to include also international novels which have been well accepted in the entire world. I think that it is quite important to get our students introduced to globally famous literary works to enrich their knowledge and sense of fine literature. It is important, as well, to specify a unit for the prophetic theory which emphasizes the significance of ethics, morals and grace.

The interviewees, on the other hand, praised the organization of the curriculum as it is divided into different parts and deals with different kinds and styles of literature and introduces the learners to a wide variety of literary works, as was pointed out by one of the participants. Yet, it is claimed that there is a clash between the conveyed social merits and between literary excerpts. One teacher claims that: a number of poems, especially the classical ones, deal with, let me say, unethical themes, drinking wine, flirting with women, and behaving inappropriately. Thus, there is a clash between what we are trying to convey and what themes we pass through these literary works. We need to admit that teaching teenagers is not an easy mission. We have to be as careful as possible, and try to implant morals and virtues, and unfortunately, some literary pieces lack such morals. In the contrary, they include ideas that are

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completely different from us as Muslims or against our accepted and expected behaviors. Therefore, it is recommended that such excerpts be expunged and superseded with more suitable ones that communicate literary themes and social qualities.

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2.2 Analysis of Palestinian teachers interviews: The perspectives gained by analyzing ten interviews of Palestinian Arabic teachers have revealed the following five common themes:

Arabic is a precious heritage Most participants considered Arabic not only a vehicle that provides help to express thoughts, sentiments, conceptions, and values that features the Arab community, it represents also an essential expression of cultural and social identity. An interviewee notifies that studying Arabic fosters an escalated understanding of various oriental and Islamic traditions, and as well, it deepens the perception of cultural values, strengthens national and cultural ties, and forges friendship among its speakers. According to one of the participants, he assumes through various pieces of prose and poetry, students are inspired to espouse instruments to gain insights into the cultural and historical backgrounds in the world of Islam and explore it on their own. Another respondent points out that students are stimulated to form an important gateway to link up with the rest of the Middle Eastern countries by sharing common novels and poems that promote favorable attitudes toward the Islamic civilization, and bring about a greater level of cultural awareness.

Teachers strongly recommend ingraining their students with a deep respect and pride of Arabic as a valuable heritage, as articulated by one of the interviewed teachers. Learners are likely to be aware of the importance of

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linguistic and cultural heritage by engaging them behaviorally and cognitively with so-called Arabic values such as, honor, grace, curiosity, and hospitality which can be expressed in various domains of their lives. One of the participants enhances this idea by asserting that: once our students are aware of their cultural heritage, which is filled with moral values, and eventually appreciate it, they can be active citizens who care for their society and community. She resumes: the Palestinian Arabic curriculum is actually pointing out such themes and attempts to imbue social values derived from cultural heritage of Arabic language through plenty of short stories, novels, and poems.

Most of the participants ascribed the importance of adopting Arabic as a mean of cultural heritage to its association with national identity. One participant accents this point by clarifying: Arabic literature plays a major role in featuring the identity of the speaker. It certainly provides historical continuity through texts written from the Ghahilaya period (pre-Islam era) until today expressing different themes and cultural values. When the students are exposed to such texts, they can be more aware of their roots, as well as current reality. They are likely to get the sense that they belong to a larger entity and are not separated from others who belong to the same culture. This definitely leads to unity and harmony among citizens.

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 Solidarity, unity, and independence The majority of the participants maintained that the new curriculum aspires to create unity among Palestinian residents. Until 1994, there was not a unified Palestinian curriculum, West Bank students learned according to the Jordanian curriculum, while Gaza Strip learners were instructed according to the Egyptian curriculum. After the Oslo Agreement in 1995, the Palestinian Authority took charge of the educational system and established the Palestinian Curriculum Development Center. As a result, it was an indispensable obligation to resolve the duality of the curricula and to create a unified curriculum which reflects Palestinian needs, conceptions, and ambitions.

Therefore, the Palestinian Arabic curriculum has strived to function as a significant agent for investing social and national solidarity. One of the

interviewees confirms this by explaining: although the Palestinian Arabic curriculum confronts several gaps and barriers, it seeks to entrench feelings of belonging, and above that, it serves as a particularly potent symbol of the social solidarity among all Palestinian citizens.

Palestinian Arabic curriculum contains literary excerpts and poems that intend to address common Palestinian issues that mostly focus on appreciation of the Palestinian culture, traditions, and embracing different value orientations that frame the Palestinian society. One teacher comments that: it is such a good and vital idea to include Palestinian poems and stories. It does not merely make

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learning Arabic authentic, but also it gives a sense that we have something in common. We share the same pain, issues and circumstances. He goes on to state strongly: I am in favor of this curriculum since it appreciates Palestinian literature. We are not only teaching Arabic in general, but also we get our students to learn about the contribution of Palestinian writers and poets to Arabic literature and, for sure, to the Palestinian issue.

The interviewed Palestinian teachers expressed the extreme importance of having an independent Palestinian curriculum which includes also Palestinian contents. One of the participants attributed the urgent need for a unified curriculum to a demand for a comprehensive independence in different domains of life. He claims that: we have the complete right to have our own system of education, to be socially independent, and to be responsible for our needs and aspirations. Moreover, it is important and even required to highlight the national symbols that represent the Palestinian civilization and differentiate it from any other culture which, eventually, helps sustain feelings of cultural kinship.

Creating national identity Many participants conceded that language and identity are inextricably linked. They believe that Arabic language, as any other language of the globe, plays an important role in articulating and preserving national identity. One of the participants explicitly states that: by teaching literary works that

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fundamentally reflect Palestinian conflicts as well as cultural aspects, students become more aware and acquainted with various national ideologies which ultimately, leads to a full identification with them.

The Palestinian Arabic curriculum presents distinctive genres and styles of Arabic language through different eras that discuss various issues, socially, politically and intellectually. One of the interviewed teachers argues that the Palestinian Arabic curriculum is so vivid and varied since it deals with different styles and literary schools which each has made its unique contribution to literature in general. Yet, above all, it also underlines the poetry of the Palestinian Resistance which is regarded as an indispensable part of learning Arabic literature.

Interviewees rationalized the appreciation of the Palestinian national literature in the curriculum by the fact that it plays a key role in the process of building a nation. One of the participants illustrates the previous theme by lucidly explaining, young students are an integral part of the Palestinian society and they are the subjects who are going to determine future, hence, they should be imbued with, and their conceptualizations guided by, national elements and ideologies which ultimately lead to a healthy process of constructing a national identity. However, this is not enough. We need to embrace a national spirit, as well, in order to protect our rights, territories, and existence in general. People

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who have a powerful national identity and patriotic principles are immune to the many barriers they may face through life.

In other words, the new Palestinian Arabic curriculum aims to underline the ethnic Palestinian identity and according to one of the interviewees: this is considered to be a great improvement and one step forward towards full independence politically, territorially, and educationally. Before the new curriculum was planned, Palestinian students were infused by Jordanian and Egyptian value orientations, which definitely induced incoherence in the educational system. Two separated educational systems have made things difficult and not practical at all. It is rather a ridiculous idea that one group of people learn according to two different educational systems. It contributes to division rather than unity anyway. On the other hand, the current new curriculum, on a deeper level, strives to evolve the concept of national identity by presenting literary pieces that provoke awareness and a sense of belonging to the nation as a primary element of preserving collective history, unity, solidarity and eventually the existence of a state, as one of the participants noted.

Arabic curriculum is a "spring" of morals and national values Palestinian Arabic teachers regard Arabic literary texts as a highly effective source of moral and national values. They believe that the mother tongue has a symbolic value in building a healthy nation and preserving the coherence and

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the harmony of national groups. For instance, learning values such as cooperation, tolerance, giving away, charity, cultivation, patience, generosity, and so forth, encourages students to be devoted to their society and homeland in general. Arab society is considered to be relatively a very conservative society. Social values play an important role in constructing the personality and the identity of members. These values are mainly derived from Islam and culture. They embrace such values both at home and school. Yet, school is regarded as an effective socialization institute which is responsible for duly conveying morals and manners to its students to furnish them with proper tools to deal with life matters as one of the respondents expressed.

According to the interviewees, the present curriculum offers several literary texts that deal with plenty of accepted and required social virtues and national elements. One of the interviewees clarified that: teaching values and morals through various types of literary texts makes students not only absorb core norms and manners, but also contributes to building a nation whose members are aware and able to develop moral judgments that are required in order to find rational solutions for various problems in daily life. I believe that people who treasure social values can build their community to be the best it can be, unquestionably and endlessly.

Similarly, another participant points out the significance of teaching morals and national values by saying: cultivating social and national values offer learners

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a valuable opportunity to nationally and socially develop their community. Target manners lead to an effective dialogue between citizens of the same community and with other cultures, as well, which eventually develops cultural fluency and harmony. A proper love of the ones nation and state can be achieved by fostering healthy social merits and ideals. He followed the previous statement by explaining that: social and national values are such an important driving force to encourage people to dedicate themselves to build an advanced nation. In other words, they motivate the national and social passion and energy in order to create a coherent nation which lives in peace and happiness.

All together, these teachers strongly believe that teaching Arabic literature is based on inspiring social manners and national values. These morals and values have become an imperative need to establish a healthy society whose members are able to express such virtues in various domains of life. The teachers also claim that, in order to enhance the image of a society, students should be stimulated not only to embrace social and national values, but also to act them out properly.

Obstacles and challenges The majority of the participants claimed that the Palestinian Arabic curriculum strives to meet the needs and the requirements of both teachers and students. It stimulates thinking, criticism, and national awareness; additionally, it is

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extremely motivational. Further, it presents different themes and subjects through attractive and well-appreciated literary pieces of different eras and genres. However, teachers claim that it is too long and they are not offered enough hours to cover explicitly the required material. The weekly scheduled hours are not enough for discussing and analyzing all the details of texts. Thus, the respondents reported that in many cases they skip certain explanation and analysis, or simply mention them briefly.

One of the interviewed Arabic teachers related to other difficulties and barriers that may prevent them from applying the curriculum suitably. She explains that: unfortunately, there are teachers who are not skilled enough to be Arabic teachers and lack basic skills, teaching methods and creativity. Some teachers even do not use classical Arabic in their classes which leads to a clash between the set goals and the implementation. She suggests that: teachers must be qualified properly and they need to take part in instructional courses that explain the new curriculum, its goals, operational objectives, and contents. Another interviewee asserts that: in order to have healthier and more effective learning, we need to guarantee that the curriculum be evaluated in the field and constantly renew it by adding and omitting literary texts. This is the secret that lies behind successful curriculum planning.

Palestinian teachers highly recommend previewing the present Arabic curriculum and rearranging it, taking into consideration suitable time

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allotments and the quantity of the texts. As on teacher said, in order to get the best results and the maximum efficacy of teaching Arabic, I believe that the curriculum should be duly evaluated and re-planned accordingly taking into consideration both teachers and students comments and needs.

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Concluding the Findings This part of the present chapter aims to summarize and tie up the reported findings of the multiple data sources by shedding light on the chief common patterns that emerged through analyzing the curricula, school textbooks, and the interviews. It is intended also to supply a conclusive comparison of both the Israeli and Palestinian applied language education policy, as well as, to explain how they contribute to the construction of learners identity. These common patterns are:

Isolation of cultural heritage vs. imbuing heritage and cultural pride According to the findings, it is clear that the Israeli language policy expressed in both the curriculum and school study books does not focus on cultural heritage as a fundamental component to define and distinguish the Arabic learners from any other learners and to strengthen their feelings of pride at being part of this culture. Although the curriculum and the study books include different styles and types of literary pieces, however, at the deeper level, they intend to present historical background of literary eras to offer the learners the ability to properly read literary works of both poetry and prose, emphasizing the included expressive themes (Arabic High School Literature Curriculum, 1981).

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Equally important, one of the objectives of the Israeli-Arab curriculum declares the importance of taking pride in Arabic as a national language, which is considered an important element in the forming of the learners personality; nevertheless, this goal is not applied in the textbooks as it supposed to be. In other words, in spite of the fact that the study textbooks offer plenty of texts which reflect various genres of literature, still they do not represent, and they even avoid, the idea that a language pertains to national and cultural conceptions.

On the other hand, the guidelines of the Palestinian Arabic curriculum are based on the general educational philosophy of Palestinian-Arab society, the principles of which have been derived from its heritage, religion, and the Declaration of Independence (First Palestinian Curriculum Plan, Ministry of Education, Palestinian Curriculum Development Centre, 1998). This shows the importance of reproducing Arab and Islamic culture and heritage to the Palestinian learners which ultimately strengthens the linkage to the Arab and Islamic heritage as a significant mean of outlining the present and foreseeing the future (Palestinian Arabic Curriculum, Ministry of Education, 2000). Again, imbuing cultural and traditional heritage contributes in building bonds among Palestinian learners as a unified society, and among Arabs in general.

Palestinian study textbooks enhance the previously mentioned goals by offering several literary texts and themes. These texts do not merely outline

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pragmatic features of Arabic language; they rather convey cultural, spiritual, and social themes to be adapted by learners. Such themes strengthen the pride of Palestine as a homeland, its people, civilization and history, and emphasize that it is an integral part of the Arab world and the Islamic community (Palestinian Arabic Curriculum, Ministry of Education, 2000).

Disregarding identity matters vs. constructing national identity The Palestinian curriculum suggests that constructing a national identity is correlated to absorbing a correct classical modern Arabic and treasuring it as a national language. Studies regarding nationalism indicate that literature and cultural works play a significant role in forming a national identity as well as building an independent nation. Escobedo (2009) argues that literature is chiefly valuable because it represents particular people in a particular place embodying their own beliefs, history, and culture. A fully independent nationhood requires not only military and political independence, but also cultural independence, which can be clearly presented in national literature works. Undoubtedly, national literature is considered an essential requirement to maintain a status in the international arena, in addition, it helps to create identities in new nations, to affirm identities in nations under attack, and to reinterpret and revise national identities in the face of conflict and change ( P. 214).

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Both the Palestinian curriculum and study textbooks contribute to realizing the importance of forming a cohesive national identity through literature works. Yet, despite the fact that the exact term of national identity is not stated in the objectives expressively, still, it can be pursued in conceptions like features of the nation and its unity, being proud of Palestine, Palestinian Arab, Palestine State, positive interaction with the community, good citizenship spirit, etc (Palestinian Arabic Curriculum, 2004). In other words, learning Arabic as a mother tongue, especially modern literature, contributes to the fact that Arabic is a national language that features Palestines unity and unifies it inhabitants under one roof that characterizes all Palestinian people. Religious identity plays a vital role in constructing the learners general identity and perceptions, as well in the Palestinian curriculum. The first objective underlines the importance of strengthening. It accentuates belief in God, and to consolidate the pride of Islam as a religion and as a way of life, as the Quran and the Hadith Sharif (the sayings of the prophet) two main resources for improving Arabic language, and enhancing the relationship between Arabism and Islam (Palestinian Arabic Curriculum, Ministry of Education, 2000). However, it is noticed that Christianity is not mentioned at all in the curriculum objectives which shows that the Christian community is absent from the Islamic identity and even from the common national Arab identity.

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Conversely, the Israeli-Arab curriculum and literary pieces avoid contents that are related to nationality or identity. Arabic is pragmatically taught, centralizing linguistic patterns instead. Both the curriculum objectives and the Arabic literary texts that are taught present practical tools for correct speaking and writing, as well as expanding the learners ability to enrich their vocabulary to express themselves properly. That is to say that Israeli Arab students are taught about the language more than learning the language itself. This suggests opposition to the significance of pride of mother tongue and its importance in constructing ones identity and personality.

Politically free themes vs. politically inspired themes The Israeli-Arab curriculum is characterized by the wide variety of literary pieces to be taught. The interviewed teachers substantiated this fact stating that the current curriculum offers a window of opportunity for both the teacher and the learner to sense different literary styles and trends. These various genres enable the students to develop their ability to think critically and scientifically, to search out information and to criticize written literary works. The included texts encourage authenticity and creativity among learners. They promote the recognition of distinguished human civilizations and the connection between the learners and the various works of art to be embraced.

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The current curriculum does not only attempt to be as creative and innovative as possible by introducing genuine literary masterpieces, these works also convey human and cultural values to be identified and armed with. There are many texts outlining the importance of respect, loyalty, friendship, family ties, education, love and so forth. Students are expected to adopt such virtues and values to improve their lives and surroundings. They experience practical tools to form their personalities, be active residents and become helpful for their communities. According to the interviewees, this is no less important than the taught literary tools and techniques; they assume that these universal values ultimately will help the society soar and improve its deficiencies.

The Palestinian curriculum, on the other hand, is rather politically inspired. It is written to guarantee unity among Palestinians who have suffered for decades from the absence of a local unified curriculum. Thus, there has been an urgent need to plan a curriculum which meets the requirements and the demands of the newly independent state to show unity and control over their own issues.

Taking pride in Palestine and protecting it, being an indispensable part of the Arab World, and being an effective citizen are phrases mentioned in the objectives of the curriculum among plenty of utterances which indicate the importance of learning Arabic as a unifying national language. Pertaining to one of these objectives, students are encouraged to embrace the idea that classical Arabic is a national language since it is a significant tool in forming

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and featuring the nation and it is a sign of its unity (Palestinian Arabic Curriculum, Ministry of Education, 2000).

Study textbooks, as well, take part in imbuing political themes among Palestinian learners. For instance, there is a special unit in the 12 th grade textbook titled Modern Palestinian Poetry which includes two sections that deal with Al-Nakba Cataclysm Poetry and Resistance Poetry. Both sections introduce the tragedies of the Palestinian people accompanied by the independence of the Israeli State in 1948 narrated according to the Palestinian poets point of view. For example, in the Poem named Al-Mosharad the Homeless- the poet Abed Al-Karim Al-Karmi reflexes the reality of Palestinians after 1948 by noting their suffering of displacement, evacuation and expulsion from their own places of living. He demands them to resist, fight, rebel and sacrifice themselves like candles which burn to light the path of the rest of their people. In the same manner, Ahmad Dahbour in his poem Hekayat Al-Walad Al-Falastini the Tale of the Palestinian Boy- he embodies the struggle of Palestinian people against occupation and colonialism and narrates the different stages the Palestinian issue has gone through such as loss of land, displacement of people, and all forms of persistent and continuous resistance against injustice and aggression. Accordingly, it is clearly noticed that the Palestinian Arabic curriculum strongly tends to infuse the learners with radical political issues to show that these issues are also indispensable part of the educational system.

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Arabic is a mean of communication vs. social and cultural cohesion

The objectives of the current Israeli-Arab Arabic curriculum firmly state the significance of Arabic as a mean of communication. Students are encouraged to learn Arabic literature in order to develop their abilities to use a vivid selection of vocabulary to express their feelings and thoughts without obstacles and all types of limitations. Equally important, they are expected to foster creative and functional skills of expression to present their own ideas, describe their feelings, give a speech, write a report, and to summarize clearly and correctly.

The interviewed teachers reported that using correct communication skills is crucial in learning a language; nevertheless, they claim that these skills cannot stand alone and they should be accompanied by social and national elements that build bonds between the language and its native speakers. As a result, they highly recommend replacing certain texts with other pieces that deal with cultural and national heritage to encourage the students to learn the language with more pleasure and efficacy.

The Palestinian Arabic Curriculum, on the other hand, seeks for social and cultural cohesion. In a numerous objectives terms like, forming and featuring the nation, a sign of unity, understanding social issues, building the society in various fields, good citizenship, cooperation, tolerance and so forth, are mentioned to emphasize the importance of such a standard. This

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cultural and social cohesion, according to one of the participants, leads not only to unity but also strength to resist all kinds of occupation Palestinian people go through.

Analyzing the text the Race of Vultures and Eagles (10 th grade textbook) provides a good example of imbuing such previously mentioned values. This text is a symbolic short story narrated by birds and it is based on the idea of deepening national awareness. It aims to stimulate unity, cooperation, high spirits, and self-confidence as means of existence and struggling against persecution which consequently induces victory and liberty. The text also sheds light on the importance of having wise leaders and counselors who encourage their people to be more optimistic and productive. They strive to ingrain their people with national and social virtues like devoting their body and soul for the sake of their nation so that they can win the battle against occupation.

To summarize, the Palestinian curriculum is rather politically inspired and attempts to engrave national and social values to create bonds among Palestinians, whereas, the Israeli-Arab curriculum aims to provide the learners with a variety of texts from different schools of art and styles to develop their mean of communication, such as personal social interaction and cultural expression. It is claimed by some participants that the curriculum inherently lacks the capacity to serve as an instrument of social and national symbol.

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DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

Overview:

In this final chapter, firstly, I will go over the key findings of this study by discussing them in light of the theoretical framework presented in the literature review. In the following section, I will present the limitations of the study. Then, I will present recommendations based on the findings and suggestions for further research. Finally, I will provide a conclusion based on the results and their analysis.

The primary aim of this study is to investigate language education policy expressed in both textbooks and the curricula of Arabic literature of high schools in the Israeli-Arab sector and the Palestinian Authority, focusing on how it shapes the learners identity. The study also provides an analysis of language patterns that convey nationalist themes explicitly or implicitly expressed.

In order to provide answers, elaborations and interpretations for the objectives of the study, the following questions were formulated:
11. What are the characteristics of language education policy (objectives,

contents, the structure of the instruction material, dedicated hours of instruction, and so forth) as presented in the high school Arabic

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language curriculum and current study books in Israeli- Arab and Palestinian Authority schools? Why were these characteristics chosen?

12. What are the chief principles that underline this language education

policy and why were these principles chosen?

13. What are the national values presented in the curricula and study books? How are they emphasized and why?

14. How is identity of the learner presented in the curriculum and study

books?

15. Which sub-identity is more accentuated? How is it ingrained and why?

Methodologically, the study follows two methods of data collection, which yields a wealth of information. Data has been collected by means of content analysis of documents and semi-structured interviews. The data from both approaches were captured and encoded into categories which were then consolidated into thematic constructs.

The findings of the study reveal that two different language education policies are implemented in both Israel and the Palestinian authority. Each policy is distinguished by certain characteristics which make it suitable to the conditions

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and circumstances these states live under. Ultimately, these language education policies lead to constructing a different identity of their learners. The following section will discuss these findings explicitly in the light of the theoretical framework presented in the literature review. However, it is worthwhile to note that other theoretical frameworks, which are not included in the first chapter of this study, will be utilized as well. This is due to the fact that, when the findings were crystallized, many themes emerged and many were not included in the theoretical background. Additionally, there are no previous studies pertaining to language policy in general or language education policy in particular conducted in the Palestinian Authority. Hence, the current study is considered a pilot in reporting and documenting the general features of the Palestinian language policy.

The discussion chapter will deal with the following broad themes that provide analysis and explanations for the study findings. Within these broad themes, more specific concepts will be discussed as well. These themes are: 1. The characteristics and the chief principals of language education policy in Israel and the Palestinian Authority as reflected in the curriculum and study books
2. The chief principals that outline language education policy in Israel and

the Palestinian Authority

3. Language policy as a mechanism for constructing identity

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1. The characteristics and the chief principals of language education

policy in Israel and the Palestinian Authority as reflected in the curriculum and study books

The results that emerged from analyzing documents and interviews expressively reveal the importance of applying certain language behaviors for both the Israeli-Arab and the Palestinian educational system. Both systems strive to imbue certain ideologies in their learners. McGroarty (2002)

convincingly argues that language education policy is considered an essential instrument to implement or execute certain language behaviors in any educational institution.

In order to understand language education policy implemented in both states, I will present the primarily principles and characteristics that underline language education policy of each state. Then, I will provide a theoretical framework explanation why such principles have been chosen and implemented respectively.

1.1 The characteristics and the chief principals of language education policy

in Israel reflected in the curriculum and study books

One of the common patterns that emerged when analyzing the written documents and interviews evidently asserts that the Israeli-Arab curriculum

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underlines language skills and techniques. These linguistic skills are presented in various types of texts and genres from different schools of arts and eras. Still, both the objectives of the curriculum and the included literary pieces tend to teach about the language rather than teaching the language itself. Al-Haj (1995) claims that the primary goal of teaching Arabic as a mother tongue is to provide the learner with a tool of correct self- expression rather than engraving the appreciation of linguistic and national heritage.

Furthermore, the interviews revealed that the majority of the interviewed teachers complain about the fact that Arabic is taught as a tool of communication and expression. They protested that students learn Arabic only to function effectively and express themselves properly in their daily discourse.

Conversely, Berdichevsky (2004) remarks: Language is a tool of integration in the society we are a part of and is inextricably linked with a distinct national experience, literature, and culture. Therefore, although the English of America, Australia and Britain, the Spanish of Spain, Mexico and Argentina, and the French of France, Canada, and Haiti each share an enormous common historic origin, vocabulary and usage, they differ as a medium of discourse that is a system of communication between people who live within a national framework of laws, enjoy a sense of patriotism and history and share many of the same social experiences (p. 3). He explains that each variety of the previously mentioned languages reflects different societal, cultural, national,

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and historical experiences which are considered essential ingredients in the sense of nationhood.

It is evident from an examination of both curriculum and textbooks that they are deeply entrenched in traditional and social qualities. Learners are encouraged to adopt a vast number of social values, educational basics, and moral qualities. However, most of the interviewed teachers reported that both the curriculum and the textbooks do not mention or include Palestinian values that may arouse cultural and national awareness among the learners. Al-Haj (1995) remarks that learners receive a superficial exposure to carefully screened and censored Arabic values and culture. This can be attributed to the claim that the Israeli authorities labeled all marks of Palestinian national identity including literature as dangerous and a threat to state security (Muhawi & Suleiman, 2006).

The findings also indicate that although the curriculum objectives declare the importance of being proud of Arabic literature as a tool for conveying cultural appreciation, the selected literary pieces merely underline historical events and features. The majority of the respondents report that language should represent cultural themes as an integral part of national heritage. A closer review of literature in this field indicates that the specific curricular goals of the Arab educational system require students to learn about Jewish values and culture (Al-Haj, 1995; Amara & Mari, 2002).

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In accordance with the previously mentioned statement, Suleiman (2004) notes that language plays a central goal as it links the members of a speech community to each other in the present, as well as linking them to their cultural heritage and identity which is rooted in the past. Likewise, Kramsch (1998) claims that language presents cultural reality. She states: Speakers identify themselves and others through their use of language; they view their language as a symbol of their social identity. The prohibition of its use is often perceived by its speakers as a rejection of their social group and their culture (p. 3).

Another striking finding is that Arabic textbooks are devoid of national values. The selected literary texts mostly promote daily-life communication avoiding the fact that the Israeli-Arab learners need literature as a mean for molding their character and national identity. Similarly, Al-Haj (1996) argues that the included literary texts do not reflect the national spirit asserted in the curriculum objectives.

Additionally, the findings show that the selected literary texts do not match the aspirations and the needs of Arab learners in Israel. Amara & Mari (2002) firmly state that Israeli-Arab learners are largely exposed to classical texts, which are completely distant from their world of interests and needs, instead of learning more modern literary pieces that are more connected to their own reality. Most of the respondents confirm that a number of literary pieces should be replaced with modern prose that is derived from different genres and schools

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of art to furnish the learners with tools of creativity and authenticity to accommodate their orientations and aspirations as Arabs living in Israel.

In essence, language education policy reflected in the Israeli-Arab high school Arabic curriculum is characterized by conveying language skills and techniques. It underlines language as a vehicle for communication and selfexpression rather than a tool for national unity and maintaining cultural heritage and continuity. In addition, although the curriculum provides a large number of various literary works of different trends and styles that promote creativity, critical reading and thinking, and writing skills, still some of its aspects suffer from deficiencies and gaps. These texts do not reflect the IsraeliArabs world of interests and aspirations.

1.2 The characteristics and the chief principals of language education policy

in the Palestinian Authority reflected in the curriculum and study books

One of the most accentuated principles of language education policy in the Palestinian curriculum and textbooks is imbuing national and social values. These values are repeatedly mentioned in a significant number of literary works to underline their importance in building healthy national ties among Palestinians. The interviewees believe that the mother tongue has a symbolic value in building a healthy nation and conserving the coherence and harmony of the national group.

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Salomone (2010) points out: Language is a mechanism of intra-group communication and representation. A shared language and the way it is used reflect shared patterns of thinking, including values, attitudes, and prejudices, and of behaving. It links the individuals to the past and to each other through literary forms, oral traditions, history, myths, and rituals, anchoring their identities in a common linguistic culture (P. 71).

The results of the study also note that the Palestinian curriculum and textbooks cherish the importance of engraving Palestinian cultural heritage. The respondents strongly believe in the importance of ingraining their students with an appreciation and pride of Arabic as a valuable heritage. According to the First Palestinian Curriculum Plan (1998), The Palestinian cultural heritage has played a vital role in preserving the Palestinian identity. Bringing tradition into life does not mean using it as seclusion or a shelter, on the contrary, it means providing the young people with principles of understanding their own limits and to what extent they can participate in international culture (p.14).

The results emerged from analyzing both textbooks and curriculum reveal the fact that language and Islamic religion have historically been among the major symbols of group identity. They both provide a motivating power for constructing a national unity. Burckhardt (2009) and Suleiman (2004) ascribe the privilege Arabic language has received through prolonged centuries to the

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fact that the Quran is written in Arabic. Ultimately, this has added glory and uniqueness to the language among Arabs and Muslims.

Notably, El-Najar (2001) and Esposito (1998) suggest that Islam and Arab nationalism are intimately linked. They argue that Arab history, language, cultural heritage, pride and identity are fully connected to Islam which provides unity, strength and prosperity to Muslims who take their inspiration from the Quran. Similarly, Baker (2006) suggests that religion is a fundamentally important tool to maintain a language. He argues that the use of classical Arabic in Islam can strongly contribute ito preserving a language just as other religions, such as Judaism and Protestant Old Order Amish in Pennsylvania, which also use religion for the same purpose. Esposito (1998), on the other hand, argues that Arabic language is the most significant component, among other components like shared history and culture, to imbue and promote nationalism. He argues that language provides essential national ties that both history and religion can support and empower eventually.

Most striking, the results point out that modern Palestinian literature, Al-Nakba catastrophe and Al-Mokawama resistance literature, plays a vital role in imbuing national and political themes for the Palestinian learners. A noticeable number of literary works have been included to express the agony and tragedies of Palestinian people narrated according to the point of view of Palestinian

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poets and authors. The chief content of such works demand struggle, rebellion, fight, devotion, and resistance to all kind of oppression and occupation.

According to Elad (1999), the modern Palestinian literature, mainly that which addresses the Intifada resistance, frames Palestine as a unified patriotic entity. It strives to espouse national and personal values. He argues that this style of writing is mainly mobilized for national causes. Masoud (2009) convincingly argues that the literature of resistance portrays the issues of ethnicity and identity and rejects any attempts to romanticize the glory and the tradition of the past. He indicates that the Palestinian literature of resistance is characterized by its commitment to current issues and its rejection of Palestinian identity denial.

Generally speaking, language education policy in the Palestinian educational system is clearly characterized by adopting social, national, and political themes. The Palestinian Arabic literature curriculum strives to engrave social values to build tight bonds among its residents. The study textbooks represent literary pieces of various genres and trends. It is argued that national awareness thrives due to the contributions of literature, mainly the modern Palestinian literary pieces. Classical literature is taught to underline the matter of cultural heritage and religious values and identity. It aims to raise the learners pride in their culture and nationality.

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2. The chief principles that outline language education policy in Israel and the Palestinian Authority

In order to have a better understanding of these results, one should provide deeper insights into the reason why such principles of language education policy were chosen. The following themes attempt to shed light on and explain the reasons that stand behind choosing such principles in both educational systems.

2.1 The chief principals that outline language education policy: The Israeli-

Arab case

Clankie (2000) presents two approaches to implementing language policy: topdown and bottom-up. In the top-down form of policy, the government is the responsible party for conducting and executing language policy. It forms it, funds it, and monitors it, with or without the approval of its citizens. This form is essentially implemented in situations where the language is endangered or when stressing a national language while neglecting others. The bottom-up approach, on the other hand, is community-based. In other words, the speaking community of a given language is the one who determine all the aspects of language planning rather than the government. It is responsible for planning and implementing the language policy in the state with or without the support of the government. This form of policy can be traced in multilingual areas

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where the government is responsible for more than 100 different languages or more.

Referring to the Israeli case, the top-down approch is implemented. Language policy is formed and introduced by the government representing a variety of ideologies (Shohamy, 2006). On a similar note, language education policy in the Arab sector of Israel is formulated and monitored under the supervision and responsibility of the Ministry of Education. It is essentially responsible for planning the curricula, the number of hours assigned to language instruction, hiring of teachers, and the approval of textbooks (Amara, 2001; Amara & Mari, 2002).

As a point of departure, since a noticeable number of governments choose their own language policy as an arm to represent their ideologies of shaping populations, it is important to reveal the factors that determine the fundamentals of language education policy in the Arab sector in Israel. The represented factors bellow attempt to give an explicit answer to why such principles of language education policy are formed and implemented.

2.1.1 Israeli-Arabs as an ethnic minority

Minority groups can be defined in several ways by religion, language use, ethnic background, gender, region, socioeconomic status, educational

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attainment, lifestyle and so forth. A population can be labeled as a minority if it occupies inferior forms of power positions related to another population in the same society; yet, minority status does not have to imply numerical inferiority (Iram, 2003). Baker & Sienkewicz (2000) provide another definition for the term minority. They point out that: minority can carry an additional meaning when used by sociolinguists. In one sense minority evokes images of disadvantage, underprivilege, oppression, discrimination and exploitation. It carries a stereotype, a label or prejudice, that diversity and difference translate as less worthwhile, with a diminished future (pp. 53-54).

Regarding the Arab population in Israel, it is considered a unique minority ethnic group among other national and ethnic minorities in the world. This is due to the fact that it is a minority within a state that is also considered a tiny minority in the Middle East since it is surrounded by Arab-Muslim states (Reiter, 2009).

Review of literature indicates that language education policy of the Arab community in Israel is evidently affected by Zionist ideology. The Israeli state strives to create and maintain a unified language and identity. Amara & Mari (2002) assume that the revival of Hebrew language played a significant role in molding the new Jewish identity, which refused to allow Arabic to be inside the hegemony. Similarly, Shohamy (2006) asserts that the situation of language policy in Israel is equivalent to that in nation-states. She remarks: In Israel, as

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in other countries, there is a still continuous policy and practice of using language in service of ideology and creating situations of us and them. Language is therefore still used as a means of creating Jewish Israeli identity and the Hebrew language continues to be used as an ideological tool that perpetuates different identities including negative attitudes to other languages as they are being viewed as threatening to the existence of the nation-state (p. 77). In this respect, Arabic is conceived as a threat to the dominance of Hebrew language which symbolizes the Zionist ideology as a Hebrew state. Undoubtedly, this led to marginalizing Arabic language and underestimating its status.

2.1.2 Arabic status in Israel

The status of Arabic language in Israel can be considered an influential factor that portrayed language education policy of the Israeli-Arab community, as well. The inferior status that Arabic language gained through decades has firmly contributed to institutionalized discrimination against it and ultimately affected its language policy and planning.

Arabic language is a controversial issue in Israel. It is the second recognized official language, yet it noticeably plays a secondary role due to political circumstances. The establishment of Israel in 1948 decisively changed the balance between Arabic and Hebrew in favor of Hebrew. Since then, Hebrew

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plays a practically significant role in the Israeli state. It is the language of the majority and the language of Israeli civic life. It is the language of higher education, bureaucracy, electronic media, labor market, and other vital domains (Saban & Amara 2002; Suleiman, 2004; Zouhir, 2008).

A closer review of theoretical framework reveals a set of factors that bluntly influence the inferiority of Arabic status. Saban & Amara (2002) convincingly argue that Israeli law fails to form an official bilingualism that would put Arabic in an equivalent status with Hebrew, though the Israeli law maintains rights to Arabic as an official language. They also argue that other factors like the economic dependence of the Arab minority on the Hebrew majority in the labor market, cultural hegemony, and almost exclusive use of Hebrew in government offices have strongly contributed to weakening Arabic status in the Israeli state.

Additionally, Amara (2006) attributes the low status of Arabic to the educational system in Israel. He argues that although Arabic is used in the school system of the Arab sector as a language of instruction, it is not used in higher education except in three institutions for teacher training. The IsraeliArab students are obliged to study at Israeli universities in Hebrew.

Political factors accorded to Arabic status are considered as well. Spolsky and Shohamy (1999) argue that while Israeli Arabs are required to study Hebrew at

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schools in the third grade, very few Israeli Jews study Arabic or speak the language fluently. Weissbord (2008), correlates this fact by explaining that the Israeli state views itself as part of the Western world and has aversion to Arabic caused by the Israeli-Palestinian conflict and enmity between Israel and parts of the Arab world (p.53). Additionally, Hajjar (2005), remarks to speak Arabic in Israel is to mark oneself as an outsider of the Jewish state (p. 133). This evidently results in marginalizing the Arab community in Israel as well as its ethnic language which naturally has significant effects in the language education sphere.

Examining language status of minorities in multilingual countries, especially Europe, reveals almost the same results. To illustrate, tracing the history of European nation-states shows that the formation of such states went along with forcing a linguistic homogeneity upon all citizens. As a result, the smaller speech communities turned to be ethnic minorities who were obliged to be bilingual groups to communicate in state-controlled domains such as administration, education, and other services (Schjerve, 2003). The writer argues that an asymmetrical relationship between socio-linguistically dominant majorities and their subordinate minorities results in varying statusascriptions to the languages (high vs. low ranking) and, consequently, in varying degrees of their functional stability (p.235). Therefore, low language status communicates limited and inferior language use which eventually leads to language shift and change.

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2.1.3

The features of the educational system policy in the Israeli-Arab sector

Educational institutions in general and literacy education in particular play a central role in promoting ideological dominance in different societies (Shohamy, 2006). The fundamental purpose of education is to socialize learners for particular life roles, not just on the level of policy and planning but through differential content and process of educational interactions (Auerbach, 2000).

The Arab education system in Israel is fully separated from the Jewish system, which grants a collective right by the state to the Arab citizens. Yet, on a deeper level, examining the realistic situation of the Arab educational system implies that it is used as tool of control to implement ideologies supervised by the Israel General Security Service. The Jewish majority sponsors and holds the senior functions in the Ministry of Education. They are responsible for assigning, dictating and implementing the contents and the pedagogic and didactic concepts of the educational policy (Abu-Saad, 2008). Recently, a few Arabs have been assigned major roles in the Arab education system, still, they are able merely to implement policies already determined by the Israeli authorities (Jamal, 2009).

Examination of the contents and concepts of the Arab education system demonstrates that the main goal of the Israeli education in the Arab sector is to
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make it void of national themes and contents (Amara, 2001; Abu-Saad, 2008). The Israeli Ministry of Education strives to imbue ideological and pedagogical conceptions by sustaining an alternate Arab Israeli identity separated from its cultural, historical, and national past. It emphasizes the uniqueness of the Israeli-Arabs as a community which is different from the rest of the Palestinian people (Jamal, 2009). It also aims to create submissive Arabs who accept their inferiority against the superiority of the Jews, which eventually results in weakening the Arab Palestinian identity (Abu-Saad, 2006).

Yet, Caspi & Weltsch (1998) indirectly provide an explanation for implementing such an educational policy by adhering to the belief that the Israeli ideology of education is influenced by the European Jews who established the state. They have implemented their European Jewish value, political, sociological, and education system to the construction of the state and its culture (P.27).

To sum up, the Israeli primary goals of education in general and in the Arab sector in particular aspire to entrench the Jewish identity, culture and ideology. The perception of Israel as a Jewish state is clearly applied in the Arab education systems through school textbooks and curricula. Examining the literature in this field shows that the Israeli policy aims to avoid national contents and components. Instead, it provides the learners with an alternative national conception as Israeli-Arabs separated from other Palestinian people.

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2.2 The chief principals that outline language education policy: The

Palestinian case

In order to understand the factors that affect and determine language education policy in the Palestinian Authority, one should note that there are certain ongoing political conditions that tremendously influenced the Palestinian educational background for years. In the mid 1990s, Palestinians, for the first time in the history, were in a position to control their own education system. Therefore, it was necessary to formulate their own ideology, philosophy, and objectives based on their aspirations and needs (Haidar, 2006).

Unlike Israel, Palestine is a monolingual state with almost unremarkable minorities. On the national level, Arabic is the sole official language and it plays a vital role in all private, public, and governmental institutions. Hence, language education policy in Palestine is closely linked with nation-building conceptions, national identity and nationalism. The educational system aspires to engrave national components to enhance the citizens feeling of belonging, loyalty, and shared culture and history.

Spolsky & Shohamy (2000) note that language policy can be recognized in lucid statements in official documents such as, national constitution, a language law, a cabinet document, or any administrative regulation. Examining the Palestinian official documents demonstrates that language policy can be clearly

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traced in the Constitution of the State of Palestine. Article (5) states that Arabic is the official language in Palestine (Constitution of the State of Palestine, 2003). Another striking example can be found in the First Palestinian Curriculum Plan (1998). It states: the Palestinian people are part of the Arab nation and Palestine is also part of the Arab Homeland. As a result, commitment to using the Arabic language as a means of communication and transmitting thoughts remains a basic principle of the Palestinian curriculum and encouraging students to use it with full competence in speaking, reading and writing (p.15). These are clear-cut statements that exemplify language policy in Palestine.

The factors discussed below strive to portray and explain the perceptions and features of language education policy in the Palestinian Authority. It is important to note that the results of the study fundamentally indicate that the Palestinian education system attempts to imbue Palestinization ideology. Thus, as a starting point, the policy of education in Palestine will be discussed to give a candid proof for such an assumption.

2.2.1

The policy of Education in Palestine

Education has been viewed as a mean of empowerment within the Palestinian community and has played a significant role since 1948. Palestinians highly

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appreciate education as a major tool for developing their identity and independence. Hence, Ministry of Education was one of the four ministries to be established (Adwan, 2006).

Yet, it is important to note that the Palestinian education system has never been independent. It has been controlled by several rulers who have represented different cultures and nationalities (Adwan, 2006). The education system was run principally by the UNRWA, the private sector, and by successive Egyptian, Jordanian, and Palestinian authorities (Asaad, 2000; Mazawi, 2000; Rihan, 2001). As result, after the Oslo negotiations, there was an urgent need to unify the apartheid education system in Palestine and create a unified Palestinian curriculum that conveys the states aspirations and ideology.

Examining both the curriculum and textbooks illustrate that the Palestinian education system is firmly influenced by politics. Historically, education and politics are intimately connected and cannot be separated. Education cannot be perceived as a neutral act since it is always affected by politics. The legislators who formulate education policies have certain ideologies in mind and they try to preserve them. Educational institutions of various forms are regarded as fundamental common ground for molding and maintaining ideologies, national values, culture, language, collective and individual identity, and common priorities (Christina, 2006; Fiske, 1996). In the Palestinian case, the educational system is utilized as a significant tool towards developing a nation-building

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scheme. The newly constructed educational ideology ultimately strives to embed collective national values and identity.

The Palestinian Declaration of Independence document is considered the essential reference for the educational vision (Asaad, 2000). Examining the document provides deeper insights into the importance of national values, heritage, civilization, unity among other Arab states, and above all, national and cultural identity. The following statements constitute the philosophy of Palestinian education system: the Palestinian Arab people forged its national identity; the state is for them to enjoy in it their collective national and cultural identity; the State of Palestine is an Arab state, an integral and indivisible part of the Arab nation, at one with that nation in heritage and civilization, with it also in its aspiration for liberation, progress, democracy and unity. These statements are evidence that identity is important issue in the Palestinian educational vision.

All together, education is a chief agent for imbuing national and cultural ideologies, as well as identity among Palestinians. It has received a special significance in the newly constructed state since it is an integral part in the nation-building project. In addition, it is considered an empowerment tool granting an independent Palestinian character with full awareness of democratic and national values and collective identity.

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2.2.2 Curriculum planning and ideology

The Palestinian Curriculum Development Center published the first Palestinian curriculum plan in 1998. It identifies four foundations that primarily construct the Palestinian curricula in general. These foundations are: intellectual and national foundation, social foundation, cognitive foundation, and psychological foundation. According to the Palestinian Curriculum Plan, that the Palestinian texts are particularly based on the Palestinian heritage, values, Islamic religion, the Declaration of Independence document, and educational, psychological and social theories (Adwan, 2006; Pina, 2005; Rihan 2001).

The results that emerged from analyzing the Palestinian Arabic curriculum, clearly demonstrates the reflection of national ideology in its objectives. It highlights the need to preserve a national Palestinian identity, in addition, to take pride in the Islamic heritage in general and the Palestinian heritage in particular. It stresses Palestinian history, culture, democratic themes, and national values. It encourages active citizenship and full participation of individuals in public life.

Reviewing the literature in this field indicates that there is a tight relationship between curriculum and ideology. Ideology is considered a key concept in understanding curriculum. Ideology is a set of actions, representations, culture, values, and ideas that constitute the standards influencing social relationships

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among people. Ideology, generally, is in the hands of the dominant group who strives to affirm and maintain social and political values. Curriculum, on the other hand, is the vehicle that conveys such an ideology to attain cultural reproduction. It mainly functions to privilege a certain set of knowledge over others (Apple, 2004; Kaplan, 2004; Lambert, 2004).

It is extremely interesting to note that the First Palestinian Curriculum Plan was established and constructed by a group of progressive educators and intellectuals from distinguished educational institutions and associations. The First Palestinian Curriculum Plan was written under the guidance and

supervision of Professor Ibrahim Abu Lughud, a Palestinian political scientist and educator who taught in the United States and accompanied the PLO from the very beginning (Asaad, 2000; Pina, 2005). Another participating member is Nabil Shath, an active negotiator in the Palestinian authority and the sponsor of general education reform. Hence, undoubtedly, the curriculum plan is

drastically influenced by the political and ideological visions and conceptions of this group of progressive intellectuals and educators who were politically active.

According to Abu Lughud (1996) the chief principle of writing the First Curriculum Plan was to develop a unique Palestinian curriculum that will unite the Palestinian people around the goal of reconstruction of the Palestinian people (P. 63). Brown (2003) argues that the First Curriculum Plan strives to

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construct national themes and identity concentrating on ideal citizenship and democracy.

It is obvious that there was an urgent need to unify Palestinians around one educational system and curriculum. The educational system was not their own for years. Palestinian students had to adapt themselves to two separated systems, the Jordanian in the West bank and the Egyptian in Gaza Strip. Therefore, their own identity and culture were neglected for years; additionally, they were obliged to learn about others rather than themselves (Adwan, 2006; Brown, 2001; Haidar, 2006).

The core principles of the First Palestinian Curriculum Plan are clearly mirrored in the Arabic literature curriculum. The findings present the fact that learners are encouraged to learn about their own traditions, history, culture, and values. Many texts stress, explicitly and implicitly, the uniqueness of the Palestinian people and their own affairs. They certainly attempt to imbue national and cultural values underlining the Palestinian national identity. According to Abu Lughud (1996), the curriculum is guided by the identity, originality and uniqueness of the Palestinian people and the Palestinian curriculum must translate all these into something tangible and realistic (p. 61).

2.2.3

Language as a mechanism of national ideology

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Arabic language is considered an essential mechanism of imbuing national ideology in Palestine. Reviewing the Declaration of Independence document provides evidence that Arabic is given a special value since it is the language of Islam; besides, it is viewed as a vehicle that unifies Palestine with other Arab states in general, and Palestinian people to their homeland in particular.

According to Suleiman (2004), the central goal of a language is not only to link the members of a speech community to each other in the present; it also links the speakers to their cultural heritage and identity which is rooted in the past. Shohamy (2006) ascribes language to a symbol of political and national identity, as well as belonging. She remarks that language has turned into an oppressive political major tool for controlling the social order of a nation and the lives of individuals and groups attempting to create unified and homogenous ideologies and attitudes. As for Palestinian people, the findings show that Arabic is the language of their national culture, history, and periods of historical glory. It conveys their reality, as well as their aspirations and conceptions.

Since language is considered as an important tool for socializing the individual and the collective in general (Amara & Mari, 2002), the Palestinian Arabic literature and curriculum literary pieces present various values that can be categorized into four groups. The first group underlines religious values as a

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reference for enhancing Arabism and Islam through a correct use and performance of Arabic language. The second group presents national values as an integral part in nation-building project. Palestinians are encouraged to foster values like cooperation, democracy, proper citizenship spirit, keeping rights, and respecting authorities. The third group mainly stresses universal values like respect, tolerance, justice, voluntary work, equality, and rejecting

discrimination. The forth group represents cultural values as a tool to strengthen the pride in Palestinian people, history, and traditions. These groups of values portray language education policy and the broad national ideology in Palestine.

The findings also indicate that modern Palestinian literature conveys a national ideology in different spheres. It mainly aims to Palestinize the learners by imbuing national themes which emphasize the Al-Nakba catastrophe and AlMokawama resistance as fundamental components of their own national and cultural identity. Accordingly, these themes make the people of Palestine different from any other state or people. They are regarded as their source of uniqueness. Modern Palestinian literature presents different genre of literature with a distinguished trend and style, such as symbolism and the structure and language in poetry and prose (Masoud, 2009).

To summarize, people use language in order to demonstrate inclusion or exclusion, to determine loyalty or patriotism, and to show classification of

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people and personal identities (Norton & Toohey, 2005; Shohamy, 2006). Arabic language in Palestine is correlated with nationality, religion, and identity. It conveys the speakers values, norms, and aspirations. It is a symbol of unity and hegemony among its speakers in the Arab world in general and Palestine in particular. In addition, it contributes to the maintaining of their own national and cultural identity. It is considered a valuable component of their civilization and heritage.

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3. Language policy as a mechanism for constructing identity

Examining the literature regarding language policy and identity demonstrates the distinguished role language policy plays in constructing ethnic, national, and cultural identity (Blommaert, 2006; Schmidt, 2000; Tollefson & Tsui, 2007). Language is frequently viewed as a representative of the authenticity of ones group and it can be used as a marker to distinguish oneself from others. The speakers identify with their companions who speak the same mother tongue and strive to maintain such identification. As a result, the use of a language affects the construction of group identity and the latter affects certain patterns of language use and attitudes (Liebkind, 2010).

The findings of the current study reveal that language policy pertaining to identity formulation in the Israeli-Arab sector and Palestine are considerably different. This difference basically resulted from the fact that both states undergo different political situations. Israel, a multilingual nation-state, utilizes language education policy as a vehicle for maintaining a unified hegemony, while the other views language as a marker of national cohesion and a significant part in the nation-building project. The findings, additionally, indicate that the perception of identity contained in the Arabic literature curriculum in both states is different,. Below I will present the perception of

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identity in each state separately, identifying and describing the factors and the grounds prompting such perception.

3.1 Reflection of identity in the Arabic literature curriculum of IsraeliArabs

The findings of the study show that language policy in Israel marginalizes the identity of the Arab community speakers. Althoug, the first objective of the curriculum states the importance of learning Arabic as a national language demonstrating an important element of the learners personality, the textbooks are totally void of national values indicating identity. The selected literary pieces discuss various issues and matters presenting general themes, yet, they do not contain works written by Palestinian writers discussing Palestinian affairs that may arouse the awareness of national and ethnic identity. Most of the included works, specifically in the modern literature, are written by Egyptian authors presenting Egyptian culture and traditions. The findings show that the selected Palestinian works discuss universal themes rather than national issues concerning the Arab community in Israel.

The educational policymakers in Israel utilize education system in the Arab sector as an important mechanism of control (Abu-Asbih, 2009; Abu-Saad, 2008; Al-Haj, 2003). Abu-Saad argues that Arab education tends to blur rather than enhance the formation of their identity as members of an indigenous

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national community. Palestinian identity is treated as something at best irrelevant and at worst, antithetical, to the overriding goals and aims of the Zionist educational project (pp. 21-22). Al-Haj (2006) ascribes imbuing the states ideology and flushing out national contents from Arab education to security consideration (p. 216). The Arab education system in Israel seeks to strengthen the feeling of loyalty towards the state which eventually leads to maintaining social order and stability.

The absence of identity in the Arabic literature curriculum and textbooks can be attributed to the complicated situation of identity among Arabs in Israel. The identity of Israeli-Arabs is constructed of two major components: the civil component, which refers to the status of Arab minority as Israeli citizens, and the national component which emphasizes the fact that they pertain to the Arab world in general and the Palestinian nation in particular (Al-Haj, 2000). AbuAsbih (2009) refers to the fear of dealing with the issue of identity as belonging to the ongoing debate between the state and the society as they represent different positions. The state signifies the political position while the society represents the cultural and socioeconomic situation. The conflict between the state and the society regarding the definition of the Israeli-Arab education system, which is considered a major component of constructing identity, is still not addressed. Nevertheless, the state utilizes its power, dominance, and ideologies to create a hegemonic society which is favorable to it alone. It uses the educational institutions as an agent for implementing its power mainly

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among youth who are considered the basis element of any future society. Undoubtedly, constructing youths identity is equal to constructing the societys identity as a whole.

The current reality of the Arab community in Israel concerning language as a marker of identity and national symbol is not far from any other ethnic groups in the world. India, for instance, is a multiethnic state with hundreds of minority languages are spoken, still Hindi is the sole official national language, marginalizing other minority languages, specially Urdu which is widely spoken by the majority of Muslims in India. Although Urdu was deleted from the article of the constitution that sets the official languages of the Indian Union due to political circumstances, it is still taught in Muslim educational institutions and partially used in written media. However, in spite of the continuous attempts to promote the declining status of Urdu, the Indian government has bluntly declared that it does not play a major role in the national identity of India. Equally, although Arabic is recognized as an official language in Israel, it does not contribute any significant part in the Israeli national identity (Harel-Shalev, 2005). Therefore, it is important to note that marginalizing minority language as a marker of the collective national identity is correlated with various political legislations that consequently affect the broad language policy of the state.

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Interestingly, Rubinstein & Yakobson (2010) argue that Israel is distinguished from any other nation-states that have national minorities in that the name of the state refers to the name of the majority people and their language. They stress that the states official national language is considered an essential distinctive feature of its national identity. As a result, a national minority defines its national identity using a different name from that which defines the identity of the state and, generally, its language is different from the states official language. Consequently, in the Israeli case, despite the historical and cultural connection between the name Israel and the Jewish people, the term Israeli refers to a civic identity rather then a national one. Thus, Israeli Arab citizens can call themselves Israelis without giving up their own national identity. By doing so they express their identification with the state and the civic connection, without adopting the national identity of the majority (p. 7).

To summarize, the link between language and national identity serves an important political agenda. It contributes to the creation of a unified and cohesive national cultural identity (Tollefson &Tsui, 2007). Conversely, the Israeli language education policy presented in the Arabic literature curriculum and textbooks clearly avoids national themes and marginalizes the ethnic identity of Israeli-Arabs. Examining the literature thoroughly provides deeper insights into the factors that influence such political choice. Most of these factors indicate that the identity of ethnic minorities, in the world in general, and in Israel in particular, is marginalized and, in the worst cases, suppressed to

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maintain a hegemonic national identity that serves to preserve the national order and stability.

3.2 Reflection of identity in the Arabic Literature curriculum of the Palestinian Authority

A major theme that has emerged from studying the selected written documents is that learning Arabic as a mother tongue is a tremendous force behind the construction, enhancement, expression, and maintenance of national cohesion and identity in Palestine. Language, which is seen as a communicative system varying from one population to another, is commonly accepted as an important symbol of group identity, stimulating a natural sense of solidarity and deliberately creating feelings of belonging to populations sharing certain language (Edwards, 2009; Liebkind, 2010).

Clearly Arabic language is central for the Arab states as a whole and Palestine, as a unique part of these states. This importance is derived not only from the fact that Arabic is the sacred language of the Holy Book, Quran; it is also a fundamental element that grounds the ideology of Pan Arab Nationalism which aims to cultivate a unified collective and national identity (Anderson, 2005; Suleiman, 2004;). Arabic language is essentially important in that it links Arabs to their culture and history. It takes the speakers into a journey of culture and traditions from the pre-Islamic era, to the glory and grace of the Abbasid era,

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and to the urgent need for reform in the modern period. Therefore, Arabic language and culture provides a signpost for national identity (Anderson, 2005). In the Palestinian context, therefore, Arabic language as a symbol that holds collective heritage, civilization, and identity is the chain that links Palestine with the other Arab states.

Shedding light on the findings of the study pertaining to identity, expressed in the Arabic literature curriculum and study books, indicate that constructing a unified collective identity positively contributes to the nation-building project. The findings stress that although the term identity is not mentioned explicitly in the Arabic literature curriculum, it can be pursued in several terms mentioned in the curriculum objectives that evidently express the importance of Arabic as a language of unity, solidarity, and national cohesion. On the other hand, tracing the term identity in the Declaration of Independence of Palestine, which is regarded the principal cornerstone of the Arabic Curriculum, illustrates the importance of national identity for guaranteeing national independence. In the same respect, the First Curriculum Plan submitted by the Ministry of Education emphasizes the significance of identity for people of Palestine using the following statement: The Palestinian curriculum must reflect the dimensions of the Palestinian identity and its special features. It should also reflect the Islamic affiliation, endeavor to achieve the unity of the Arab and Islamic worlds, work for its freedom, realize its independence, act constructively with other nations, and participate in the

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development of human ideas, and in humanitarian, political, economic, and cognitive issues (p.7). Obviously, the selected literary works intend to accentuate the Palestinian identity as a marker of unity and nationalism underlining the contribution of Palestinian cultural heritage in maintaining and protecting such identity.

The findings also point out that there is a repertoire of identities presented in the curriculum and study books. This repertoire indicates the distinctive subidentities that construct the Palestinian identity, and it contains four categories: social, national, religious, and universal. Among these categories, the national and the religious identities are the most accentuated respectively.

In order to understand the importance of fostering a national identity in the Palestinian society, we need to review the meaning of the term national identity. National identity can be defined as a collective sentiment based upon the belief of belonging to the same nation and of sharing most of the attributes that make it distinct from other nations. National identity is a modern phenomenon of fluid and dynamic nature. While consciousness of forming a nation may remain constant for long periods of time, the elements upon which such a feeling is based may vary (Berdn & Guibernau 2007, p. 11). National identity is also attributed to people who share common culture, kinship, language, history, territory, and religion (Berdn & Guibernau 2007; Kalpakian, 2004; Zimmerman, 2010). In accordance with the Palestinian

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context, bearing in mind the political circumstances that Palestine went through and is still undergoing to some extent, developing and fostering a national identity among young learners has become an integral part of the legislators broad ideology. In order to gain full dominance and authority over their homeland, and strengthen the link between Palestinian people and Palestine as their home state, Palestinians adopted nationalism as an inseparable feature of their national identity. Nationalism, according to Abu Lughud (1996), lends a great importance to the existing and constant fact that contributed a lot to the preservation of the Palestinian peoples identity in the periods of struggle for survival (p. 61).

The religious sub-identity, pan-Islamism, on the other hand, underlines religion as a unifying marker among the different Arab states that share Islam as their common religion and Arabic as their official language. The history of panIslamism goes back to the nineteenth century. This idea has contributed to political phenomena that underline the importance of solidarity and unity among Muslim countries to create the Quranic notion of the umma -the community of believers (Hegghammer, 2010). The umma very much needs the spiritual power of Arab nations in order to attain their salvation and freedom (Litvak, 2009). Accordingly, examining the Draft Constitution of the Palestinian State exemplifies the tight connection between the people of Palestine and other Muslims in Arab states. Abu-Lughud (1996) emphasizes the importance of the Arab-Islamic connection as a basic part in the roots of

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the Palestinian identity (P.62). Being part of the neighboring Arab Muslim states evidently helps Palestinians to be supported and protected by other Arab nations in the names of Islam (Weissbrod, 2002).

All together, language policy in Palestine stresses the importance of molding a Palestinian identity among learners to attain national cohesion and solidarity. Arabic and Islam are fundamental components that feature the Palestinian national and religious identity. Adopting national and religious identity among Palestinian young learners leads to attain full independence and dominance of authority in their newly independent state. The Palestinian legislators view the Palestinian unified identity that is characterized by patriotism and unity, as an inseparable part of the nation-building project.

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Limitations of the study

As this is a qualitative study, the first limitation is that data findings presented are to some extent affected by the researchers interpretations and emotions. Although I tried to be as neutral as possible in presenting the findings and interpretations, yet, I am afraid I was not objective enough due to my Palestinian roots and belonging to the Arab minority in Israel. The aim of this study is to define and portray the language education policy by comparing the high school Arabic literature curriculum in the Israeli-Arab district and the Palestinian authority, outlining how the features of language policy can influence the construction of the learners identity. Thus, the findings portrayed in the current study will be confirmed or negated, especially regarding the Palestinian side, only through a further study by a neutral researcher who does not belong to any of the ethnic groups involved in the study.

Moreover, examining the literature in the field of language policy indicates that a number of studies have been conducted in Israeli society in various domains and spheres. However, there is a notable lack of previous studies conducted to outline the characteristics of language education policy in specific or language policy in general and in the Palestinian community in particular. Therefore, it is strongly recommended that further studies be conducted into the features of language policy in Palestine, how such policy relates to educational ideology and what motivates and drives such policy.

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Recommendations

The following recommendations are set out based on the findings pertaining to language education policy in Israel and the Palestinian Authority:

1. Since language is not a neutral entity and usually it is a tool in the hands of politicians and legislators to imply their national ideologies, it is very important to be aware that such ideologies may result in preventing the speakers rights to use their language in unlimited ways. Shohamy (2005) convincingly argues that not having language rights affects the ability of the different groups to perform duties and obligations and enjoy the rights and benefits that individuals are entitled to in democratic societies. Since in democratic societies the ability to read, write, comprehend and produce language is needed for civil participation, the language inability is a major obstacle that has major ramifications for functional participation of individuals (p. 100). Thus, it is highly recommended to attempt to minimize the gap between the dominant group and ethnic minorities by guaranteeing and maintaining their own language rights. The status of Arabic language in Israel, for example, should be promoted by preparing special programs that reveal the face of Arabic as a language of the other and not the language of the enemy that threatens the ideology of the nation.

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2. Language education policy of both the Israeli and the Palestinian

Authority should be reconsidered. Abu-Asbih (2009) represents three objectives of the educational systems. The first is constructing the future generation through entrenching historical and cultural heritage of the identity, religion, nation, and homeland, taking into consideration a dynamic change grounded in the accepted value system. The second objective is to provide an opportunity for the learners to form their own personality. Fortify the learners with morals and values of moderation and tolerance, enable them to attain their own social status and role in accordance with their ability and accomplishments and not based on their ancestry. The third objective encourages the students to utilize their intellectual capacities and personal skills so they can promote their lives economically and socially which eventually results in a positive contribution to their community. Therefore, although language education policy is a political mechanism to draw and preserve political ideologies formed by policy makers, still, it is important to nurture young learners with postmodern views that accept and tolerate the other while taking pride in their own language, national identity, and cultural heritage. Maintaining a hegemonic state does not always mean to violate human rights or imbue radical political ideologies.

3. Based on the findings and the theoretical framework, both curricula must be changed. The Arab-Israeli curriculum should include texts that

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deal with national values and identity. Students must be exposed to various literary texts of different genres and trends that awaken their awareness of their reality, heritage and culture. Molding of a national identity should be presented through literary texts written by Palestinian writers. Learners should be encouraged to discuss various political issues and realities within the educational institution, especially that recently they live in a new era of globalization and open technology. Thus, it is preferable to let the students express their own feelings, thoughts, and perceptions within an educational framework that is able to arm them with special and appropriate tools for suitably articulating such thoughts. Palestinian curriculum planners must replace a number of literary works that may result in radical reaction and incitement against Israelis. It is highly recommended that they include literary texts that express universal themes and conceptions.

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Suggestion for further study

Language policy is a rich area for conducting further research. I suggest conducting the following studies: 1. A study that compares language education policy of mother tongues in both the Israeli and Palestinian educational institutions reflected in the curriculum, official documents, and study books, comparing the educational philosophy that outline such policies. Additionally, examination of how such educational philosophies influence the perception of the learners of their mother tongue as a marker of their own national identity.

2. Since English is considered the language of globalization nowadays, it is extremely important to compare language policy concerning foreign language instruction between the Israeli and the Palestinian curriculum, underlining the political ideologies that are portrayed in such language policies.

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Conclusion

This study provides insights into language policy as an influential mechanism for imbuing national values and standards, as well as molding the learners identity. The study also reveals the political and national ideologies that characterize language education policy in Israel and Palestine. According to Schmidt (2006), policy makers seek to use the authority of the state to influence aspects of the use and status of certain languages of people under their control. Normally, language policy becomes a priority in the political agenda when policy makers feel that something has to be done regarding the status and use of languages in their society and that this urgently needs the states intervention. In the Israeli context, the study reveals that language policy in Israel is similar to other nation-states. The dominant group is trying to suppress the language of minorities by maintaining its language, identity, and eventually its power. Language in Israel is serving the Zionist ideology in the first place. It creates a situation of us and them. Thus, language in Israel is used as a tool to create and maintain the Jewish Israeli identity. Hebrew language is regarded the sole language that represents the nations identity, while other languages are perceived as threatening to the dominance and existence of the nation-state (Shohamy, 2006). Accordingly, this language ideology and attitude towards Arabic exists in different aspects of life, economically, socially, and educationally. In terms of education, which is the main component of this

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study, we can see that language education policy strives to present Arabic language as a vehicle of communication, ingraining merely language techniques, while avoiding literary works that contain national themes and values. National identity is totally neglected in the Arabic literature curriculum and study books. Instead, students are required to learn about Jewish values and culture.

Language education policy in Palestine, on the other hand, ventilates Palestinian ideology of nation-building and national cohesion. After the Oslo negotiations between the PLO and Israel in 1993, the educational system in Palestine embarked upon changes. Education services were handed over to the Palestinian Authority after decades of being controlled by several rulers whorepresented a different culture and nationality (Adwan, 2006; Brown, 2001; Hassuna, 2004; Nakhli, 2004). Hence, it has been a crucial matter to formulate their own ideology, philosophy, and objectives based on their aspirations and needs (Haidar, 2006). In this respect, the Palestinian language education policy is greatly influenced by the Palestinization ideology that fosters national values that guarantee solidarity, active citizenship, civilization, taking pride in Palestinian heritage and culture, tolerance, cooperation, loyalty, full participation of individuals in public life, respect for authorities, and unity with other Arab nations. National and religious identity are emphasized as well. Learners are expected to espouse pan-nationalism and pan-Islamism dimensions as an inseparable feature of their own Palestinian identity. Both

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dimensions emphasize the uniqueness of the Palestinian identity to achieve full independence, freedom, and dominance in their own homeland, yet, they acknowledge the tight connection between Palestine and the other Arab Muslim states by demonstrating the religious, national, and spiritual unity that is inherent in this connection.

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