Introduction To Computers &

Introduction to Computer and Information Technology n 1
INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS &

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY Objectives :
This chapter will introduce us to the following concepts :
Information Technology
History of Computers
Basics of Computers
Generations of Computers
Different Types of Computers
Personal Computers
Various Components of Computers
2 n Fundamentals of Computers and Information Technology
UNIT - I
INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS & INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
Information technology is a field that has revolutionized our lives. In fact, it is so popular that a good number of news papers and news magazines now devote an entire section to information technology. The popular media very commonly carries news related to the internet, information superhighway, multimedia, etc. There has been a big change on the information technology scene. Some time back, mechanical and electrical devices were used in processing information calculators, typewriters, telephones, etc. These were stand-alone devices, not directly connected to one another. Here is a hypothetical description of how the information might have been processed in those days : 1. calculators were used to calculate the results and different figures. 2. typewriters were used to create documents based on these figures. 3. telephones were used to provide this information to other branches. The employees had to be physically present near the phone for this step. If they were unavailable, this information could not be transferred from one branch to another. 4. a copy of the document was sent through post/courier. Mailing was only in the printed form. One look at the scene described above will tell us that multiple machines -- calculators, typewriters, photocopiers, telephones -- and multiple employees are required for this task: one employee for
calculations, one for typing, another one for making a copy, another employee for making a phone call, one for receiving a phone call. If we look at the scenario today, there is a big change : there is none of this mechanical work involved in processing information. Almost all the players involved in the information processing are inter-connected and electronic. Here is a description of how the information is being processed today :
Introduction to Computer and Information Technology n 3 1. computers are used to calculate the results and different figures. 2. the same computers are used to create documents based on these figures. 3. the same computers are used to provide this information to computers at other branches. For this, the telephone lines can be used as the media. The employees do not have to be physically present near the phone for this step. Even if they are unavailable, this information can be transferred from one branch to another. 4. an e-mail (electronic mail) can be sent to other branches for sharing the information. Mailing has changed from the printed form to the electronic form. One of the biggest changes in the previous situation and the current situation is the fact that multiple machines and multiple employees are not required for this information processing. A single computer will be needed to do the calculations, prepare the report, send the report through e-mail. Also, a single employee can complete all of these tasks on the computer. If we continue further, with automation, we dont even need a single employee to operate the computer. With networking and automation in place, all the computers can process data and share information without a single human typing a single letter. For example, we can program a computer to start working at a fixed time every day to do the following tasks, in order : 1. collect data from different files. 2. organize the data. 3. prepare reports based on the data. 4. Exchange the data with other computers on the network. Thus, every step is automated, which means that the possibility of human errors will be minimal, and work will go on with a high level of efficiency. Today, with a set-top box, we can browse the internet on our TV set. This is the power of information technology, which is integrating diverse technologies and equipments -- televisions, computers, telephones -- into a single unit. The newer catchy terms such as information age and information society only highlight the increasing role information technology is playing in our personal and professional lives.
1.1 WHAT IS INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

Going by the dictionary, information means the act of informing or the condition of being informed, the communication of knowledge. At a similar level, technology means the application of science, especially to industrial or commercial objectives. Combining the 2 terms, we can define information technology as the creation, storage, processing, and delivery of information. In fact, we can look at information technology from 3 perspectives : 1. Processing raw data into information. For example, totaling the individual marks of a student to get the percentage marks. 2. Recycle processed information and use it as data in another step. For example, adding the percentage of the previous exam to the current exams percentage, to find the cumulative average. 3. Formatting the information, making it more useful and more attractive. For example, presenting the percent marks of the students in a decreasing order, thus generating the merit list for the class. Using a computer we can obtain far better results with our data, such as : Average sales for the past 6 months. The name of the maximum-selling product The name of the salesman with the highest sales figures. The name of the state giving the highest sales.
All of this information is made available just by pressing a few buttons. This power of the Computer is being made use of the world over. Today, the Computer has become an inseparable part of the commercial as well as the academic field. We can say that, in the use of Computers, data analysis has become more important than mere computing.
1.2 HISTORY OF COMPUTERS

1.2.1 ABACUS
Introduction to Computer and Information Technology n 5 This is probably the oldest calculating device known to man. The Chinese and the Egyptians both claim to be inventors of this device. It consists of some bars with beads on them. These beads are used for the calculations such as addition, subtraction, etc. Though they appear very primitive, they are still considered very fast. The Chinese and the Japanese are using it even today. The Abacus can be seen very commonly in schools, where kindergarten students use it for learning numbers, counting, addition, etc.
Figure 1.1 The Abacus
Abacus is a Latin word which has originated from the Greek word abax, which means a "table" or "tablet". The abacus of today has been invented by Lee Kai-Chen, mentioned in a manual published in 1958. It has 4 stacks : basically it has 2 stacked abaci (one on top of the other). This design makes multiplication and divison easier, as also square and cube root.
1.2.2 BLAISE PASCAL (1623-62)

A French mathematician, who developed a device called the Pascals Calculating Machine, in 1642. This was the first real mechanical calculator. It performed the operations of addition, subtraction and multiplication using a series of gears (8 rotating wheels). The same principle is used today in the speedometers of cars.
1.2.3 LIEBNITZ
He developed a machine in 1671, that could add, subtract, divide, multiply, and also calculate square roots.
1.2.4 JOSEPH JAQUARD (1752-1834)

Joseph Jacquard was the son of a silk weaver. In 1790 he was given a 50 year old loom for repairing. Working on this loom got him interested in the mechanization of silk manufacture. In 1801 he constructed a loom that used a series of punched cards to control the pattern being made through the loom on the cloth. Jacquard later developed a machine where the punched cards were joined to form an endless loop. Using this mechanism, designing for cloth and carpets became automatic. At first Jacquard's looms were destroyed by weavers who feared unemployment. By 1812 there were 11,000 Jacquard looms working in France. Jacquards loom saw a big demand growth in the 1820s in Britain. By 1833 there were about 100,000 power-looms being used in Britain.
1.2.5 CHARLES BABBAGE

He is known as the father of computers. In 1822, Babbage proposed the Difference Engine to automatically calculate mathematical tables. This was the first device that was similar to the Computers we see today. Later on, he also proposed an Analytical Engine by using Jacquard's punched cards. This calculator could make decisions based on results of previous computations. This machine was also intended to employ several features of modern computers, such as branching and looping.
Lady Augusta Ada Lovelace wrote a program for the Analytical Engine. Thus, she is considered as the first computer programmer of the world. In 1979, a modern programming language was named ADA in her honour.
1.2.6 METCALFE
Lieutenant Henry Metcalfe was reorganizing the cost-accounting system of his arsenal. He found that records were kept in ledgers by the department. For this reason, retrieving data and producing reports was very tiring and very tough. He followed the system followed by librarians and transferred some records from ledgers to cards. These cards were easy to manage -- sorting, summarizing, and manipulating became easier compared to the ledgers. A similar system is followed by the computerized information systems today. Metcalfe developed the concept of a record, followed even today.
1.2.7 HERMAN HOLLERITH

The American inventor Herman Hollerith is considered as the first one to use punched cards for data processing. Hollerith's machines proved themselves to be extremely useful for a wide variety of statistical applications, and some of the techniques they used were to be significant in the development of the digital computer. In February 1924, Hollerith's company changed its name to International Business Machines, or IBM.
Figure 1.2 IBM 80-column punched card format
1.2.8 GEORGE BOOLE (1815-64)

The Boolean algebra developed in the 19th century removed the numbers-alone limitation for these counting devices. This technique of mathematics, invented by Boole, helped correlate the binary digits with our language. For instance, the values of 0s are related with false statements and 1s with the true ones. George Boole had no formal school education!! With George Boole's Mathematical Analysis and Investigation, Boolean algebra, sometimes known as Boolean logic, came into being. Boole's system was based on a binary approach, processing only two objects -- the now famous yes-no, true-false, on-off, zero-one approach. Today, all the computers employ Boole's logic system - using microchips that contain thousands of tiny electronic switches arranged into logical gates that produce predictable and reliable conclusions. The basic logic gates comprise of AND, OR and NOT. These gates, when used in differing combinations, allow the computer to execute its operations using binary language.
1.3 COMPUTER
The word Computer has been derived from the word Compute, which means to calculate. However, the computer is not just a calculating machine. Another common electronic device we use for calculations is the calculator. Just as we can use the computer for calculations, we can use the calculator for calculations, as well. However, there are a number of differences between a computer and a calculator : the computer can record our data on a permanent basis, which is not possible in a calculator. we can program a computer according to our needs, which cannot be done in a calculator. the computer can compare numbers, finding the highest or the lowest of a series of numbers, which is not possible in a calculator.
Introduction to Computer and Information Technology n 9 These are some of the capabilities which differentiate a computer from a calculator. Thus, even though the term computer suggests a calculating device, the computer is much more than that. It need not be used for simple maths alone. It can also perform non-mathematical operations, as we have just seen.
1.4 WHAT IS A COMPUTER SYSTEM

Any system works on the simple concept of input process output. That is, the system accepts an input, processes the input, and gives us some output. This is true for any system however big or small. For example, the education system at M.P. Bhoj (Open) University can be represented as follows :
INPUT Untrained students PROCESS Students attend lectures, seminars. OUTPUT Trained students
Figure 1.3 Explanation of a system
A computer system also follows this input process output cycle. A computer is an electronic device which can accept data, store the data and process the data to give us some meaningful information. The data could be in the form of numbers, alphabets, dates, images, or even sound. Every item that we enter into the computer, for storing and for processing later on, is called as data. For example, if we enter 3 numbers to be added up by a program, the numbers represent the data. The internal calculations that are involved in getting the sum are the process. The result of the calculation is the information. Suppose we entered the numbers 4, 5, and 6 for adding up : the 3 numbers 4,5,6 are the data. the calculation of the sum is the process. The actual result, i.e., 15, is the information.
1.5 CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTERS

Just as for any equipment, the buyer must be aware of the features it offers. Only then can we understand the machine.
1.5.1 CAPABILITIES OF COMPUTERS

Here are characteristics common to most of the computer systems, whether big or small :
Speed : As human beings we are used to measuring time in hours, or may be minutes. In some cases, we can go down to measuring in seconds, which is very rare though. Mostly, the second becomes a practical limit for most of the human beings. The computer, though, is a really fast machine. In the computer, the speed is measured in fractions of a second. Even a second becomes a very high time measure for a computer, since the speed of a computer is measured in pico seconds today. For example, if we try to multiply the number 1234567.3456 with 567.34, we might take over a minute for the calculation. This calculation can be performed in just over 1 second by a Computer. Here are the various units of speed in the world of computers :
Unit MilliSecond MicroSecond NanoSecond PicoSecond
Meaning one thousandth of a second one millionth of a second one billionth of a second one trillionth of a second Table 1.1 Computer Speed Units
As we can see, a pico second is one trillionth of a second!! This is the speed at which computers work today. The data can be collected, stored, manipulated, and results can be displayed in a really-really short time. The computers of today can perform over 100 million calculations per second.
To mark the speed at which the computers operate, the industry has developed the criteria of million instructions per second, or MIPS. Thus, a speed of 5 MIPS means that the computer can process 5 million instructions in a second!!
Reliability : Computers always offer very high reliability levels. This is a big difference between a computer and a human being. The computer can work for hours continuously and still it does not get tired. In fact, with computers the minimum of reliability expected is 99.99%. For this, backup computers are provided in places where computers are performing a very vital central role. Once the main computers become faulty, the backup computers take over the task of the main computers, and work goes on as usual.
When the computer system goes out of order, it is known as downtime. Naturally, all computer users try to keep the downtime as low as possible. Regular and preventive maintenance is needed to keep the computers operating at their fullest efficiency.
Accuracy : Computers do not make mistakes everytime. In fact, many of the mistakes made by computers are not really computer mistakes. These errors are due to some other reason, such as : programming errors. wrong procedures followed by the users. wrong data entered by the user.
For example, a bank employee might enter a wrong rate of interest for a fixed deposit, or he might type the wrong address of a customer, which will give wrong results. However, we will conveniently blame the computer for the errors.
Storage : The ability of the computer systems to store data is an major advantage. Once the data is properly stored, it can be accessed anytime, and from anywhere. Just a few buttons need to be
pressed, just a few commands need to be given : and information is available in a few minutes, or even seconds.
Security : The data entered in a computer is quite safe, and if proper measures and procedures are followed, the security can be increased even further. In a simple paper file, the data can be easily seen by anyone with access to the file. In a computer, though, the data can only be seen by people who are trained to operate the computer. Even if the computer is on, an untrained person will never be able to see the data stored in the computer.
1.5.2 LIMITATIONS OF COMPUTERS

For all the benefits just discussed, we have to understand that the use of computers has its own share of problems, some of which are summarized below :
No wisdom or practical knowledge : Computers can work fast and accurately, but only on the basis of our instructions. They cannot act with wisdom or act through practical awareness. Suppose we give the age of 2 persons to the computer as 20 years and -15 years and ask the computer to identify the person with the lower age. The computer will say that -15 is the lower age. However, a human being will easily understand that the value of -15 years is not the right value for an age.
No senses : A computer is a dead thing, it has no life. Hence, it has no such thing as experience. Human beings can take some decisions based on experience and senses, whereas a computer cannot do so.
Reliable programs : Everything in a computerized operation depends on the correctness of the program which is running the computer and getting the task done. If the program is well-planned and gives the desired results, it is all fine. However, there might be some rare situations which we
Introduction to Computer and Information Technology n 13 have not planned for. In such a situation, our program might give some errors. Even if a program has run properly for years, there can still be some unforeseen situations for which provision has not been made in the software. This can lead to situations where we will get very odd results.
Clearly defined logic : The computer performs tasks which can be expressed in the form of a finite (limited) number of steps for achieving the desired objective. Of course, each and every step must be explicitly (clearly) stated. If a particular task cannot be stated in clear terms, the task can never be done by the computer. The computer always needs a series of clearly-defined and definite number of steps. If these steps cannot be properly defined, the computer can never be programmed in advance to take any actions.
- - - - - - - - MENTAL EXERCISE
- - - - - - - -
Think and say in what areas can a computer do a better job than you and why :-
Welding jobs. Door-to-door selling of goods. Playing chess. Solving the mathematics question paper. Heating the food everyday at 8:30 PM.
1.6 TYPES OF COMPUTERS

We can classify computers based on different criteria, such as : Technology Usage
Size and Capacity
1.6.1 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON TECHNOLOGY

1.6.1.1 Analog Computers
Analog representations have the prime feature that they are continuous. As an example, watches with hands are analog. This is because the hands of the watch move continuously around the clock face. As the minute hand goes around, it not only touches the numbers 1 through 12, but also the infinite number of points in between. In other words, in analog representations, we work with a range of values, within which we can cover the entire range. Of course, only one value will be shown selected at any point of time. A simple thermometer is another example of an analog device : we can see all the values from 96 (approximately) to 107 (approximately) at any point of time. However, only one temperature value will be actually selected at any point of time 98.4, 99, 100, or any other value for that matter. As another example, we see an oscilloscope in the next figure, which works through analog signals.
Figure 1.4 An Oscilloscope, based on Analog signals
TIP : Analog computers measure values.
Introduction to Computer and Information Technology n 15 The early attempts at building computers used analog techniques. The major advantage offered by analog computers is speed. However, their accuracy and reliability were not good enough. Analog computers are considered outdated by most of the experts.
1.6.1.2 Digital Computers

Unlike analog signals, digital representations consist of values measured at discrete intervals. The digital watches are called digital because they go from one value to the next without displaying all intermediate values. Consequently, they can display only a finite number of times of the day. Contrast this with the way the analog watches show values.
TIP : Digital computers count values.
The digital thermometer we see today is also based on digital representations. Here, we can only see the current temperature of the object, though the entire range is not visible on the digital thermometer. The main advantage offered by digital computers is accuracy. Today, almost all computers are digital.
Figure 1.5 A digital watch
1.6.1.3 Hybrid
These are cases where we see the a mix of the 2 types analog and digital.. In hybrid computers, the data collected through measurements (analog) is stored and analyzed by the computer. This data could be, for instance, the temperature of the furnace in the production unit of a company. Later on, the stored data (digital) is used for generating some reports for the senior management of the company.
In a sense, the hybrid computers combine the best features of both the technologies the speed of analog computers and the accuracy of digital computers.
1.6.2 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON APPLICATIONS

1.6.2.1 General Computers
These are the computers we come across most of the time. The computers used in most of the common applications - word processing, data processing, generation of reports, etc come under this category. The common PC we see in many offices, the computers being used by the students for their studies, etc, all belong to the group known as general computers.
1.6.2.2 Special Purpose Computers

As the name suggests, this group of computers is meant to serve a very special role. It is, thus, not meant for the common computerized activities. A common example of such a computer is a simulator.
According to the dictionary, the word simulation means to copy something, to give an impression of reality. A simulator also gives an impression of working on the real thing. It is a computer that can create an impression of working on some real-life object, even though the user is working on just a computerized model of it. The user working on a simulator feels as if he/she is working on the real thing.
Introduction to Computer and Information Technology n 17 Based on this feature, they can be used for special training, such as training pilots on flying an airplane. The real-life training on the plane can be combined with the training on a flight simulator. When the pilot sits inside the flight simulator, he will experience an environment exactly as he would in a plane the controls of the plane, the cockpit, etc, all imitate a real plane. The computer-generated graphics appearing on the cockpit of the simulator offer different situations, what the pilot might be seeing in day-to-day operations. Then the pilots response is tested, through the different airplane-like controls and levers present around the pilot. Obviously, this type of a training is very safe and very economical.
Figure 1.6 A Flight Simulator
The special patient monitoring equipment we see in the intensive care unit of a hospital is also another example of a special-purpose computer the E.C.G. monitors, the central patient monitoring unit, etc. all come under this category. These computers, obviously, cannot be used for any other purpose, such as data processing, word processing, etc. They are meant for achieving a specific goal, and they are to be used in the same manner.
Figure 1.7 A Cardiac Monitor
1.6.3 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON SIZE AND CAPACITY

1.6.3.1 Micro Computer
The word micro denotes something related to objects which are very small, such as the microorganisms, micro-scope, etc. The micro computers are also the same. This group represents the smaller of the computer systems we come across. This term micro computers was coined a few years back, when micro computers were the smallest available computers. Of course, today we have computers even smaller than the micro computers, such as the laptop computers. When we refer to micro computers, we are essentially referring to computers that can fit on the top of a desk, the Desktop Computers. This group includes the PC, or the Personal Computers, and the Apple computers. The PCs were called so because they were used more by individuals than by the companies. IBM (International Business Machines) of USA launched its PC in 1981, though the PC revolution was started by Apple Computers of USA. Initially, the microcomputers were more of dumb machines. They
Introduction to Computer and Information Technology n 19 did not have too much of processing power and were attached to bigger mini computers or the huge mainframes.
Screen C.P.U . Key Board Mouse

Figure 1.8 A Personal Computer
It is important to remember that, with the launch of the microprocessors, the concept of a microcomputer has changed. The microprocessors are present in the small PCs and also in the highest-end supercomputers. For this reason, micro does not really mean a small computer. Hence, the term microcomputer has become outdated from todays perspective. It is being used just because of historical reasons and because of habit.
1.6.3.2 Mini Computer

A minicomputer is basically a mid-sized computer. From the view point of size and power, minicomputers lie between the workstations and the mainframes. In the recent years, the distinction between large minicomputers and small mainframes has become less clear. In fact, the distinction between the small minicomputers and workstations has also become less clear. But in general, a minicomputer is a multiprocessing system which can provide support for 4 to 200 users simultaneously. Digital Equipment Corporation of USA was a leading player in this field, with its VAX range of minicomputers. The AS/400 from IBM is a popular mini computer. With the rapidly rising power and falling prices of microcomputers, the market for the minicomputers category has shrunk a lot in size.
Figure 1.9 A MiniComputer
1.6.3.3 MainFrame Computer

These computers are very large and they are expensive. They are capable of supporting hundreds, or even thousands, of users, all at the same time. The mainframes appear just below supercomputers in terms of capacity. They are used by the very big corporations for centralized business functions such as inventory control, accounting, etc. Some big web sites running today are running through mainframes. In the late
Introduction to Computer and Information Technology n 21 1970s, most of the computing power of the world was created by Mainframes. The operating system required for a mainframe is approximately 14GB in size.
Figure 1.10 A Mainframe Installation
In some ways, mainframes can be considered as more powerful than supercomputers. This is because they can execute more simultaneous programs. But supercomputers can execute a single program faster than a mainframe.
1.6.3.4 SuperComputer
These are the fastest type of computers. They are very expensive and are employed for specialized applications where immense amounts of mathematical calculations are involved. This means that a
supercomputer is not a general-purpose computer. Applications where hugely complex and very large calculations are involved, are ideal cases for using a supercomputer.
Speaking of the specialized applications, a supercomputer is used for weather forecasting. Other uses of supercomputers include nuclear energy research, animated graphics, petroleum exploration, and also aerospace design, motivated by the arms race between the USA and USSR. When building systems that can handle complex scientific and engineering problems using floating-point calculations, we need a supercomputer.
Figure 1.11 A Super Computer
Introduction to Computer and Information Technology n 23 On an average, a supercomputer will be costing over $ 100,000. Peripherals with high-performance (and a high price-tag too) handle the supercomputer's I/O demands, which are very heavy. The first Cray-1 supercomputer was shipped to the Los Alamos National Laboratory, USA, in 1976. It had a peak speed of 167 MFLOPS and price between $4 million to $11.2 million, depending on the hardware configuration. In fact, the USA is using IBMs big blue series of supercomputers to simulate a nuclear explosion in a laboratory. This way, it does not have to carry out a nuclear explosion physically, in the real world. Just a few buttons are pressed on the supercomputer, and a nuclear test is over, sitting in a laboratory! The data accumulated over the duration of the test can then be collected, analyzed and transformed into useful information. Intel has developed a supercomputer performing 1 trillion operations a second. It has 7,000 processors doing 7,000 calculations at a time. The task of the entire USA population, with all the people working for 125 years using calculators, can be performed by this supercomputer in 1 second. Oil companies can improve their accuracy in finding future oil and gas reserves by processing seismic data and simulating (imitating) reservoir flow. This helps to reduce the very high costs and risks involved in drilling oil wells. Car manufacturers can simulate (imitate) crashes of prototypes (rough approximation of the original) on the supercomputer. Thus, they can launch models which are new and reliable, much faster than the competition. Banks use supercomputers for dealing with thousands of on-line transactions. They can check on the credit histories of clients within just a few seconds. Big retailers browse through gigabytes of bills, trying to ascertain important trends through data-mining. For weather forecasting, the data being sent by the weather satellites is collected by the base stations and sent to the supercomputer for analysis. The supercomputer analyses this data and generates the picture related to the weather that we commonly see on TV, used for weather forecasting. India uses a CRAY XMP supercomputer for weather forecasting. It had up to four custom vector processors to divide and conquer the computing jobs. This system could deliver a peak of 941 MFLOPS. In general, the X-MP series costs between $2.5 million to $16 million. Interestingly, India too has developed a supercomputer, through the C-DAC (Center for the Development of Advanced Computing). The computer is named PARAM, and has definitely made all of us Indians proud.
1.7 GENERATIONS OF COMPUTERS

In the computer world, we measure technological advancement by generations. A specific system is said to belong to a specific "generation." Each generation indicates a significant change in computer design. It refers to the state of improvement in the development of a product. This term is, thus, used to represent the different stages of computer technology. With each new generation, the circuitry has become smaller and more advanced than the previous generation. With a continued decrease in size, the speed, power, and memory of computers has proportionately increased.
1.7.1 First Generation : 1946-1958

According to scientists, the ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer), built at the University of Pennsylvania in 1946 was the first computer of this generation. It had approximately 18,000 vacuum tubes, and weighed 30 tons. The ENIAC measured 30 x 30 feet. Other important members of this generation were UNIVAC (UNIVersal Automatic Computer), IBM-650, EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer) and EDSAC (Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator). The highly skilled mathematician, John von Neumann, produced the best formal description of a stored program computer. In 1944 von Neumann took time off from his work at the Institute for Advanced Studies in Princeton, New Jersey and the Los Alamos Project and participated in the Moore School discussions regarding the EDVAC design. No official reports or minutes of the meeting were published. Instead, Von Neumann independently drafted a report titled the "First Draft Report of the Edvac Design." It was a document purely reflecting his thoughts on the topic. But Herman Goldstine widely circulated the document, placing the knowledge in the public domain. Characteristics : Vacuum tubes used in computers for the 1st time. The computers were very big in size, about the size of a room.
Introduction to Computer and Information Technology n 25 Memory was very less. Not very reliable. Required high maintenance. Constant A.C. was required, since the vacuum tubes emitted a lot of heat.
1.7.2 Second Generation : 1959-64

Around 1960 the transistor was invented. It performed the same role as a vacuum tube, but the size was much smaller. Thus, these computers were smaller, less expensive, and needed less of cooling compared to the 1st generation. Examples of computers of this generation were HoneyWell-200, IBM-1401, and CDC-1604.
Characteristics : Transistors used in computers for the 1st time. The computers were smaller in size compared to the 1st generation. Memory was higher compared to the 1st generation. More reliable compared to the 1st generation. Required lesser maintenance compared to the 1st generation. Languages such as COBOL, FORTRAN, etc were used. Emitted less heat compared to the 1st generation.
1.7.3 Third Generation : 1965-70

The development of the integrated circuits (I.C.) was the biggest marker of this generation. This increased the reliability of the computers even further. The I.C. is the outcome of Large Scale Integration (L.S.I.), wherein a large number of transistors are tightly packed on a single chip. This greatly increases the power of a single computer and lowers its cost considerably. Examples are IBM-350, NCR-365, etc.
Characteristics : Integrated Circuits used in computers for the 1st time. The computers were smaller in size compared to the 2nd generation. Memory was higher compared to the previous generations. More reliable compared to the 2nd generation. Required lesser maintenance compared to the previous 2 generations. High-Level Languages were used. Operating System was used. Emitted less heat compared to the previous 2 generations.
1.7.4 Fourth Generation : 1971 - ?

This generation made use of the Microprocessor. The microprocessor was the result of VLSI (Very Large Scale Integration), wherein the circuitry got even smaller and compact than before. By putting millions of transistors onto one single chip more calculation and faster speeds could be reached by computers.
Characteristics : Microprocessors used in computers for the 1st time. Miniaturization lead to the development of the IBM P.C. The computers were smaller in size compared to the 2nd generation. Memory capacity was quite high. Highly reliable computers. Minimum maintenance was required. 4th generation languages were used.
The following table sums up the landmarks and differences between the first four computer generations :
Table 1.2 : Comparison of Computer Generations Generation 1

st
Landmark Vacuum Tubes
Memory Magnetic Drum
Speed Milli seconds
Languages Machine
Heat Excess
nd
Transistors
Magnetic storage
core
Micro seconds Nano
Assembly
Lesser
rd
Integrated Circuits
Increased magnetic storage core
High level
Still Lesser
seconds
th
Microprocessor
Semiconductor
Pico seconds
4th generation
Least
1.7.5 Fifth Generation

A lot of technical advancement took place in the 4th generation. All of the computer generations all have progressed through very clearly defined steps : bulbs, transistors, ICs and then microprocessors. Each generation had a very clear marker. This is not true for the 5th generation. In the 5th generation, we dont have any big jump. For this reason, some people even argue that there is no 5th generation of computers, as such. Some of the landmarks of this so-called 5th generation are :
Expert Systems : These come under the area of Artificial intelligence. In this kind of a software, the knowledge base of subject experts of a field is maintained in a computer. An ordinary individual, who is not an expert in that field, will keep asking questions to the software. The software will search its knowledge base and provide answers to the questions. Gradually, the untrained person will begin to understand the subject. This way, the user can get an experts view of the subject, even though he himself is not having full knowledge of the subject.
Expert systems are available today for different fields, such as oil exploration, space research, etc. LISP is a language commonly used for developing expert systems. CLIPS (C Language Integrated Production Systems) developed by NASA of USA is a good tool for developing expert systems.
Neural Networks : These also come under the area of Artificial intelligence. In this. researchers are creating systems which can think and learn, just as the human brain. These systems have the power of learning from experience, which was so far not seen in the common computers. Thus, these systems are going beyond the traditional on/off, true/false concept of Computers. These type of systems are used in banks for identifying signatures, in the maintenance of aircraft engines, and even in analyzing the trends of the stock markets.
Mobile computing : The world is going smaller and smaller. Today, laptops, mobile phones, and even PDAs are being used for computing related needs. Intel and AMD have launched specila processors for mobile devices. One of the technologies helping in this field is WAP (Wireless Access Protocol). Today we can see computers which can fit in our hands. Their size is as small as 52 x 52 cms.
Newer energy options : New sources of energy are being developed for the P.C. The small sized direct methanol fuel cell, the first of its kind, can run about five hours on a single fuel cartridge. Among other options, NiMH cells are also available.
Customer Relationship Management : The software helps the companies to meet their specific requirements with regard to customers. It needs both, technology and a specific strategy for a successful implementation. This software helps provide extra information to the company about its customers. Thus, it is not just a technology but it is a complete process as well. Specialized CRM software helps in making call centers more efficient and effective.
Data Warehousing : Big-big corporations usually have crores of records stored with them. Data warehousing is used to work on these records, and newer trends or habits of customers can be
Introduction to Computer and Information Technology n 29 determined based on these exercises. Thus, data warehousing can give us results far beyond our expectations. Newer versions of DBMSs such as Oracle, SQL Server, etc. all have built-in provisions for data warehousing.
Enterprise Resource Planning : This task is carried out primarily at the very big companies/institutions. It involves some very complex and big tasks, and the total cost of implementation runs into crores of rupees. Normally, the different departments of companies are involved in their own tasks. ERP helps to integrate all these different departments and they operate through a single database. Usually, when a customer places an order, it passes through a series of steps in different departments, and each department makes its own entry related to the sale. This unnecessary repetition will waste a lot of time, efforts, and money. With ERP, this waste will be eliminated. Any sales order can now be traced from anywhere, anytime. SAP, JD Edwards, Oracle are some big ERP software manufacturing companies.
Web TV With advances in technology, we can even use the TV for browsing the Internet. This is possible though a set-top box. It helps a television set to become a window to the Internet. Basically, a Set-Top box can receive both internet and TV signals. This way, we can view our Email on our TV.
This way, we can see how the Computer has progressed over the years. These advances have helped it to bring about a revolution in the field of Information Technology.
1.8 PERSONAL COMPUTERS

The PCs are small computers designed mainly for use by individuals, unlike the big machines of the earlier days used mainly by the big corporations.
1.8.1 IBM PC
Calling something a PC means that it is something much more specific than just any personal computer. It means the computer is related to the family of the original IBM PC launched in 1981. In fact, we can even say that IBM literally invented the type of computer we call a PC today. This means that IBM designed and created the very first PC, and IBM originally defined and set all the standards that made the PC distinctive from other personal computers.
TIP : IBM is credited with the invention of the PC. However, the fact is that IBM did
not invent the personal computer : the first PC was the MITS Altair8800, introduced in
1975.
Thus, IBM did not invent the personal computer, but it did invent the machine which we today call as the PC. Some people take this definition a step further and define a PC as any personal computer that is "IBM compatible" and, they are right!! In fact, many years back, PCs were called as IBM compatibles/IBM clones. The IBM PC launched in 1981 set the standards for other manufacturers to follow. Soon, many other manufacturers followed, imitating the architecture of the IBM PC. These were known as the PC clones, or the IBM PC-compatible machines. Characteristics Prior to the launch of the PC, the big minicomputers and mainframes were attached to a number of terminals. These terminals had either no processing power or very little processing power of their own.
With the launch of the PC, the average user was also given some processing power on his desktop. More important, the user was not required to remain connected to some mainframe or any other computer. This power was good enough for the simple needs of the individual user, though it was much less compared to the bigger mainframes and minicomputers.
Of course, with the rapid advances in speed and technology, the PCs of today are able to challenge even some of the more advanced big machines. The PCs are primarily based on the Intel architecture
Introduction to Computer and Information Technology n 31 microprocessor, designed to run software written for the Intel chip and compatible chips such as the K6 (AMD) or the Celeron (Intel).
1.8.2 PC-XT/PC-AT
Generally speaking, systems can be classed into the following hardware categories:
8-bit 16-bit 32-bit 64-bit
Even with different bit-sizes, the systems from 16-bit upto 64-bit are similar in basic design and architecture. However, the older 8-bit systems are very different. Thus, we are left with only 2 classes of hardware:
8-bit (PC/XT-class) systems 16/32/64-bit (AT-class) systems
Here, XT stands for extended technology PC, whereas AT stands for advanced technology PC. In fact, the terms PC, XT, and AT, have been borrowed from the original IBM systems, which had these names. The basic PC system included only 5.25 inch floppy disc drives. The PC/XT included a hard disk of 20 or 40 MB in addition to the floppy drives of the basic PC. These systems had an 8-bit 8088 processor and an 8-bit Industry Standard Architecture (ISA) bus. The bus is the name given to expansion slots in which additional plug-in circuit boards can be installed, to add some extra features to our computer. The ISA bus found in the PC/XT class systems can send and receive only 8 bits of data in a single cycle. Systems which are 16-bit and more are the systems of the AT-class. AT was the name given to systems
that first included the 16-bit processors and expansion slots. With passing time, 32-bit and 64-bit processors and expansion slots appeared, and they are also called as AT-class systems. Any AT-class system must have a processor that is compatible with (at least) Intel 80286 processor, and it must have a system bus of at least 16 bits. All AT-class systems are similar in the system bus architecture and basic memory architecture.
1.9 TYPES OF P.C.s

Basically, the classification of P.C.s is done on the basis of their size.
1.9.1 Desktop
Simply put, a desktop computer is any computer which can fit on the top of a desk. Thus, it is a very broad term, which can include the simplest of Personal Computers (PCs) such as the 80486, Pentium-133 MHz, Pentium-166 MHz, and the latest Pentium-4 computers running at 2000 MHz and 2400 MHz.
Figure 1.12 A typical Desktop PC
This category includes another type of computers, the Macintosh from Apple computers. At this stage, let us clearly understand that the Macintosh is not an IBM-compatible PC : the Macintosh is based on a different architecture compared to the IBM PC. Launched in 1984, the Macintosh was the first widelysold machine which offered a GUI (Graphical User Interface). The Macintosh initially ran on the Motorola 68000 processor series. Today, the Macintosh runs on the PowerPC microprocessor, developed jointly by IBM, Motorola, and Apple. The Macintosh works through the Mac operating system.
Figure 1.13 An Apple Macintosh
The Macintosh offers more of features than the average IBM PC. The processing power and the monitor are far better with the Macintosh. Due to the superior features, the Macintosh is priced slightly higher than the average IBM PC compatible machine. However, this resulted in fewer sales of the Macintosh compared to the IBM PC. Hence, the Macintosh is used in only some select segments. DTP (Desk Top Publishing) is one segment where the Macintosh was mainly used, as a result of its better and larger monitor plus high level of performance, resulting in sharper and richer pictures with good speed. Now, the IBM PCs also offer faster performance and good graphical abilities. Thus, they are also being used in this field. Unfortunately, the Macintosh could not come close to the average user. One major reason behind this was that it was a proprietary system.
TIP : In a proprietary system, all the upgrade components such as motherboards, power supplies, cases, etc. are available only from the original manufacturer.
The recently launched iMac has features such as auto-configuration of peripherals attached to the computer. Even in a Network, the iMac can configure itself on its own. In addition, it has a trendy seethrough (transparent) monitor. This and some other advances are gradually increasing the sales of the Macintosh. Even today, the Macintosh remains the number 1 machine for animators and advertisers. Data shows that Macintosh holds about 4% share of the worldwide desktop computers market
1.9.2 Laptop/NoteBook
A small, portable computer, which is so small that it can sit on our lap. Hence the laptop computer. Laptop computers are also called notebook computers. This is an extremely lightweight personal computer. Usually, the weight of Notebook computers is less than 3 kgs. Based on their small size, they can easily fit in a briefcase.
Based on the computing power, modern notebook computers are nearly equivalent to personal computers. They have the same CPUs, memory capacity, and disk drives. However, all this power makes notebooks slightly expensive. Usually, Notebook computers cost about 1.5-2 times the price of equivalent regularsized computers. Notebook computers come with battery packs through which we can run them without plugging them into a power source. However, the batteries need to be recharged every few hours.
Touch Pad
Figure 1.14 A Notebook Computer
Trackballs and touchpads are the devices used to convey graphic instructions to our notebook computer, allowing us to point to our choices or to sketch, draw and paint. Thus, they play the role of the Mouse in a Notebook.
Notebook Screen - Special Considerations

There are some unique features related to Notebook displays. The monitor of a Notebook computer should always offer these features :
Lightweight. non-bulky.
A number of techniques, known as flat-panel technologies, are used to produce such a screen. The other features relate to the type of display technology used in notebook construction. As expected, these factors don't apply to desktop monitors. The display technologies used in notebook computers are of 3 types :
Passive Matrix Dual-Scan
Active Matrix
Notebook Keyboards
The dimensions of the notebooks are small. Thus, notebook keyboards have special configurations so that all the keys can fit into a smaller-sized keyboard. For this reason, average users might take some time in adjusting to a notebook's keyboard. The keys themselves are usually smaller and more compactly arranged. Further, notebook keyboards have fewer keys.
Using a Standard Keyboard with a Notebook Most notebooks have a plug through which we can connect an external keyboard. While the notebook is turned off, we plug in the keyboard and then we switch on the notebook. Most notebooks will automatically detect the external keyboard and will work with the external keyboard, not the built-in keyboard.
TIP : The external keyboard should not be plugged in or unplugged while the notebook power is on.
If an external keyboard is frequently required, a port replicator or docking station is a good tool. Whenever required, the notebook can be connected to one of these, while the keyboard can be permanently attached to the replicator or docking station.
Special features of a Notebook Computer Several features of a notebook make it much different from a typical PC. Here are some of them :
Processor : The processor should be a special mobile processor. The mobile processors have 2 unique
features :
Introduction to Computer and Information Technology n 37 they emit less heat. they use less power so the battery will last longer.
Very recently, Intel has launched the Centrino processor for notebooks. AMD has also launched the Athlon XP-M processor tailored for mobile computing.
PC Card slots : This is an expansion slot, though it is typically for notebooks only. The newest technology
for these is Cardbus and Zoomed Video.
Battery : Lithium Ion (LiO) batteries are considered the best. Nickel-Metal Hydride (NimH) is another
good option. Nickel-Cadmium batteries should be avoided; in any case they are an old type now. Notebooks with hot swappable batteries are better. In this case, we can switch to a second battery without rebooting the computer.
Pointing device : Mostly, a mouse is not used with a notebook. Most of the notebooks now have a small,
built-in touch pad. We drag our fingers across the touchpad, for getting mouse-like effects. Trackballs are another option for pointing.
External ports : Ports will be required for connecting a mouse, printer, keyboard, and external monitor.
Optional ports may include speakers and serial plugs (for an external modem).
Port replicator : A port replicator is required if the notebook is being used as a replacement for a desktop
system. The port replicator has all of the same external ports as the notebook. The monitor, keyboard, and mouse are plugged into the replicator and the notebook is plugged into the replicator. We can keep the external devices permanently plugged into the replicator, even as we can easily plug and unplug the notebook without individually attaching the monitor, keyboard, and mouse everytime.
Docking station : This is a bigger and a better option compared to the port replicator. A docking station
has all of the features as the replicator, with additional features such as bays for added drives and slots for expansion cards.
1.9.3 Palmtop
This is a small computer that can fit in our palm, hence the name palmtop. It is also known as handheld computer or PDA (Personal Digital Assistant). Compared to full-size computers, palmtops are severely limited. However they are practical for certain functions such as phone books and calendars. Palmtops use a pen instead of a keyboard for input. For this, they incorporate handwriting recognition. By using voice recognition technologies, some PDAs can also react to voice input. Most of the PDAs were initially pen-based. The PDAs of today are available in either a stylus or a keyboard version.
Figure 1.15 A Palm Top Computer
In fact, the PDA is a handheld device which combines the features of :
computing. telephone/fax. internet. networking.
A typical PDA can play the role of a fax sender, cellular phone, web browser and personal organizer. Most of the palmtop computers do not include disk drives, mainly because they are very small in size.
Introduction to Computer and Information Technology n 39 However, many machines contain PCMCIA slots. We can insert modems, memory, and some other devices through these slots. Apple computer, one of the first companies to offer PDAs, introduced the Newton MessagePad in 1993. Shortly thereafter, several other manufacturers offered similar products. Today, one of the most popular brands of PDAs is the series of Palm Pilots from Palm, Inc. Media Corporation recently launched a pocket-sized computer measuring just 52 millimeters * 52 millimeters. The machine, dubbed T-Cube, uses the Japanese-developed Tron operating system. The TCube has a weight of 165 grams and a height of 45 mm. All of its components are made in Japan. The price of the machine is around 200,000 yen. Keyboard and display are sold separately, and the machine does not have a built-in hard disk drive.
1.9.4 Work Stations

This is a term which is somewhat vague. It can refer to 2 things :
a place where a person is working on a computer, and it can also refer to a special-purpose high-powered desktop computer.
When the high-powered desktop computers were launched, they were called engineering workstations, because they were mainly used by engineers and scientists. Engineering workstations have been provided by Sun Microsystems, Silicon Graphics (SGI), and Hewlett-Packard, besides others. Later on, because of their high power, they were found to be good at processing graphics with speed. Thus, they were also adopted by the animators and graphics artists. These computers were known as graphics workstations.
Thus, as we can see, the workstation is not a computer with a very precise definition the term workstation can take on different meanings, depending on who is using the system. It is, just for defining it, a higher-end desktop computer with a high-end monitor, which can serve diverse roles for individual users with different high-end computing needs.
1.9.5 Newer Developments in Notebooks

Toshiba Corporation has developed a prototype fuel cell for portable personal computers that may end reliance on rechargeable batteries. The small-sized methanol fuel cell, probably the first of its kind in the world, has a maximum output of 20 watts. It can run about 5 hours on a single fuel cartridge. The cell also provides instant power supply. Through the use of replaceable methanol cartridges the operating times can be extended.
The development of the new fuel cell has been made possible by developing miniaturized fuel tanks and allowing methanol to be stored at very high concentrations. Toshiba plans to commercially launch the cell by the end of 2004.
1.9.5.1 Tablet PC
This is a type of notebook computer which has an LCD screen. The user can write on the screen using a special-purpose pen, or stylus. A stylus is a pointing and drawing device shaped like a pen. A stylus is used with a digitizing tablet or touch screen. The handwriting is digitized and can be converted to standard text through handwriting recognition, or it can remain as handwritten text. Tablet PCs also have a keyboard and/or a mouse for input.
The tablet PC relies on digital ink technology. Here, a digitizer is laid under or over an LCD screen to create an electromagnetic field which can capture the movement of the special-purpose pen. This movement can be recorded on the LCD screen. This effect is similar to writing on paper with liquid ink.
Figure 1.16 Tablet PCs
1.9.5.2 Digitizing tablets

This is an input device with which we can input drawings and sketches into a computer. A digitizing tablet consists of an electronic tablet and a cursor or pen. The cursor is also called a puck and is similar to a mouse. However, unlike a mouse, it has a window with cross hairs for pinpoint placement. Also, it can have as many as 16 buttons. The pen is also called a stylus and it looks like a simple ballpoint pen. However, it uses an electronic head instead of ink. The tablet contains electronics through which it can detect movement of the cursor or pen. These movements are then translated into digital signals that it sends to the computer.
For digitizing tablets, each point on the tablet represents a point on the display screen in a fixed manner. This differs from mice, in which all movement is relative to the current cursor position. The static nature of digitizing tablets makes them particularly effective for tracing drawings. Most modern digitizing tablets also support a mouse emulation mode, in which the pen or cursor acts like a mouse. Digitizing tablets are also called digitizers, graphics tablets, touch tablets, or simply tablets. Microsoft is actively pushing the concept of tablet PCs.
The Need Though computers can perform a wide variety of tasks, they tie down a user to a single location. This is alright for an executive at a phone center, or for an author writing a novel. However, many people are
mobile today, and they need computer access when moving here and there. PDAs (Personal Digital Assistants) can perform some essential tasks, but they are not meant for full-blown computing.
This gap between PCs and PDAs is bridged by the Tablet PCs. Thus, Tablet PCs offer a lightweight, portable option and they work on 2 exciting technologies :
handwriting recognition, and speech-recognition functionality.
With these 2 technologies, the user is freed from the cumbersome mouse and keyboard, and still the user can access the full range of normal applications. However, speech-recognition and handwritingrecognition technologies have been major stumbling blocks for computer makers.
1.9.5.3 Handwriting recognition

This is the technique which helps a computer system to recognize characters and other hand-written symbols. Going by the concept, handwriting recognition can free us from our keyboards. It can help us to write and draw more naturally. This technology might significantly affect the success or failure of PDAs. The technology, though promising, is somewhat slow and the accuracy is not yet proven. Also, many users still find the keyboard more convenient in many situations. Many people can write much faster with a keyboard than they can by hand.
The major challenge faced by tablet PCs is not really related to technology: it has more to do with habit. With years and years of keyboard use, many users handwriting skills have gone down. Thus, properly understanding different peoples writing is a major problem, though data with IDC (International Data Corporation) suggests the accuracy of handwriting recognition ranges from 75 to 80 percent.
1.9.5.4 Voice recognition
Voice recognition is a major area of concern for tablet PCs. If it can understand the spoken word and easily convert it to text, that is the best deal. However, if the Tablet PC mixes up a user's speech, it is of no use at all. Voice recognition software is usually available with the operating system of the Tablet PC. However, it has a lower strike rate than 3rd party software available in the market. The dictionary of the software directly affects the hit rate of voice recognition.
- - - - - - - - MENTAL EXERCISE
- - - - - - - -
Suppose the offices of your company are spread all over the world and they have crores of records to store. The employees need to be constantly in touch and the crores of records need to be available at any office whenever required. Think and discuss which kind of Computers will be suitable for your company :- Macintosh / IBM PC / Mainframe / NoteBook
Suppose the senior managers of your company keep moving all over the world. They are in need of computers constantly as they keep moving here and there. Think and discuss which type of computers will be beneficial for your companys managers :- Macintosh / IBM PC / Mainframe / NoteBook
1.10 COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER

1.10.1 Parts of a Computer
Any system is a combination of inter-dependent components, which are working together in a pre-defined manner to achieve a common goal. All of the components have to be present for the system to work
properly. If any of the components is missing, the system will not operate as expected. A computer system, too, is the same. It is a combination of some parts (components) which collectively work to make the computer perform smoothly, as a well-oiled machine. If any of these components is not available, we will not be able to work on the computer. These components, broadly speaking, can be of the following types :
1.10.2 Input Devices

As the name suggests, this group of devices is used to input data into the computer. All of the data we provide as input goes through the input devices, whatever the type of data numbers, alphabets, pictures, etc.
Probably the commonest of input devices is the KeyBoard, through which we can type in our data. The keyboard remains the most efficient way to enter text into applications. The Mouse is another input device, used for selecting an item by pointing at it. The mouse is a basically a pointing device which conveys graphic instructions to our computer, helping us to point to our choices or to sketch, draw and paint.
A scanner can help to transfer images to our PC. In association with the right software, the scanner becomes an optical character recognition or OCR system that reads text and transforms words into electronic form. A voice recognition or voice input system works through our voice. Using a microphone, it converts the sound waves of our voice into electrical signals. Then a processing board makes those signals digital. Finally, a specialized and sophisticated software reads the digital signal to capture and understand the individual words we have spoken.
1.10.3 CPU (Central Processing Unit)

Sometimes called a logic chip, the CPU is the microprocessor "brain" of the computer system. Everything that a computer does is overseen by the CPU. The Central Processing Unit (CPU) or the Microprocessor
Introduction to Computer and Information Technology n 45 is a computer processor on a microchip. The CPU is the "engine" that goes into motion when we turn our computer on. It is the central unit in a computer which contains the logic circuitry that performs the instructions of a computer's programs. The CPU processes the instructions, performs calculations and manages the flow of information through a computer system. The CPU communicates with input, output and storage devices to perform tasks. The actual thinking inside the computer is performed by the CPU. Thus, the CPU determines the processing power of the computer and also determines what software language it understands, i.e., what programs it can run.
Figure 1.17 Pentium Pro Processor from Intel
A microprocessor is designed to perform arithmetic and logic operations. These operations make use of small number-holding areas called registers. When we switch on the computer, the microprocessor gets the first instruction from the Basic Input/Output System (BIOS) that comes with the computer as part of its memory (ROM). After that, the microprocessor is driven either by the operating system that BIOS loads into computer memory, or an application program, which give it instructions to perform.
1.10.3.1 Control Unit

This is that part of the CPU which acts as the central controller in the Computer. This part reads the data stored in the memory, sends it to the CPU for processing and then sends the output to the screen/printer for display.
Figure 1.18 Pentium MMX. Left side shows chip underside with cover removed
1.10.3.2 Arithmetic Logic Unit

As the name suggests, this unit performs the mathematical and logical operations in the Computer. Thus, all additions, subtractions, etc. are performed by the ALU. Finding out the greater number out of 2 numbers is also done by the ALU. Finding out which is a longer word (such as Bhoj or Bhojpal) is also done by the ALU.
1.10.4 Mother BoardMLB

The MLB (Main Logic Board), system board, or motherboard is the physical foundation of a computer. It is also known as baseboard, planar board, or main board. The motherboard is the central PC building block. This is because all other components are either directly or indirectly plugged into the motherboard. The motherboard provides the electrical interconnectivity so that the PC's hardware components and subsystems can communicate with each other.
Introduction to Computer and Information Technology n 47 The MLB is present in the main PC chassis. When we open the cover of the PC, the mainboard becomes visible as the biggest sheet of fiberglass, green or brown in colour. It is directly mounted on the chassis of the PC. The MLB is based on a specific CPU and supporting chip set. System boards come in different configurations including:
Extended Technology (XT) style AT style Baby AT style
The early boards followed the IBM PC/XT configuration. Later on, the IBM PC/AT configuration was introduced. The chip sets started incorporating more and more features, thus the size of the MLBs became smaller and smaller. System boards have multiple layers with connections sandwiched between the different fiberglass layers. The right rear corner of the board has connectors for the keyboard and the mouse.
Processor on MotherBoard
Figure 1.19 Mother Board with AMD K5 processor on board
1.10.5 Output Devices

As the name suggests, this group of devices is used to output the information from the computer. All of the results of the processing activity going inside the computer are viewed through the output devices, whatever the type of data numbers, pictures, etc.
Probably the commonest of output devices is the Monitor, which is the screen through which we can see the result of the processing. The Printer is another output device, used for printing the output on a sheet of paper. This could be an ordinary paper, butter paper, or a transparency for presenting in a meeting. The printout we get on paper is known as a hard copy. In comparison, the data present inside the computer in a file is known as a soft copy. With advancing technology, we can get the output on any type of surface, such as cloth. Today, we have photo printers which can give us photo-like quality output.
1.11 HARDWARE
Hardware refers to the physical parts of the computer system which collectively make up the system. This means that hardware is something that we can see or touch. In other words, the physical components with which we can interact directly are known as hardware. A peripheral is any piece of hardware controlled by a computer e.g. a Printer. Every PC is built from an array of components. Each of these components serves a specific function in making the overall machine work. Hardware implies a collection. Hardware includes the basic computer and also the Cables, Connectors, and peripheral devices such as the Keyboard, mouse, audio speakers and Printers. Hardware is somewhat permanent and invariable. However, we can extend the capabilities of the hardware by adding new cards and adapters.
1.12 SOFTWARE
Once we have purchased a Computer, that alone is not enough. This is just the hardware part of the overall system. In order to work on the Computer, we need something more : the software. This is similar to purchasing a TV. After purchasing the TV, we need some channels to make good use of the TV. If
Introduction to Computer and Information Technology n 49 there are no channels showing programs, we cannot make any use of the TV. The TV will be a dumb machine lying in a corner, and doing nothing. It is the same situation with a Computer. Once we purchase a Computer, we need some programs to be able to work on the Computer. These programs are known as software. All the features of the Computer can be accessed only through the software. Without the software, the Computer will be a dumb machine lying in a corner, and doing nothing. Software is a general term for the various kinds of programs used to operate computers and related devices. As compared to hardware, software is a bit more flexible. If we put an entirely new program on the hardware, we can offer an entirely new experience for our user, as if we have purchased a new computer. Technically, though, we can define software as follows : A software is a program written in a computer language, running through a pre-defined fixed series of steps, and executing a particular task. Thus, these are the essential features of a software : Written in a Computer language. Well-defined sequence of steps. Fixed number of steps. Executing a particular task.
Any software, whether big or small, is going to meet all of these criteria. - - - - - - - - MENTAL EXERCISE - - - - - - - -
Suppose we have typed a list of guests invited to a party in the Computer. Think and discuss on which device/devices will we able to see the list :o KeyBoard o Printer o Scanner o Monitor o Mouse
1.13 INPUT/OUTPUT FUNCTIONS AND CHARACTERISTICS (How

computer works)
Having discussed the very basics of a computer, it is time now to understand briefly how it works. The following are the steps involved in the working, taken in proper order :
1. the data is accepted through the Input device. 2. the data then enters the CPU. 3. the control unit records the data in the memory. 4. the data is sent to the Arithmetic and Logic Unit for processing. 5. the control unit stores the result (information) in the memory. 6. the result is displayed on the Output device. The entire process can be represented graphically as follows :
Memory
2 5
Input Device
Control Unit
3 4
Output Device
Arithmetic and Logic Unit
Figure 1.20 : Working of the Computer
1.14 MEMORY
Memory is the electronic holding place for instructions and data that our computer's microprocessor can reach quickly. In other words, all the input we provide and all the output the computer provides is held in the memory of the computer.
Memory, thus, is the internal storage area in the computer. The term memory refers to data storage in the form of chips, and the word storage refers to memory that exists on tapes or disks. Also, the term memory is usually used as a shorthand for physical memory, which refers to the actual chips capable of holding data. Suppose we are running a program to add 2 numbers. In this case, we will see the following steps :
1. We will first of all load the program. This will bring the program from the hard disk/floppy disk into the main memory of the computer. 2. Once we enter the 2 numbers (input), they will be stored in the main memory. 3. The program will calculate the total, and store the result in the memory. 4. The result will be shown on the Monitor/Printer, as required. Thus, as we can see, the memory plays an important role at every stage of the processing cycle. The amount of memory determines 2 important features :
The number of programs a computer can run at once. With more of available memory, we can run more number of programs on our computer at the same time.
The speed at which the programs will operate. Generally speaking, with more of available memory, the computer will run faster.
We can improve the performance of a computer by adding more memory.
1.14.1 Units of Memory

Memory is measured in bytes. Here are the different units of memory explained :
Bit : Bit stands for binary digit. Inside the computer, every character we use (letters and also numbers) is represented by a combination of 0s and 1s. That is to say, 2 digits are used to represent the entire information inside the computer. This is why we call it as a binary digit, or bit. (the term bi means 2.) Thus, a bit is the smallest unit of representing data inside the computer. Byte : One Byte is one character. A character can be a number, letter or symbol. One byte consists of eight bits (binary digits). Bit is the smallest unit of information a computer can process. Kilobyte(KB) : One Kilobyte is 1,024 characters. This is approximately equal to one page of double-spaced text. Megabyte(MB) : One Megabyte is 1,048,576 characters. This is approximately equal to one book. Gigabyte(GB) : One Gigabyte is 1,073,741,824 characters. This is approximately equal to one shell of books in a library. Terabyte(TB) : One Terabyte is 1,099,511,627,776 characters. This is approximately equal to an entire library of books.
Table 1.3 Units of Memory UNIT SIZE
Byte KiloByte MegaByte GigaByte TeraByte
8 bits 1024 Bytes 1024 KiloBytes 1024 MegaBytes 1024 GigaBytes
1.14.2 PRIMARY STORAGE

Primary means something very basic, very elementary. Primary memory too refers to the basic memory of the Computer. Thus, the type of memory that is on-board the system is known as the primary memory. The primary memory is divided into the following types : ROM, RAM, Cache, Buffer, Virtual, Flash, PROM, EPROM, and EEPROM. Let us examine each in detail.
ROM : ROM stands for Read Only Memory. As the name suggests, this is the type of memory that is read-only. It cannot be used for writing onto, i.e., for recording by the user. The ROM is used by the
Introduction to Computer and Information Technology n 53 Computer for its own tasks, for some internal processing. Thus, it does not involve direct interaction from the user.
TIP : The ROM is like a text-book : we only read from a book, we cannot write into the book.
The users manual of any product is like the ROM of the computer. It can be used for reading some instructions and it can help in a proper operation of the machinery. However, the manual is never used by the user for writing anything into it. The ROM performs the same role in a Computer.
There is another important feature of ROM : ROM is a memory which is permanent in nature. It has got nothing to do with the presence of electricity or the absence of it. The data held by the ROM is the same, whatever the state of electricity.
PROM : PROM stands for programmable read-only memory. A PROM is a memory chip on which we can store a program, but only once. Once the PROM has been used, we cannot wipe it clean and use it to store something else. Like ROMs, PROMs are non-volatile.
EPROM : EPROM stands for erasable programmable read-only memory. An EPROM is a special type of PROM that can be erased by exposing it to ultraviolet light.
EEPROM : EEPROM stands for electrically erasable programmable read-only memory. An EEPROM is a special type of PROM that can be erased by exposing it to an electrical charge.
RAM : Every computer comes with a certain amount of physical memory, usually referred to as main memory or RAM. RAM stands for Random Access Memory. As the name suggests, this is the type of memory that can be accessed randomly. This kind of memory is located on one or more microchips that are physically close to the microprocessor in our computer. This memory can be used for writing onto, i.e., for recording by the user.
TIP : Whenever we refer to the memory of the computer, we are primarily referring to the RAM.
Whenever we are running a program in Windows, the program is loaded into the RAM. The data being used in the program, such as the age, name, class, etc., might be retrieved from the database. It is also possible that the data is being directly typed by us. Either way, the memory that is going to hold the data is the RAM. RAM is rated and classified by access time. The slowest RAM chips were 250 nanoseconds (ns), and the fastest is around 10 ns. Typically RAM chip speeds are about 50 to 70 ns.
TIP : The RAM can be considered as a note-book : we use a note-book for writing, similar to the role of the RAM.
Another important feature of the RAM is that it is volatile. This means that the contents of the RAM are never permanent. While there is electricity, the data entered in the RAM will be kept alive. As soon as the electricity is switched off, the data stored in the RAM is lost, forever.
Figure 1.21 A RAM Chip
Introduction to Computer and Information Technology n 55 We can consider the main memory as an array of boxes, with each box holding a single byte of information. A computer that has 1 megabyte of memory, therefore, can hold about 1 million bytes (or characters) of information.
The following table summarizes the difference between ROM and RAM :
Table 1.4 Comparison of ROM and RAM Feature Volatility Data Stored ROM Non-Volatile System related Volatile Application data RAM
1.14.3 Other Types of Memory

1.14.3.1 Cache Memory
This memory serves a very different kind of a purpose. Similar to the RAM, it holds the data. However, it does not store the entire data : only the recent data is stored in the cache. In this sense, it is different from the RAM. The cache is a high-speed memory between the CPU and the RAM. Normally, the computer keeps moving the data between the CPU, disk and the memory whenever processing is going on. The data needs to be brought to the CPU from either : the hard disk, or the RAM.
The Computer keeps a list of the most recently executed commands ready. This list is stored in the cache memory. This way, whenever we execute a command that had been executed only recently, the Computer can quickly retrieve the result from the cache memory. If the data is found in the Cache, it can be quickly loaded and shown to the user. Otherwise, the computer will have to re-execute the command from scratch, and get a fresh copy of the results, which will take up precious processing time. This way, the Cache memory saves time and helps in a faster processing of the commands. Cache memory is of 2 types : Internal L1 Cache: Whenever the computer needs data, it first looks for the data in the L1 cache. L1 cache is quite small in size. It is present directly on the CPU chip. Thus, it provides the fastest way for the computer to get the frequently used data. L1 cache is also known as the
primary cache. RAM is from 3 to 10 times slower than the CPU and the Level 1 cache. L1 cache first appeared in the 80486 chips. Internal L2 Cache: If the computer cannot find the data it needs in the L1 cache, the computer looks in the L2 cache. It is also called the secondary cache. Level 2 is larger in size and, until recent years, has been located outside the chip on the motherboard. Level 2 CPU cache was incorporated into the chip for the first time in PentiumPro chips. Level 2 CPU cache external to the CPU chip runs at half the speed of the CPU. The latest Intel and AMD chips have both Level 1 and Level 2 CPU cache memory inside the chip, to maximize performance.
User requests data
Computer searches Cache Data in cache
Data not in cache
Data retrieved from Cache (fast process)
Data retrieved from RAM or Hard Disk (slow process)
Cache updated with new results
Figure 1.22 Working of Cache Memory
If the computer cannot find the data it needs in the L1 or L2 cache, the computer must get the data from the slower main memory, the RAM. Every time the computer requests data from the RAM, it places a copy of the data in the cache. This way, the memory cache is kept constantly updated, so
Introduction to Computer and Information Technology n 57 that it always contains the most recently used data. The entire process of cache search can be graphically represented as follows :
1.14.3.2 Buffer
When we begin working on a program, the program is loaded into the memory. The data entered by the user for the particular program is also stored in the memory. However, each program is given a slice of the memory, in which the program as well as its data is stored. This makes the organization and the storage more effective and efficient. To search for some data related to a particular program, the computer does not have to search the entire memory. It only has to look up the Buffer, where the data for the current program is stored.
1.14.3.3 Virtual Memory

The term virtual means something with only a logical existence, but no physical existence. For example, the RAM and ROM are physical they are basically a set of chips, which we can see and touch. On the other hand, in virtual memory there are no chips or any physical objects representing the virtual memory.
With very large programs and very large data files, the memory of a computer can be put under a lot of strain. Gradually, the memory will become so much packed that very little of the memory will be left free, thus :
the system will become very slow, and the system might even hang. (stop working)
Keeping this problem in mind, the newer operating systems and applications have an interesting feature : a part of the program or the data is stored outside the RAM. Once it is needed again, it is fetched back
into the RAM, and the part that is not required at present is shifted outside the RAM. This is the concept of virtual memory : the data is constantly swapped (exchanged) between the RAM and outside the RAM, depending on whether it is currently required or not. The device that stores this extra data or program is the hard disk. Thus, as we can see, the virtual memory is only a logical concept, since there are no physical chips devoted to virtual memory.
The virtual memory expands the physical memory onto the hard disk. The Virtual memory refers to the space on a hard disk used to temporarily store data and swap (exchange) it in and out of RAM as needed. This helps in an improvement in performance. The higher the virtual memory, the better the performance of the computer system. This is because the RAM is kept relatively free for storing data and other instructions related to other programs that are going on.
The working of virtual memory can be represented graphically as follows :
Redundant data and instructions RAM Required data and instructions HARD DISK
Figure 1.23 Working of Virtual Memory
1.14.3.4 Flash Memory

Another special type of memory. One of the latest in storage, this memory too is represented in the form of chips. Here, the data is stored on a permanent basis. Even when the power is switched off, the data is
Introduction to Computer and Information Technology n 59 retained in the flash memory, i.e., the flash memory is non-volatile. Since there are no moving parts, this is faster than mechanical disks and tapes.
A form of flash memory is available in PC cards of the size of a credit card. These are also known as PCMCIA cards. In notebook computers, these cards can play the role of a Hard disk by plugging into the slots at the side of the computer. They consume less energy but run faster than the Hard disk. Equally important, they are removable. When one flash card is filled up, we take it out and plug in another card in its place. As a result of these features, and also because they are small, these cards are used with PDAs, Digital Cameras, etc.
Figure 1.24 : Flash Memory Card
AT-A-GLANCE
Information Technology is concerned with the creation, storage, processing and delivery of information. Computer is an electronic device which accepts data processes it to provide meaningful information. Mother Board is the basic foundation of the Computer. Computers can be categorized on the basis of technology, usage and size. Abacus is probably the oldest calculating device. Charles Babbage is called the father of computers. The 1st generation of Computers used Vacuum Tubes. The 2nd generation of Computers used transistors. The 3rd generation of Computers used Integrated Circuits. The 4th generation of Computers uses Microprocessors.
On the basis of the mother board, Computers can be called as XT or AT type. The basis architecture of the PC and Macintosh is different. NoteBook computers can fit in our laps. Tablet PCs work through a digitizing tablet and digital ink. PalmTop is currently the smallest type of Computer. Workstation is a high-capacity PC meant for a specific task. The main components of a Computer are Input Device, CPU and Output Device. Hardware includes all the Input and Output devices of the Computer. These are also known as Peripherals. Software refers to the Computer programmes which are helpful in operating the Computer and the peripherals. Memory stores the program instructions and the data. Primary memory is directly connected to the CPU, whereas the secondary memory is indirectly connected to the CPU. ROM is where the Computer stores its own data. RAM is where the Computer stores the data of the user.
QUESTION-HOUR
Explain in detail : 1. What is a Computer ? Explain the components of a Computer. 2. Describe the strengths and weaknesses of a Computer. 3. Discuss the classification of Computers based on size. 4. What is meant by Generations of Computers ? 5. Describe the working of a Computer. 6. Discuss the different types of P.C.s 7. Write a note on Super Computers. 8. Explain the difference between CPU and Mother Board. 9. Discuss the concept of memory 10. Discuss the role of Charles Babbage in the history of development of Computers. 11. What has been Herman Holleriths contribution in the history of development of Computers ? Answer in Yes/No : 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Abacus was invented by the Americans. Jaquard made a loom that operated through Puch Cards. Generally speaking, MicroComputers are more powerful than WorkStations. The Computer stores our data in the RAM. The data held in ROM cannot be changed.
Fill in the blanks :
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
The processor of the Macintosh Computer is _______. Laptops usually have a _______ type of a monitor. The full name of EPROM is _______. The main feature of a Digital Computer is _______. Charles Babbage first thought of the _______ _______.
Looking ahead . . . . . In this chapter we studied the working and the components of a Computer. It is possible that we have the following questions on our minds : How to enter data into the Computer ? How to view the results from the Computer ? How to store the results for a long time ? In order to get the answers to these questions, read along . . . . .

Introduction To Computers &

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Introduction to Computer and Information Technology n 1

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS &

This chapter will introduce us to the following concepts :

Different Types of Computers

Various Components of Computers

2 n Fundamentals of Computers and Information Technology

4 n Fundamentals of Computers and Information Technology

1.1 WHAT IS INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

1.2 HISTORY OF COMPUTERS

Figure 1.1 The Abacus

1.2.2 BLAISE PASCAL (1623-62)

6 n Fundamentals of Computers and Information Technology

1.2.4 JOSEPH JAQUARD (1752-1834)

1.2.5 CHARLES BABBAGE

Introduction to Computer and Information Technology n 7

1.2.7 HERMAN HOLLERITH

Figure 1.2 IBM 80-column punched card format

8 n Fundamentals of Computers and Information Technology

1.2.8 GEORGE BOOLE (1815-64)

1.4 WHAT IS A COMPUTER SYSTEM

Figure 1.3 Explanation of a system

10 n Fundamentals of Computers and Information Technology

1.5 CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTERS

1.5.1 CAPABILITIES OF COMPUTERS

Unit MilliSecond MicroSecond NanoSecond PicoSecond

Introduction to Computer and Information Technology n 11

12 n Fundamentals of Computers and Information Technology

1.5.2 LIMITATIONS OF COMPUTERS

1.6 TYPES OF COMPUTERS

14 n Fundamentals of Computers and Information Technology

Size and Capacity

1.6.1 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON TECHNOLOGY

Figure 1.4 An Oscilloscope, based on Analog signals

TIP : Analog computers measure values.

1.6.1.2 Digital Computers

Figure 1.5 A digital watch

16 n Fundamentals of Computers and Information Technology

1.6.2 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON APPLICATIONS

1.6.2.2 Special Purpose Computers

Figure 1.6 A Flight Simulator

18 n Fundamentals of Computers and Information Technology

Figure 1.7 A Cardiac Monitor

1.6.3 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON SIZE AND CAPACITY

Screen C.P.U . Key Board Mouse

1.6.3.2 Mini Computer

20 n Fundamentals of Computers and Information Technology

Figure 1.9 A MiniComputer

1.6.3.3 MainFrame Computer

Figure 1.10 A Mainframe Installation

22 n Fundamentals of Computers and Information Technology

Figure 1.11 A Super Computer

24 n Fundamentals of Computers and Information Technology

1.7 GENERATIONS OF COMPUTERS

1.7.1 First Generation : 1946-1958

1.7.2 Second Generation : 1959-64

1.7.3 Third Generation : 1965-70

26 n Fundamentals of Computers and Information Technology

1.7.4 Fourth Generation : 1971 - ?

Introduction to Computer and Information Technology n 27

Table 1.2 : Comparison of Computer Generations Generation 1

Landmark Vacuum Tubes

Memory Magnetic Drum