Part 1: Introduction 1.

1: Introduction of the crop:

1.1.1: Sugar cane Sugar cane is a grass and the source of 70% of the world's sugar which is extracted from the sweet, juicy stems. Sugar's long history has included its spread from New Guinea to South Asia, then with Arab farmers to the Mediterranean, and - most notoriously - as the foundation of the Caribbean slave trade.

Sugar cane - plant profile Names Sugar cane, noble cane (English) Ikshu, khanda, sarkara (Sanskrit) Pundia, paunda (Hindi) Poovan karumbu (Tamil) Botanical name: Saccharum officinarum Family: Poaceae, the grass family, also known as the Gramineae

1.1.2 The plant Sugar cane is a tall grass which looks rather like a bamboo cane. Some forms grow up to 6 meters tall. The thicker stemmed forms are commonly known as 'thick' or 'noble' canes because of their tall, handsome and colourful stems.

Image: Sugar cane is cultivated for its stem. Stem (cane) - robust and often brightly coloured. Sugar cane is cultivated for its stem. The main product is the sugar contained within it. Leaves - broad leaves, growing alternately off the stem. The base of the leaves encircle the stem. Besides Saccharum officinarum, four other species in the Saccharum genus, and their hybrids, have been used for sugar production. They are S. barberi, known as "Indian cane" or "thin" cane; S. robustum, which is probably a wild ancestor of S. officinarum; S. sinense, known as 'Chinese cane' and thought to be a hybrid of S. officinarum and S. spontaneum; and S. spontaneum, which is known as 'wild cane' and used for hybridisation purposes.

1.1.3: Sugar cane - history 2

Sugar cane originated in New Guinea where it has been known for thousands of years. Sugar cane plants spread along human migration routes to Asia and the Indian subcontinent. Here it cross-bred with some wild sugar cane relatives to produce the commercial sugar cane we know today. Global spread

In the 1400s and 1500s in India, cows belonging to the Sultan of Mandu were fed sugar cane for weeks to make their milk sweet for use in puddings. Sugar cane originated in New Guinea where it has been known since about 6000 BC. From about 1000 BC its cultivation gradually spread along human migration routes to Southeast Asia and India and east into the Pacific. It is thought to have hybridised with wild sugar canes of India and China, to produce the 'thin' canes. It spread westwards to the Mediterranean between 6001400 AD. Arabs were responsible for much of its spread as they took it to Egypt around 640 AD, during their conquests. They carried it with them as they advanced around the Mediterranean. Sugar cane spread by this means to Syria, Cyprus, and Crete, eventually reaching Spain around 715 AD. Around 1420 the Portuguese introduced sugar cane into Madeira, from where it soon reached the Canary Islands, the Azores, and West Africa. Columbus transported sugar cane from the

Canary Islands to what is now the Dominican Republic in 1493. The crop was taken to Central and South America from the 1520s onwards, and later to the British and French West Indies. Sugar in South Asia Sugar cane has a very long history of cultivation in the Indian sub-continent. The earliest reference to it is in the Atharva Veda (c. 1500-800 BC) where it is called ikshu and mentioned as an offering in sacrificial rites. The Atharva Veda uses it as a symbol of sweet attractiveness. Sugar cane was originally grown for the sole purpose of chewing, in southeastern Asia and the Pacific. The rind was removed and the internal tissues sucked or chewed. Production of sugar by boiling the cane juice was first discovered in India, most likely during the first millennium BC. The word 'sugar' is thought to derive from the ancient Sanskrit sharkara. By the 6th century BC sharkara was frequently referred to in Sanskrit texts which even distinguished superior and inferior varieties of sugarcane. The Susrutha Samhita listed 12 varieties; the best types were supposed to be the vamshika with thin reeds and the paundraka of Bengal. It was also being called guda, a term which is still used in India to denote jaggery. A Persian account from the 6th century BC gives the first account of solid sugar and describes it as coming from the Indus Valley. This early sugar would have resembled what is known as 'raw' sugar: Indian dark brown sugar or gur. At this time honey was the only sweetener in the countries beyond Asia and all visitors to India were much taken with the 'reed which produced honey without bees'. The Greek historian Herodotus knew of the sugarcane in the 5th century BC and Alexander is said to have sent some home when he came to the Punjab region in 326 BC. Practically every traveller to India over the centuries mentions sugarcane; the Moroccan Ibn Battuta wrote of the sugarcanes of Kerala which excelled every other in the 14th century; Francois Bernier, in India from 1658-59, wrote of the extensive fields of sugarcane in Bengal. Sugar in literature Indian literature abounds in references to the sugarcane: early Tamil literature describes sugarcane along the banks of the River Kaveri, and indeed sugarcane was usually cultivated in river valleys. Early Indian kings set aside land for pleasure gardens, groves and public parks, and gardens were attached to palaces and grand mansions. The Kamasutra, an early erotic treatise written by Vatsyayana (c. 2nd century AD - c.4th century AD), recommended that a

cultivated

and

wealthy

man

should

surround

his

house

with

garden.

The garden would be under the care of his wife who would dictate the layout of the garden and its planting, while the physical labour was left to professional gardeners. The Kamasutra spoke of pleasure gardens and practical gardens and was specific about what should be planted in the gardens. The practical garden had to include beds of green vegetables, sugarcane, fig trees, mustard, parsley and fennel. The great goddess Kamakshi of Tamil Nadu is portrayed in art holding in her four hands lotus blossom, sugar cane stalks, elephant goad and noose. British rule Until the 1930s, the main types of sugar cane grown in India were the 'thin' canes. They were well suited to the north Indian climate, though yields were fairly low. In the southern or tropical zone of the country, where the climate was more suitable for sugar cane cultivation, thicker 'noble' canes were more important. Thicker varieties of sugarcane were brought in from the West Indies and the area under sugarcane was greatly expanded. Various hybrids were developed leading to a doubling of cane production in the Indian subcontinent.

1.1.4: Cultivation

This

photograph

shows

sugar

cane

plantation in Uttar Pradesh in about 1910. This area is still one of India's primary sugar cane producing states. Substantial increases in yields have occurred over the past 100 years due to improved cultivation and breeding of higher-yielding varieties. Sugar cane plantations are usually established in the spring, by planting stem cuttings in fields. As they grow, the stems multiply at the base, often producing a cluster of 2 or 3 stems. The stems thrive in full sunshine, and as they mature the sugar content increases. Cut sugar cane re-grows, so plantations last for many years without having to replant.

1.1.5: Harvesting and processing

Manually extracting juice from sugarcane Stems are usually harvested at the age of about 11-14 months. The stems are usually cut manually and are bundled to be taken to a sugar mill. Canes are shredded and crushed with heavy rollers to retrieve the juice which contains 10-20% sucrose. This juice, which is dull green and murky, is sieved to filter out some of the impurities. The vast majority of cane sugar commercially produced today is known as 'centrifugal'. With this process, the pH is raised with lime and the mixture is heated to around 100 degrees centigrade for several hours. The lime causes suspended materials, proteins, waxes, and fats to separate out. Further impurities are allowed to settle in large containers and are removed from the bottom. This residue is known as filter-cake or press-mud. The clear juice is evaporated off to form crystals. Sugar crystals are separated from the molasses, or brown syrup, by centrifugation. The sugar produced in raw, and brown specialties are demerara and muscovado.

This raw brown sugar can be refined to produce white sugar, which is almost 100 per cent sucrose. This usually happens in the country of import. Icing sugar is manufactured by pulverising refined sugar in a mill. It is mostly used for confectionery and for cakes, pastries and other baked products. Non-centrifugal sugars include gur. Here sugar cane juice is heated over an open fire to give a thick, paste-like product. 1.1.6: Milling Sugarcane first has to be moved to a mill which is usually located close to the area of cultivation. Small rail networks are a common method of transporting the cane to a mill. Refineries subjected newly arrived cane to a quality test, evaluating it according to the brix and trash percentage.

Sugar crystals In a sugar refinery, or sugar mill, sugarcane is washed, chopped, and shredded by revolving knives. The shredded cane is repeatedly mixed with water and crushed between rollers; the collected juices (called garapa in Brazil) contain 1015 percent sucrose, and the remaining fibrous solids, called bagasse, are burned for fuel. Bagasse makes a sugar mill more than selfsufficient in energy; the surplus bagasse can be used for animal feed, in paper manufacture, or burned to generate electricity for the local power grid. The cane juice is next mixed with lime to adjust its pH to 7. This mixing arrests sucrose's decay into glucose and fructose, and precipitates out some impurities. The mixture then sits, allowing the lime and other suspended solids to settle out, and the clarified juice is concentrated in a multiple-effect evaporator to make syrup about 60 percent by weight in sucrose. This syrup is further concentrated under vacuum until it becomes supersaturated, and then seeded with

crystalline sugar. On cooling, sugar crystallizes out of the syrup. A centrifuge is used to separate the sugar from the remaining liquid, or molasses. Additional crystallizations may be performed to extract more sugar from the molasses; the molasses remaining after no more sugar can be extracted from it in a cost-effective fashion is called blackstrap. Raw sugar has a yellow to brown colour. If a white product is desired, sulfur dioxide may be bubbled through the cane juice before evaporation; this chemical bleaches many color-forming impurities into colourless ones. Sugar bleached white by this sulfitation process is called "mill white", "plantation white", and "crystal sugar". This form of sugar is the form most commonly consumed in sugarcane-producing countries. 1.1.7: Refining

The Santa Elisa sugarcane processing plant, one of the largest and oldest in Brazil, is located in Sertozinho, Brazil.

Evaporator with baffled pan and foam dipper for making ribbon cane syrup. Three Rivers Historical Society Museum at Browntown, South Carolina In sugar refining, raw sugar is further purified. It is first mixed with heavy syrup and then centrifuged clean. This process is called 'affination'; its purpose is to wash away the outer

coating of the raw sugar crystals, which is less pure than the crystal interior. The remaining sugar is then dissolved to make syrup, about 70 percent by weight solids. The sugar solution is clarified by the addition of phosphoric acid and calcium hydroxide, which combine to precipitate calcium phosphate. The calcium phosphate particles entrap some impurities and absorb others, and then float to the top of the tank, where they can be skimmed off. An alternative to this "phosphatation" technique is 'carbonatation,' which is similar, but uses carbon dioxide and calcium hydroxide to produce a calcium carbonate precipitate. After any remaining solids are filtered out, the clarified syrup is decolorized by filtration through a bed of activated carbon; bone char was traditionally used in this role, but its use is no longer common. Some remaining colour-forming impurities adsorb to the carbon bed. The purified syrup is then concentrated to supersaturation and repeatedly crystallized under vacuum, to produce white refined sugar. As in a sugar mill, the sugar crystals are separated from the molasses by centrifuging. Additional sugar is recovered by blending the remaining syrup with the washings from affination and again crystallizing to produce brown sugar. When no more sugar can be economically recovered, the final molasses still contains 2030 percent sucrose and 1525 percent glucose and fructose. To produce granulated sugar, in which the individual sugar grains do not clump together, sugar must be dried. Drying is accomplished first by drying the sugar in a hot rotary dryer, and then by conditioning the sugar by blowing cool air through it for several days.

1.2: Producing World Regions Sugarcane, Saccharum officinarum L., an old energy source for human beings and, more recently, a replacement of fossil fuel for motor vehicles, was first grown in South East Asia and Western India. Around 327 B.C. it was an important crop in the Indian sub-continent. It was introduced to Egypt around 647 A.D. and, about one century later, to Spain (755 A.D.).

Image: Sugarcane Producing World Regions Sugarcane is grown in the world from altitude 36.7 N and 31.0 S, from sea level to 1000m of altitude or little more. It is considered as essentially a tropical plant. It is a long duration crop and thus it encounters all the seasons' viz., rainy, winter and summer during its life cycle. Sugar cane is the source of sugar in all tropical and subtropical countries of the world. Estimates for 1966 and 1967 indicate world production of cane sugar was between 40 and 41 million tons. Production in the United States, excluding Puerto Rico, averaged 2,550,000 tons during those years - from 592,000 acres of cane in Hawaii, Florida and Louisiana. Sugar production in Puerto Rico averaged 850,000 tons for the two years. Several species of Saccharum are found in Southeast Asia and neighboring islands, and from these cultivated cane probably originated. The sweet juice and crystallized sugar were known in China and India some 2500 years ago. Sugar cane reached the Mediterranean countries in the eighth century A.D., and reached the Americas in early colonial times.

1.3: Environmental Requirements A sugar plant requires a total of 50 to 65 inches of rainfall a year, with a dry period to allow for final ripening. Continuous rainfall encourages stalk growth but limits the formation of sucrose. Growth usually ceases when temperature drop below 65F and is best above 80F.

Part 2: Production & Consumption

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2.1: Producers: 2.1.1: Production

Top Ten Sugarcane Producers 11 June 2008 Country Brazil India People's Republic of China Thailand Pakistan Mexico Colombia Australia United States Philippines World Production (Tons) 514,079,729 355,520,000 106,316,000 64,365,682 54,752,000 P 50,680,000 40,000,000 F 36,000,000 27,750,600 25,300,000 F 1,557,664,978 A Footnote

2.1.2: 3 Leading Producers:

Brazil, the worlds largest sugarcane producer and a leading ethanol manufacturer

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Brazil, the worlds largest sugarcane producer and a leading ethanol manufacturer, has planned to invest hefty amount in ethanol production and building of new plants and extensions. Brazilian media have reported that by 2012, investment in the ethanol production in Brazil will touch nearly 36 Billion reais, (US$ 18.80 Billion) as new plants will be constructed in the country together with the expansion of existing ones, as published by Macauhub. Presently, Brazil has over 300 ethanol and sugar plants and to construct new facilities, the demand for sugarcane plantation area will rise by around 63% to almost 10 Million Hectares. According to the industry representing body - Union of Sugar Cane Industries (Unica) - it is estimated that the investment planned through the year 2012 will be three times more than that made between 2002 and 2005 in the sector. At present, 50% of the sugarcane produced by Brazil is used in the production of ethanol and it is expected to increase to 60% by the year 2012. Enhanced ethanol production will meet the demand in the Brazilian market, where 12% of ethanol is used by the cars and around 85% of the new vehicles are powered by ethanol. Ethanol production will be raised by over 11% to around 38 Billion Liter through investments coming from both private and public channels, including from foreign lands also. The leading market research company published a report on Brazilian biofuel industry Brazil Biofuel Market Outlook (2007-2010) that says in 2006, to meet the rising demands stemming from the better performance of flex fuels vehicles and mandatory ethanol blending, around 89 new plants were built to boost the ethanol production. The report further puts forth that during 2007-2010, ethanol production level is expected to rise at a CAGR of 10% in Brazil, thanks to its favorable geographic and climatic conditions (that supports sugarcane production), low cost of production, and the countrys commitment to cut the greenhouse gas emission. There are a multitude of reasons behind the rising interest in Brazils ethanol industry and the most important one is the Brazils position as the worlds leading sugarcane producer and manufacturer of 40% of the worlds fuel ethanol.

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India: India is the second leading producer of sugarcane. India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the secondmost populous country, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the west, and the Bay of Bengal on the east, India has a coastline of 7,517 kilometers (4,700 mi). It is bordered by Pakistan to the west; People's Republic of China (PRC), Nepal, and Bhutan to the north; and Bangladesh and Myanmar to the east. India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka, the Maldives, and Indonesia in the Indian Ocean. China: The People's Republic of China (PRC) commonly known as China, is the largest country in East Asia and the most populous in the world with over 1.3 billion people, approximately one-fifth of the world's population. China is the third leading sugarcane producer. It is a socialist republic (specifically a people's democratic dictatorship according to its constitution) ruled by the Communist Party of China under a single-party system, and has jurisdiction over twenty-two provinces, five autonomous regions, four municipalities, and two largely self-governing Special Administrative Regions. The PRC's capital is Beijing. At 9.6 million square kilometers, the People's Republic of China is the world's third or fourth largest country by total area, and the second largest by land area. Its landscape is diverse with forest steppes and deserts (the Gobi and Taklamakan) in the dry north near Mongolia and Russia's Siberia, and subtropical forests in the wet south close to Vietnam, Laos, and Myanmar. The terrain in the west is rugged and high altitude, with the Himalayas and the Tian Shan mountain ranges forming China's natural borders with India and Central Asia. In contrast, mainland China's eastern seaboard is low-lying and has a 14,500-kilometre long coastline bounded on the southeast by the South China Sea and on the east by the East China Sea beyond which lies Taiwan, Korea, and Japan.

2.2: Consumers:
World production and consumption of sugar in 2004& 2005 (million tons, raw value)

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Production Consumption Production Consumption (2004) WORLD Developing countries Latin America & Caribbean Africa Near East Far East Oceania Developed countries Europe EU (25) North America CIS in Europe Oceania Others 142.5 99.6 49.9 5.3 6.1 37.9 0.4 43.0 21.8 21.0 7.4 5.0 5.6 3.2 (2004) 147.8 106.0 50.7 5.0 6.3 43.7 0.4 41.8 20.4 19.7 8.0 4.5 5.3 3.6 (2005) 145.1 97.4 26.5 8.1 11.1 51.6 0.1 47.8 20.2 18.1 10.4 11.4 1.4 4.5 (2005) 148.0 100.1 27.0 8.3 11.4 53.2 0.1 48.0 20.2 18.1 10.4 11.5 1.4 4.5

2.2.1: 3 Leading Consumers:

The leading producing countries are also the leading consumers because of the vast population & large internal demand. The leading consumers are as follows:

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People's Republic of China India Brazil

Part 3: International Trade

3.1: Top Ten Sugar Exporters Below are the leading sugar exporters for 2005-6.

Brazil 17.7 million tons (39% of global sugar exports) European Union 8.1 million (18%) Australia 4.1 million (9%) Thailand 2.6 million (5.8%) SADC 1.6 million (3.6%) Guatemala 1.5 million (3.3%) India 1.4 million (3.1) Persian Gulf 1.3 million (2.9%) South Africa 1.3 million (2.9%) Cuba 1.2 million (2.7%)

3.1.1: The three leading sugar exporters are: Brazil 17.7 million tons (39% of global sugar exports) Australia 4.1 million (9%) Thailand 2.6 million (5.8%)

3.1.2: International Sugar Trade Outlook

Brazil continues to dominate international sugar markets, spurred on by demand for sugar-based ethanol. In 2006-7, Thailand is expected to increase sugar exports by almost 30% due to larger sugar cane crops. Although India has increased its sugar

15

production by 12%, the Indian government banned sugar exports until April 2007 as a way to constrain the rise of domestic sugar prices.

The European Union failed to meet its responsibilities under the Uruguay Round Agreement on Agriculture. Consequently, the World Trade Organization now restricts the European Unions subsidized exports of sugar to about 1.4 million tons per year.

Despite this dramatic decline in EU sugar exports, increased shipments from Brazil, Thailand and India are expected to mitigate any adverse effects on international sugar markets.

3.2: Import As the purchasing power of the world continues to rise, people are developing a voracious appetite for more and more goods. Some countries produce the majority of goods for their own citizenry, whereas others rely heavily on imports. We have compiled a list of the top 25 importers based on total imports. Keep in mind that some countries have artificially low import amounts because of high tariffs and other disincentives for purchasing foreign-made goods. Import amounts are listed in billions of U.S. dollars. Country
United States

Imports in billions of dollars

$1,150

Germany United Kingdom France Japan China Italy Canada Hong Kong Netherlands Mexico Egypt Spain

$487 $330 $304 $292 $269 $238 $229 $203 $201 $168 $164 $157

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Belgium South Korea Singapore Taiwan Switzerland Malaysia Austria Sweden Australia

$152 $147 $116 $109 $94 $77 $74 $69 $68

3.2.1: 3 Leading Importers: USA: Britain's American colonies broke with the mother country in 1776 and were recognized as the new nation of the United States of America following the Treaty of Paris in 1783. During the 19th and 20th centuries, 37 new states were added to the original 13 as the nation expanded across the North American continent and acquired a number of overseas possessions. The two most traumatic experiences in the nation's history were the Civil War (1861-65) and the Great Depression of the 1930s. Buoyed by victories in World Wars I and II and the end of the Cold War in 1991, the US remains the world's most powerful nation-state. The economy is marked by steady growth, low unemployment and inflation, and rapid advances in technology. Germany As Europe's largest economy and most populous nation, Germany remains a key member of the continent's economic, political, and defense organizations. European power struggles immersed the country in two devastating World Wars in the first half of the 20th century and left the country occupied by the victorious Allied powers of the US, UK, France, and the Soviet Union in 1945. With the advent of the Cold War, two German states were formed in 1949: the western Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) and the eastern German Democratic Republic (GDR). The democratic FRG embedded itself in key Western economic and security organizations, the EC, which became the EU, and NATO, while the Communist GDR was on the front line of the Soviet-led Warsaw Pact. The decline of the USSR and the end of the Cold War allowed for German unification in 1990. Since then, Germany has expended considerable

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funds to bring eastern productivity and wages up to western standards. In January 2002, Germany and 11 other EU countries introduced a common European currency, the euro. United Kingdom: Great Britain, the dominant industrial and maritime power of the 19th century, played a leading role in developing parliamentary democracy and in advancing literature and science. At its zenith, the British Empire stretched over one-fourth of the earth's surface. The first half of the 20th century saw the UK's strength seriously depleted in two World Wars. The second half witnessed the dismantling of the Empire and the UK rebuilding itself into a modern and prosperous European nation. As one of five permanent members of the UN Security Council, a founding member of NATO, and of the Commonwealth, the UK pursues a global approach to foreign policy; it currently is weighing the degree of its integration with continental Europe. A member of the EU, it chose to remain outside the European Monetary Union for the time being. Constitutional reform is also a significant issue in the UK. The Scottish Parliament, the National Assembly for Wales, and the Northern Ireland Assembly were established in 1999.

Part 4: Use & Value

4.1: Major Industrial Use: Producing Sugar:

Sugarcane mills, located in sugarcane-producing regions, extract sugar from freshly harvested sugarcane, resulting in raw sugar for later refining, and in "mill white" sugar for local consumption. Sugar refineries, often located in heavy sugar-consuming regions, such as North America, Europe, and Japan, then purify raw sugar to produce refined white sugar, a product that is more than 99 percent pure sucrose. These two stages are slowly becoming blurred. Increasing affluence in the sugar-producing tropics has led to an increase in demand for refined sugar products in those areas, where a trend toward combined milling and refining has developed.

Paper Industry: Sugarcane is also used as a raw material to produce paper. In many countries it is used to produce paper. Tissue Paper: 18

Sugarcane is used as a raw material in making tissue papers. Soft Drink: It is a vital material used in producing soft drinks. Medicine: Sugarcane is also used in making different medicines.

4.2: Major Products:

Sugar:

Image: Sugar cane is mostly used to produce raw and refined sugars. Nowadays, about 70% of the world's supply of sugar is derived from sugar cane, while the remaining 30% is derived from sugar beet, the vast majority of which is produced in industrialized countries. Sugar cane has many other uses besides the production of sugars. Molasses is a by-product of the manufacturing of cane sugar. It is residual syrup from which no more crystalline sucrose can be obtained by simple techniques. Sugar cane - traditional medicine Sugar cane features in both folk and traditional systems of medicine in South Asia. It has been used to treat a wide variety of health complaints from constipation to coughs. It has been used externally to treat skin problems, a use that is being supported by scientific evidence. Ayurvedic medicine Both the roots and stems of sugar cane are used in Ayurvedic medicine to treat skin and urinary tract infections, as well as for bronchitis, heart conditions, loss of milk production, cough, anemia, constipation as well as general debility. Some texts advise its use for jaundice and low blood pressure.

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Folk medicine

Sugar cane stem is used in Ayurvedic medicine. A common folk remedy is to mix fresh stem juice with dry ginger in order to relieve hiccups. A plaster made from equal parts of sugar and yellow soap is used externally for treating boils, while crude sugar is applied to carbuncles. This information is provided for general interest only. It is not intended as guidance for medicinal use. Further information on using herbal medicines is available. Sugar cane - western medicine Sugar has a bad reputation in western countries as a key factor in obesity. However, the main medicinal use of sugar cane is as the juice crushed from the stems. Studies are now showing that sugar may also have some interesting health benefits. Wound healing Sugar cane juice is rich in a wide range of compounds apart from sucrose (sugar). It is likely to be some of these that are responsible for observed wound healing properties, and which may help to stimulate the immune system. Sugar cane juice

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Image: Sugar cane juice is popular refreshment in South Asia, however it can cause tooth decay. Sugar cane juice is widely consumed in Asia and is usually safe. Eating sugar cane, either as juice or as raw cane, can lead to tooth decay, but some compounds in the juice may protect teeth from the worst effects of sugar. Poisonings have occurred from eating sugar cane stored in damp conditions. This leads to the growth of moulds containing toxins. Outbreaks of "mouldy sugar cane poisoning" have occurred in recent years in villages in northern China. This information is provided for general interest only. It is not intended as guidance for medicinal use. Further information on using herbal medicines is available. Sugar cane - food Sucrose is a highly valued food and sweetener and also serves as an edible preservative. It does not normally occur in the wild and is an important cultivated crop particularly in India, which is the world's second largest producer. Sugar cane - cosmetics A surprising use of sugar is for removing body hair. A warm paste of sugar, water and lemon juice is applied to the skin. Strips of cloth are then pressed over the paste and are then quickly torn off, taking the hair with them. Enthusiastists claim that this procedure becomes less painful with time. The practice of sugaring may date to ancient times in South Asia.

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Skincare Sugar is also used to exfoliate skin and in soap-making. It has been claimed that application of sugar cane extracts can benefit the skin, but there is no evidence for this.

Sugar cane - other uses Molasses, left over from sugar production, has many uses. These include animal feed and fertilizers and even for adding to tobacco for hookah pipes. Alcohol Molasses, along with cane juice and other by-products can be fermented and then distilled, to produce an alcoholic distillate known as rum. The history of rum dates back to the colonization of the West Indies in the 17th century. Pure alcohol (ethanol) is another alcohol produced from molasses, which in itself has many uses. The main uses are in vinegar, cosmetics and pharmaceuticals, cleaning preparations and solvents, and coatings. One of the future uses of ethanol which is currently being studied is as a extender for car fuel. Still other products produced from molasses are butanol (a solvent), lactic acid (a solvent), citric acid (mostly for foods and drinks), glycerol, yeast, and many others.

Bagasse

Image: Sugar was rather surprisingly

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mixed with tobacco to be smoked in hookah pipes in India The fibrous residue of cane is called bagasse. It is used as a fuel for the generation of energy needed for sugar manufacture. It also serves as a fiber for paper. The fiber is separated from the pith which itself can be used as an animal feed. Filter cake, consisting of juice, impurities and lime is used as a soil improver. Filter-cake or press-mud is a byproduct of the production of sugar and it can contain up to 15% cane wax. When extracted, this wax can be used in the production of polishes and wax paper.

4.3: Economic Value: While consumers get respite with the declining price of sugar, hopes for the government-owned sugar mills to make profit in the current year faces a blow. According to sources in the Bangladesh Sugar and Food Industries Corporation, slash in the rate of sugar by Tk 7 during the past couple of months to Tk 35 per kilogram, 15 state-owned sugar mills operated by the corporation have already lost Tk 35 crore worth of projected profit. At least 50 per cent of our projected profit amounting to Tk 70 crore for the current year has gone down the drain as the price of sugar slumped, said a director of the corporation. The official said, with declining sugar price in international market and the supply of cheaper sugar by some newly established and privately-owned raw sugar refiners, the growing stocks from current seasons production remained unsold for a past few weeks. We have been forced to reduce price to sell sugar in the market for paying bills to sugarcane suppliers and meet day-to-day production cost, said one senior official of the corporation. The sugar mills need about Tk 2.5 crore a day to pay farmers as the price of sugarcane, he said. The official revealed that by Sunday 15 sugar mills produced 29,000 tons of sugar out of 1,50,000 tones projected production target in the current crushing season which is scheduled to end by April 2007. Unusual rise in sugar price started in mid-2005 peaking at Tk 62 per kilogram at retail level in the early months of 2006, digging deep into consumers pockets and raising the production costs of food and beverage industries. In 2004 and earlier years a kilogram of sugar was sold only at Tk 28 or below in the retail market.

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But the woes of consumers gave a fresh lease of life in the last fiscal to the ever loss-making state-owned mills, put on life support by the governments protection, which made profit for the first time in years. The corporation-run mills produced about 1,35,000 tones of sugar in the last fiscal and made a profit of about Tk 50 crore. The countrys sugar consumption is estimated at about 12 lakh tons and the state-owned mills meet less than 15 per cent of the demand. Market sources said four private sugar refiners now supply more than two-thirds of the market demand. Sugar refining in private sector started a couple of months back. Observing high value of sugar and reduced duty on raw sugar import, some local industrialists and importers were lured to establish costly units for refining consumer grade white sugar. Sugar import was liberalized in 2003 in Bangladesh, ending state-monopoly in the sugar trade. But the consumers benefited little from the step, as a syndicate of importers used to control the market manipulating price, consumer rights groups often allege.

4.4: Value addition for the concerned countries:

PRICES Tight supply demand balance keeps sugar prices firm

The strengthening in world sugar prices continued in 2005, when the International Sugar Agreement (ISA) daily price averaged US cents 9.20 per lb between January and September, an increase of more than 30 percent over the same period in 2004. This increase was underpinned by the strong growth in consumption against slower growth in production, resulting in declining global inventories. Given that prices have been relatively stable for the past 2 months, it is likely that the market has already factored in much of the expected changes in the market fundamentals of the 2005/06 season, and unless a supply shock occurs, prices should remain firm and stable.

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Brazil: Brazil, the worlds largest sugarcane producer and a leading ethanol manufacturer, has planned to invest hefty amount in ethanol production and building of new plants and extensions. Brazilian media have reported that by 2012, investment in the ethanol production in Brazil will touch nearly 36 Billion reais, (US$ 18.80 Billion) as new plants will be constructed in the country together with the expansion of existing ones, as published by Macauhub. Presently, Brazil has over 300 ethanol and sugar plants and to construct new facilities, the demand for sugarcane plantation area will rise by around 63% to almost 10 Million Hectares. GDP (PPP) Total 2008 estimate $1,981 trillion[2] (9th)

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Per capita GDP (nominal) Total Per capita

$10,325[2] (77th) 2008 estimate $1,572 trillion[2] (10th) $8,197[2] (63rd)

Sugarcane has a vital contribution on the GDP of other leading countries, such as: India People's Republic of China Thailand Pakistan Mexico Colombia Australia

Part 5: Problems & Solutions

5.1: Hazards if any & solutions: 5.1.1: List of sugarcane diseases: Bac terial diseases Bacterial diseases

Gumming disease

Xanthomonas campestris pv. vasculorum

Leaf scald

Xanthomonas albilineans

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Mottled stripe

Herbaspirillum rubrisubalbicans

Ratoon stunting disease Leifsonia xyli subsp. xyli

Red stripe (top rot) Fungal diseases

Acidovorax avenae

Fungal diseases Thanatephorus cucumeris = Pellicularia sasakii Rhizoctonia solani [anamorph] Ceratocystis adiposa Chalara sp. [anamorph] Cercospora atrofiliformis Cercospora longipes Cochliobolus stenospilus Bipolaris stenospila [anamorph] Peronosclerospora sacchari = Sclerospora sacchari Peronosclerospora miscanthi = Sclerospora mischanthi Mycosphaerella striatiformans Bipolaris sacchari = Helminthosporium sacchari Gibberella fujikuroi Fusarium moniliforme [anamorph] Gibberella subglutinans Clypeoporthe iliau = Gnomonia iliau Phaeocytostroma iliau [anamorph] Didymosphaeria taiwanensis Leptosphaeria taiwanensis Stagonospora tainanensis [anamorph]

Banded sclerotial (leaf) disease Black rot Black stripe Brown spot Brown stripe Downy mildew Downy mildew, leaf splitting form Eye spot Fusarium sett and stem rot

Iliau Leaf blast Leaf blight

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Leaf scorch Marasmius sheath and shoot blight Myriogenospora leaf binding (tangle top) Phyllosticta leaf spot Phytophthora rot of cuttings Pineapple disease

Stagonospora sacchari Marasmiellus stenophyllus = Marasmius stenophyllus Myriogenospora aciculispora Phyllosticta hawaiiensis Phytophthora spp. Phytophthora megasperma Ceratocystis paradoxa Chalara paradoxa = Thielaviopsis paradoxa [anamorph]

Gibberella fujikuroi Pokkah boeng (that may have knife cut symptoms) Fusarium moniliforme [anamorph] Gibberella subglutinans Red leaf spot (purple spot) Red rot Dimeriella sacchari Glomerella tucumanensis = Physalospora tucumanensis Colletotrichum falcatum [anamorph] Athelia rolfsii = Pellicularia rolfsii Sclerotium rolfsii [anamorph] Mycovellosiella vaginae = Cercospora vaginae Rhizoctonia solani Phaeocytostroma sacchari = Pleocyta sacchari = Melanconium sacchari Leptosphaeria sacchari Phyllosticta sp. [anamorph] Marasmius sacchari Pythium arrhenomanes Pythium graminicola Rhizoctonia sp. Unidentified Oomycete Puccinia melanocephala = Puccinia erianthi Puccinia kuehnii

Red rot of leaf sheath and sprout rot Red spot of leaf sheath Rhizoctonia sheath and shoot rot Rind disease (sour rot) Ring spot

Root rots

Rust, common Rust, orange

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Schizophyllum rot Sclerophthora disease

Schizophyllum commune Sclerophthora macrospora Alternaria alternata Bipolaris sacchari Cochliobolus hawaiiensis Bipolaris hawaiiensis [anamorph] Cochliobolus lunatus Curvularia lunata [anamorph] Curvularia senegalensis Setosphaeria rostrata Exserohilum rostratum [anamorph] = Drechslera halodes Cytospora sacchari Ustilago scitaminea Helminthosporium sp. Deightoniella papuana Elsino sacchari Sphaceloma sacchari [anamorph] Fusarium sacchari = Cephalosporium sacchari Mycovellosiella koepkei = Cercospora koepkei Gloeocercospora sorghi

Seedling blight

Sheath rot Smut, culmicolous Target blotch Veneer blotch White rash Wilt Yellow spot Zonate leaf spot Miscellaneous diseases and disorders Miscellaneous diseases and disorders

Bud proliferation

Undetermined

Bunch top

Undetermined

Cluster stool

Undetermined

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Internal stalk necrosis

Undetermined

Leaf freckle

Undetermined

Leaf stipple

Multiple buds

Undetermined

Stem galls Nematodes, parasitic

Undetermined

Nematodes, parasitic

Lesion

Pratylenchus spp.

Root-knot Meloidogyne spp. Spiral Helicotylenchus spp. Rotylenchus spp. Scutellonema spp.

Viral diseases (Also mycoplasmalike organisms [MLO]) Viral diseases

Chlorotic streak

Virus (assumed)

Dwarf

Sugarcane dwarf virus

Fiji disease

Sugarcane Fiji disease virus

Grassy shoot

MLO

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Mosaic

Sugarcane mosaic virus

Sereh

Virus (assumed)

Streak disease

Maize streak virus, sugarcane strain

White leaf

MLO

Yellow Leaf

Sugarcane Yellow Leaf Virus

Yellow Leaf Syndrome MLO

5.1.1: Solutions: The cornerstones of HARC's sugarcane research program were to improve sugarcane varieties through breeding and selection, to develop sound agronomic practices, and to control insects and diseases. Sugarcane Breeding and Selection HARC maintains a breeding and selection program to identify sugarcane cultivars with high yield potential and resistance to sugarcane diseases and test them for site adaptability. Producing sugarcane seedlings each year from genetically diverse parents (breeding clones) is essential for developing high yielding disease and insect resistant sugarcane cultivars for commercial planting by the sugar industry. About 1,200 Hawaii-produced breeding clones and 800 imported breeding clones are currently maintained in field plots at the HARC Breeding Station at Maunawili on Oahu. Advanced selection and yield testing of seedlings was accomplished in cooperation with island plantations. It requires about 10 to 15 years of testing to identify a new sugarcane cultivar. Genetic engineering and molecular techniques have been developed as plant breeding tools. These include genetic transformation, tissue culture, and molecular marker techniques.

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Agronomy and Weed Control It's important to control weeds in sugarcane fields as they compete for nutrients and water which can affect the sugarcane's vigor and ultimately the yield. Recently, field trials installed at the plantations yielded information on the most effective herbicide combinations of compounds that are registered for use in sugarcane and the rate required to give effective weed control. Several new herbicides that are not yet registered for use in sugarcane were also tested in small experimental plots. Mineral nutrition studies are also conducted to determine optimum rates and timing of fertilizer application. Insect Control Hawaii's sugarcane industry has successfully controlled sugarcane insect pests through biological control rather than using pesticides. This strategy has proved itself over 100 years and has been used as a model for many other crops. Presently, yellow sugarcane aphid (YSCA) is a prevalent pest in sugarcane fields, although the extent of damage it causes has not yet been quantified. HARC and Dr. Messing of the University of Hawaii's Kauai Research Center are cooperating on a project to introduce effective aphid parasitoids into Hawaii. The first aphid parasitoid, Aphidius colemani (Viereck) (Aphidiidae: Braconidae) introduced in April 1996 was not effective on YSCA but was highly effective on the melon aphid. When an effective YSCA parasitoid which passes quarantine and host range studies is introduced, field release will be conducted on Maui and Kauai at sugar plantations. Lesser cornstalk borer (LCB) is not currently causing substantial damage in plant cane; however, we expect damage to increase with greater emphasis on ratooning. (Good cultural practice, especially timely irrigation in ratoon fields, will help reduce damage.) In anticipation of this, the sugarcane cultivar 73-6110 was transformed with a Bt gene. Laboratory feeding studies indicated that LCB-resistance was conferred. A decision on whether to deploy the transformed cultivar is pending. Disease Control HARC's disease control program for the sugar industry develops assessment methods, identifies and controls disease problems, and screens breeding material for resistance to important diseases. Currently, several sugarcane diseases are of concern: Eyespot Disease-is caused by the fungus Bipolaris sacchari and transmitted by air-borne spores which germinate and make leaf lesions resulting in yield lost due to reduced functional

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leaf area. New sugarcane clones are being screened for resistance to the pathogen using a toxin from the fungus to inoculate plants. Smut Disease-is caused by the fungus Ustilago scitaminea which infects the plants systemically, stunting the shoots, and eventually killing the plant. New sugarcane varieties are screened for smut resistance by inoculating seed pieces of all clones with fungus spores and eliminating those that become infected. These are again tested for smut resistance under natural conditions by being planted among other infected plants and exposed to the airborne spores as they would be in nature. All seed cane is treated by soaking in hot water for 20 min at 52 C to kill the fungus. Seed farms are inspected periodically. Yellow Leaf Syndrome-is-now a recognized virus disease of sugarcane which is transmitted by aphids and causes cane tonnage losses. The development of a tissue-blot immunoassay (TBIA) for detection of the causal virus (ScYLV) has made it possible to screen large numbers of plants accurately and quickly for the infection. All of the main commercial varieties were surveyed on the Hawaiian plantations and the virus was found to be more widespread than had been expected. Most infected sugarcane remains asymptomatic until it is placed under stress conditions. Inoculations with viruliferous aphid vectors determined that some sugarcane varieties are resistant to the virus. No specific control measures are practised. Ratoon Stunting Disease-is a systemic bacterial infection that is generally symptomless, but results in cane tonnage losses which may be severe. The pathogen is Leifsonia xyli subsp. xyli. It is kept to a very low level in Hawaii by screening seed fields for infection using an immunological diagnostic technique and giving all seed a hot water treatment for 20 min at 52 C before planting. Leafscald Disease-is caused by the bacterium Xanthomonas albilineans. Symptoms are white leaf streaks that coalesce and turn brown, eventually killing the plant. They appear on infected plants during cooler times of the year. In Hawaii, outbreaks occur during some years and not others. An immunological diagnostic technique can detect the bacterial infection in plants. However, control is maintained by giving seed a hot water treatment for 20 min at 52 C before planting. Some sugarcane varieties are resistant, but this cannot be counted upon for control because new strains of the bacteria occasionally appear. HARC cooperates with many countries exchanging research findings and sending sugarcane varieties to them for disease testing. Sugarcane varieties developed in Hawaii are exchanged with other countries for breeding and all quarantine and disease protection protocols are strictly followed. About the sugar industry in Hawaii, our historical foundation.

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SEED Healthy seed material, free from pests and diseases, and having high viability is essential for establishing the crop in the first instance. The top one-third to half portion of a cane, being comparatively immature, has buds of good viability and is best to be used as seed. The bottom portion is usually richer in sugar than the top portion, and it is best to utilize it for sugar or gurmaking. In tropical India, setts for sowing are taken from well-manured, erect and healthy canes. In some places in Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu, crop nurseries are adequately fertilized, and well protected against pests and disease. Before planting, the leaves of the cane stalks are stripped off by hand in order that buds on them may not be damaged. These stalks are then cut into 3-bud setts each usually 30 to 50 cm long. If seed is required at a distant place, whole canes should be transported without stripping off the leaves or cutting them into setts. If planting is for any reason to be delayed, but the seed canes have been harvested, they should be heaped in shade under a thick cover of straw or cane trash, and periodically sprinkled with water. Under the dry condition of northern India, the soaking of seed in water for four to six hours before sowing improves and hastens germination. Under irrigated conditions in Peninsular India, the planted setts are liable to rot, and in some areas they are attacked by the pineapple disease. To prevent rotting and infection with the disease, the dipping of the setts into a suitable fungicide, such as 0.5 per cent mercuric chloride or 0.25 per cent Aretan or Agallol solution or 1 kg of Perenox in 400 litres of water is recommended. Aretan, along with gamma BHC, is also recommended in northern India; the former improves the germination and keeps off fungal attack and the latter keeps off termites is serious, gamma BHC at 1 kg actual ingredient per hectare in emulsion form and diluted 300 times is sprinkled with a watering-can on the setts placed in the furrows. Depending on the distance between the rows and the vigour and soundness of the buds, 25 to 35 thousand 3-bud setts are usually enough to plant a hectare. According as the cane is thick or thin, 1 1/2 to 3 tonnes of cane by weight is needed to provide about 10,000 3-bud setts. In the Punjab, Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh, 2-bud setts planted in rows, about 60 cm (about two feet) apart, have been found to give the best results. In the case of late planting, the seedrate is often increased slightly, and the setts are planted a little closer in the row in order ot gaurd against gappy germination.

5.2: Associated Problems:

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Sugar Production Damages the Environment According to the World Wildlife Fund (WWF), roughly 145 million tons of sugars are produced in 121 countries each year. And sugar production does indeed take its toll on surrounding soil, water and air, especially in threatened tropical ecosystems near the equator. A 2004 report by WWF, titled Sugar and the Environment, shows that sugar may be responsible for more biodiversity loss than any other crop, due to its destruction of habitat to make way for plantations, its intensive use of water for irrigation, its heavy use of agricultural chemicals, and the polluted wastewater that is routinely discharged in the sugar production process. Environmental Damage from Sugar Production is Widespread One extreme example of environmental destruction by the sugar industry is the Great Barrier Reef off the coast of Australia. Waters around the reef suffer from large quantities of effluents, pesticides and sediment from sugar farms and the reef itself is threatened by the clearing of land, which has destroyed the wetlands that are an integral part of the reefs ecology. Meanwhile, in Papua New Guinea, soil fertility has declined by about 40 percent over the last three decades in heavy sugar cane cultivation regions. And some of the worlds mightiest rivers including the Niger in West Africa, the Zambezi in Southern Africa, the Indus River in Pakistan, and the Mekong River in Southeast Asiahave nearly dried up as a result of thirsty, water-intensive sugar production.

5.3: Possible Recommendations & Solutions:

Modern technology should be used in producing sugarcane by the developing & underdeveloped countries. High quality seeds, fertilizer, pesticides should be used. Farmers should be well trained.

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 This plant cane requires 15-24 months to mature; therefore it is not suitable for cultivation in those areas where subsistence agriculture is required. Annuals are suitable for those areas.

Bibliography
Treuman A. Hartshorn & John W. Alexander, Economic Geography, 3rd edition. Web address: www.sugarcanejeans.co.uk/ www.sucrose.com/icane/html www.bsri.gov.bd www.nif.org.in/bd/sugarcane www.ethanolplug.com www.britnica.com/sugarcane www.marketresearch.com www.assct.org/

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