Cecilia Forss n Hans Edin e

Modeling of a discharging cavity in a dielectric material exposed to high electric elds

Abstract Partial discharges are localized electric discharges that do not bridge the electrodes. For high voltage components measurements of partial discharges are commonly used to diagnose the condition of the insulation system. Traditionally partial discharges are measured at a single frequency of the applied voltage. However the rather newly developed technique of Variable Frequency Phase Resolved Partial Discharge Analysis (VF-PRPDA) makes it possible to measure partial discharges at variable frequency of the applied voltage. The benet of varying the frequency is that more information about the state of the insulation system is obtained than from measurements at a single frequency. This paper presents a model of partial discharges in a cavity at variable applied frequency. The aim of the model is to increase the physical understanding of how the frequency of the applied voltage affects the partial discharges in the cavity. This paper studies the inuence from the statistical time lag on the frequency dependent discharge sequence and results from simulations are compared with measurement data. The model is a 2D time dependent FEMLAB model in PDE mode which is handled from a MATLAB script. Keywords Insulation diagnostics partial discharges variable applied frequency

diagnose the condition of insulation systems in for example power cables, power generators and high voltage motors. Traditionally partial discharges are measured only at a xed frequency of the applied voltage, usually the power frequency. With the rather newly developed technique of Variable Frequency Phase Resolved Partial Discharge Analysis (VF-PRPDA) [1, 2] it is now also possible to measure partial discharges at variable frequency of the applied voltage. The benet of measuring at variable frequency is that more information is obtained about the state of the insulation system than when measuring at a xed frequency [3]. However, in order to use the VF-PRPDA technique to diagnose the condition of insulation systems, it is necessary to have a physical understanding of how partial discharges depend on the frequency of the applied voltage. This paper presents a model of partial discharges in a simple test object consisting of a cylindrical cavity in an otherwise homogeneous insulation of polycarbonate. The frequency of the applied voltage is varied in the range 10 mHz - 100 Hz. It is studied how the statistical nature of partial discharges inuences the frequency dependence of the discharges and simulation results are compared with measurement data. One difculty in partial discharge modeling is that the duration of the discharges is much smaller than the period of the applied voltage. This calls for very small time steps. Additionally, the statistical nature of partial discharges makes it necessary to run simulations for several cycles of the applied voltage to obtain statistically relevant data. This results in long simulation times. In order to get reasonable simulation times, the aim of this work is to model partial discharges on a macroscopic level using potentials and currents, without a detailed treatment of discharge mechanisms and motions of electrons and ions inside the discharge channels. The model contains a two-dimensional time dependent FEMLAB model in PDE mode which solves for the electric potential in the test object. The FEMLAB model is handled from a MATLAB script which also comprises loops over frequencies and times, an adaptive time step algorithm, a model for initiation of free electrons to start the discharges, a discharge model, postevaluation of current and charge and a graphical user interface.

1 Introduction Partial discharges are localized electric discharges that bridge only part of the insulation between electrodes. In insulation systems exposed to high electric elds the presence of partial discharges is most often a sign of defects and degradation of the insulation. Therefore measurements of partial discharges are commonly used to
C. Forss n e Electrotechnical Design KTH - Electrical Engineering Tel.: +46-8-7907759 Fax: +46-8-205268 E-mail: cecilia.forssen@ets.kth.se H. Edin Electrotechnical Design KTH - Electrical Engineering Tel.: +46-8-7907639 Fax: +46-8-205268 E-mail: hans.edin@ets.kth.se

2 Background 2.1 Partial discharges

from discharges at the electrode edge due to the high applied electric eld. Partial discharges in the test object are measured by use of the VF-PRPDA technique.

The aim of this work is to study partial discharges in a cavity (that is an air-lled void) in a solid dielectric Cavity Brass electrode material exposed to high electric elds. A partial discharge is an electric discharge that do not bridge the whole distance between electrodes. In the case of partial discharges in a cavity, the discharges develop from one part of the cavity surface, through the air in the cavity, to another part of the cavity surface. Thus the discharges only bridge the cavity; they do not develop through the PSfrag replacements solid dielectric to reach the electrodes. There are two necessary conditions for an electric discharge to start in air: the electric eld strength must be Polycarbonate plates Epoxy resin high enough and there must be a free electron available to start an electron avalanche. The voltage at which the Fig. 1 Test object with cylindrical cavity. Cross-section along rst condition is full-lled is called the inception voltage symmetry axis. Uinc . Sometimes there is a lack of free electrons to start the electron avalanche. This results in a delay in time between that the inception voltage is exceeded and the discharge starts. The average of this time delay is called the statistical time lag stat . Once a discharge has started 3 Model it continues until the electric eld strength is too low to run the discharge. The voltage at which the discharge The model contains a two-dimensional time dependent stops is called the extinction voltage Uext . FEMLAB model which is handled from a MATLAB script. The PDE application mode in coefcient form is used with two dependent variables: the electric potential and 2.2 Frequency dependence of partial discharges its time derivative. The partial discharge activity in an insulation system is dependent on the frequency of the applied voltage. This comes since if the frequency is varied, the local conditions at defects in the insulation changes. Such local conditions are the electric eld distribution, the inuence on the eld distribution from different time constants and the impact on the discharge activity from the statistical time lag. In a cavity, two dielectric time constants inuence the partial discharge activity: cavity , which is related to charge redistribution on the cavity surface, and material , which is related to charge redistribution in the surrounding insulation material. The partial discharge activity becomes frequency dependent if the value of one or both of these time constants, and/or the value of the statistical time lag, is in the same range as the period of the applied voltage. 3.1 Field equations The governing equations for the FEMLAB model are (1) and (2) where D is the electric displacement eld, f is the free charge density and J f is the free current density. For linear isotropic non-dispersive dielectrics exposed to slowly varying elds (1) and (2) combine to (3). Here V is the electric potential, is the electric conductivity and is the permittivity. divD = f divJ f + (1) (2)

f =0 t V t
=0

div gradV grad

(3)

2.3 Measurements 3.2 Geometry and mesh A simple test object with an articial cavity in an otherwise homogeneous insulation material is used for the partial discharge measurements (Figure 1). To create the test object, three plates of 1 mm thick polycarbonate are pressed together between two brass electrodes. A hole with diameter 10 mm is drilled in the middle plate to form a cylindrical cavity. A sinusoidal voltage with amplitude 10 kV is applied between the electrodes. The frequency of the applied voltage is varied from 10 mHz to 100 Hz. The electrodes are cast in epoxy to prevent The model geometry is two-dimensional (2D) axialsymmetric and is shown in Figure 2. It consists of three main domains: the insulation material, the cavity and the cavity surface. The cavity is subdivided into ve discharge channels and a discharge in the cavity is modeled as an increased conductivity in one or more of the channels. The discharge channels all have the same volume. The subdivision into discharge channels is done to model that a discharge may affect only part of the cavity

while remaining parts are unaffected. The cavity surface is modeled as a layer with thickness 0.1 mm and the surface conduction process is modeled as volume conduction. A mapped mesh with 720 quadrilateral elements is used. The mapped mesh is chosen instead of an unstructured mesh to make it easier to control the element density in the thin cavity surface. A picture of the mesh, with focus on the cavity, is shown in Figure 3. The model presented here is 2D axial-symmetric. In reality the electric eld distribution in the test object is not axial-symmetric and should be described with a 3D model. This would however give very long simulation times and therefore the model presented here is restricted to 2D anyway. It gives a qualitative picture of the frequency dependent partial discharge activity in the cavity without describing the real space distribution of the discharges.

3.3 Discharge A discharge in the cavity is modeled with an increase in the conductivity in one or more of the discharge channels. The conductivity in the discharge channels is modeled as

0 e(|U/Uinc |+|I/Icrit |) 0

during discharge otherwise

(4)

Symmetry axis

Electrode surface

Insulation

replacements 1 2 3 4 5

where U is the voltage over a channel, Uinc is the inception voltage, I is the current through a channel, Icrit is critical current for avalanche and 0 is the conductivity between discharges. For numerical reasons it was necessary to restrict the value of the conductivity in a channel to a maximum max . A discharge in a channel starts when U > Uinc and there is a rst electron available in the channel to start the electron avalanche. The discharge stops when U has dropped below the extinction voltage level Uext . The channels discharge independently of each other. The current through a channel is calculated as J dS = gradV dS during discharge S S I= (5) 0 otherwise where S is a cross-section surface of the channel. The charge transmitted through a channel during a time interval [t,t + dt] is calculated as
t+dt

q=
t

I(t) dt

(6)

Discharge channels

Cavity surface

Fig. 2 2D axial-symmetric model geometry. Cavity subdivided into ve discharge channels.

2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5

x 10

Figure 4 shows the calculated electric equipotential lines before and after the rst discharges in the cavity after voltage application. Before the rst discharge the eld is concentrated to the air-lled cavity due to the lower permittivity of air than of polycarbonate. After the two rst discharges, which are here discharges in channel number 1 and 3, the voltage over these two channels has dropped below the extinction voltage level, which is here set to 10 V. The neighboring channels are also inuenced and the voltage over them has decreased. Figure 5 shows the simulated voltage over one of the discharge channels (channel number 3) for two cycles of an applied voltage with frequency 10 mHz. As the voltage over the channel reaches the inception voltage level a discharge starts. The discharge continues until the voltage over the channel has dropped below the extinction voltage level, which is here set to 10 V. After that the voltage build-up over the channel starts over again. There are also some small voltage drops in Figure 5 that do not originate from discharges in channel number 3. For example at phase angle about 85 degrees there is a voltage drop of about 600 V. These smaller voltage drops are caused by discharges in the other discharge channels. 3.4 Statistical time lag

replacements
2 0 1 2 3 4 5 x 10
3

y-axis (m)

x-axis (m)

Fig. 3 Mesh with 720 quadrilateral elements (focus on cavity).

The number of free electrons injected into the cavity per unit time is called the electron injection intensity Ie and is modeled as Ie = Ie0 e|U/Uinc | (7)

(a)

with frequency 50 Hz. The statistical time lag at inception voltage stat0 is 1 ms. Here the period time of the applied voltage is in the same range as the statistical time lag. Therefore the statistical time lag inuences the discharge sequence and the discharges do not always occur at the inception voltage level. Instead they are shifted forward in phase and occur at higher voltages than in Figure 5.
10000 8000 6000
Voltage over channel no. 3 Applied voltage

(b)

replacements Voltage (V)

4000 2000 0 2000 4000

Fig. 4 Calculated electric equipotential lines before (a) and after (b) the rst two discharges after voltage application. Channel number 1 and 3 have discharged.
10000 8000 6000 4000
Voltage over channel no. 3

6000 8000 10000 0 90 180 270 360 450 540 630 720

PSfrag replacements

Applied voltage

2000 0

2000 4000 6000 8000

Phase (deg) Fig. 6 Simulated voltage over one discharge channel (number 3) for an applied voltage with amplitude 10 kV and frequency 50 Hz. Period of applied voltage in same range as the statistical time lag. Horizontal dash dotted lines mark the PD inception voltage level (4600 V).

replacements

Voltage (V)

10000 0

90

180

270

360

450

540

630

720

3.5 Model overview The model is handled from a MATLAB script and is described in a ow chart in Figure 7. A graphical user interface allows the user to dene in data and to display and save out data. The model contains a frequency loop over all frequencies the user has chosen to simulate and a time loop over all cycles of the applied voltage at the current frequency. In each time step the time dependent FEMLAB model is called to calculate the electric potential in the geometry. Geometry and mesh are initialized once outside the loops. Constants, boundary settings and subdomain settings are set at each time step separately. The length of the time step is adaptive and is also set separately for each time step. It is chosen to be short enough to resolve the discharge sequence in the cavity and at the same time long enough to avoid unnecessary long simulation times. After each time step it is controlled whether any of the channel voltages U exceed the inception voltage Uinc . If U < Uinc in all channels there cannot be any discharges in the cavity and another time step is taken. If U > Uinc in any channel there can be discharges in the cavity if there is also free electrons available. In this case it is checked whether the statistical time lag stat is negligible in comparison to the period time of the applied voltage. This is done to shorten the simulation times. If

Phase (deg) Fig. 5 Simulated voltage over one discharge channel (number 3) for an applied voltage with amplitude 10 kV and frequency 10 mHz. Period of applied voltage much longer than the statistical time lag. Horizontal dash dotted lines mark the PD inception voltage level (4600 V).

where Ie0 is the intensity at inception voltage. The statistical time lag is the inverse of Ie [4]. The probability that there is a free electron available in a discharge channel during a time interval [t,t + dt] is modeled as Ie (t) dt if U > U inc N P= (8) 0 if U < Uinc

where N is the number of discharge channels and dt is chosen so that P is always less than 1. P is compared with a random number R for each channel to determine if there is a discharge during the time interval [t,t + dt] such as P > R discharge (9) P < R no discharge Figure 6 shows the simulated voltage over discharge channel number 3 for two cycles of an applied voltage

stat is negligible, one channel is chosen randomly to discharge. If however stat cannot be neglected, the probability P that there is a free electron available in a channel is calculated and compared with a random number R for each channel. If P < R in all channels there is no discharge and another time step is taken. If P > R in any channel a discharge starts. The FEMLAB model is called at each time step during the discharge to calculate the potential. The conductivity as given in (4) is calculated at each time step and dened as a constant in the FEMLAB model. The discharge continues as long as U > Uext in any channel. When the discharge has stopped a new time step is taken.

Table 1 Denition of parameters used in the simulations. Name Uapp r, ins Denition Amplitude of applied voltage Real part of rel. permittivity in insulation Real part of rel. permittivity in cavity surface Real part of rel. permittivity in channel Conductivity in insulation Conductivity in cavity surface Conductivity in channel between discharges Maximal conductivity in channel PD inception voltage PD extinction voltage Critical current for avalanche Electron injection rate at inception voltage Statistical time lag at inception voltage Value 10 kV 3 3 1 1 1015 A/Vm 1 1015 A/Vm 1 1015 A/Vm 1 104 A/Vm 4.6 kV 10 V 0.1 pA 100 s1 10 ms

r, sur f r, ch ins sur f 0 max

Uinc Uext Icrit Ie0

Indata

Initialize 1. Geometry 2. Mesh 3. Parameters No Loop over frequency

stat negligible No P>R in any channel Yes

Yes

stat0

PD in a randomly choosen channel

3.6 Simulations The parameters used in the simulations are shown in Table 1. sur f and Ie0 are chosen to reach agreement between simulated and measured data. max and Icrit are adjusted to reach numerical convergence. The discharge sequence in the cavity is simulated for 20 cycles of the applied voltage for each frequency. The eld problem has 5978 degrees of freedom. The weak solution form is used and the absolute and relative tolerance of the solver is 0.01 and 0.001, respectively. The dynamic simulations are performed with FEMLAB 3.1i with MATLAB. A 3 GHz Pentium 4 processor with 1.5 GB RAM is used. The simulation time is between 6 and 50 hours for each frequency, depending on the value of the frequency.

Loop over time

PD in channels with P>R

Set time step size

while U>Uext in discharging channels One PD time step 1. Set constants 2. Boundary settings 3. Subdomain settings 4. Solve

One time step 1. Set constants 2. Boundary settings 3. Subdomain settings 4. Solve

U>Uinc in any channel Yes No

4 Results and discussion In Figure 8 the measured and simulated number of discharges per cycle of the applied voltage in the test object are compared. The agreement is seen to be good. For frequencies between 10 mHz and 0.1 Hz the discharge activity in the cavity is independent of the frequency since the statistical time lag is much shorter than the period time of the applied voltage. For frequencies above 0.1 Hz the statistical time lag inuences the discharge activity and the number of discharges per cycle decreases with increasing frequency.
Acknowledgements Thanks to Adj. Prof. Uno G fvert, ABB Cora porate Research, Sweden, for valuable discussions. This study was sponsored by the Center of Competence in Electric Power Engineering, Sweden.

Outdata

Fig. 7 Flow chart of model. U is voltage over a channel, Uinc is inception voltage, stat is statistical time lag, P is probability that there is a free electron available in a channel, R is a random number and Uext is extinction voltage.

10 8
Discharges per cycle

6 4 2 0 -2 10

replacements

10

-1

10

10

10

Frequency (Hz) Fig. 8 Comparison between measured ( ) and simulated ( ) number of discharges per cycle in a cylindrical cavity. Amplitude of applied voltage 10 kV.

References
1. H. Edin, Partial Discharges Studied with Variable Frequency of the Applied Voltage. Ph. D. Thesis, KTH, Stockholm (2001). 2. J. Giddens, H. Edin, and U. G fvert, Measuring System for a Phase-Resolved Partial Discharge Detection at Low Frequencies, 11th Int. Symp. on High-Voltage Engineering, London, UK, 1999, pp. 5.2285.231. 3. H. Edin, and C. Forss n, Variable Frequency Partial Discharge e Analysis of In-Service Aged Machine Insulation, Nordic Insulation Symposium (Nord-IS), Tampere, Finland, June 1113, 2003, pp. 2935. 4. B. Fruth, and L. Niemeyer, The Importance of Statistical Characteristics of Partial Discharge Data, IEEE Trans. on Electrical Insulation, vol. 27, pp. 6069 (1992).