DIRECT CURRENT GENERATOR AND MOTOR PRINCIPLES Principle of Generated Action In the electric generator, this done by placing

a large number of properly connected copper wires on a cylindrical, laminated steel core and mechanically rotating this structure inside a set of carefully shaped electromagnet. Armature is the rotating element, while the stationary set of electromagnets is called the field. If it is assumed that the magnetic lines of force leave the cylindrically shaped pole-core faces and passed across the air space (called the air gap) and thence to the rotating armature core, it is clear that the moving copper conductors cut the lines of force as they are rotated mechanically. Briefly summarized, the foregoing principle of generator action requires (1) the presence of magnetic lines of force, and (2) motion of conductors cutting the flux, before (3) voltage is generated. Faraday's Law -It states that whenever a conductor cuts magnetic lines of flux, an emf is developed in the conductor. If the conductors are mounted on a constant-speed rotating armature, no voltage will be generated in some of them while they are moving parallel to the flux lines or passing through a region where there is no flux. It should be clear, then, that the magnitude of the generated voltage is directly proportional to the rate at which a conductor cuts magnetic lines of force. It was found that when a conductor moves at a constant speed across a uniformly dense magnetic field, that is, a field in which the flux density in lines of force per square inch is constant, 1 vol is generated for every 100,000,000 (10?) cuts per second. If the flux density is not constant, the generated voltage will be an average value determined by the total numbers of lines of force that are cut and the length of time it takes to do so. Formula Eav = t X 10? where Eav = average generated voltage in a conductor = total flux cut t = time, seconds, during which cutting takes place General Voltage Equation for Direct Current Generator The generated voltage depends upon the rate at whichflux is cut and that 1 volt results from the cutting of 10? lines of force per second, the following analysis will lead to a very useful fundamentalequation. Each one of the Z conductors cuts X P lines of force per revolution, where is the fluxsupplied by each of the poles of P. If the speed of the armature is represented by rpm, the speed in revolution per second is rpm/60. Assuming a parallel armature path, the number of conductors in series per path will therefore be Z/a. Now then, if ( X P) is multiplied by rpm/60, the product would represent the flux cut by each conductor per second. ( X P X rpm/60) next multiplied by 10?? would give the voltage generated in each conductor, because 1 volt is generated for every 10? lines of cut per second. Finally, multiplying ( X P X 10??) by (Z/a) would yield the total generated voltage Eg. Thus the fundamental voltage equation, one of the most important in this book, will become Eg = X P X rpm X Z X 10?? volts a X 60 where Eg = total generated voltage = flux per pole, maxwells P = number of poles, an even number rpm = speed of armature, revolutions per minute Z = total number of armature conductors effectively used to add to resulting voltage a = number of armature paths connected in parallel (determined by typed of armature

winding) Direction of generated voltage The direction of the generated voltage in a conductor, or more correctly in a coil of wire, as it rotated to cut the lines of force produce by the electromagnets in a generator, will depend upon two factors only: (1) the direction of the flux, which is, of course, determined by the magnet polarity, and (2) the direction of motion of the conductor or coil. Lenz's Law -It states that the direction of the generated voltage in the coil is such that it tends to produce a current flow opposing a change of flux through the coil. "An induced current is always in such a direction as to oppose the motion or change causing it" Right Hand Rule -if you grasp the conductor with your right hand, the direction where your thumb points will be the direction of the current, while the encircling fingers will then indicate the direction of the

lines of force around the wire. The Elementary Alternating-current Generator The armature of a generator contains a large number of coils of wire, all connected together in such a manner as to contribute to the desire terminal voltage. Each one of these coils will actually generate an alternating voltage as it is rotated on the laminated slotted steel core inside the several north and south poles. In general terms, the frequency of the alternating current in cycles per second is P/2 revolutions per second or, more conviniently, where rpm/60 = rps, f = P X rpm = P X rpm 2 60 120 The Comutation Process The d-c generator is fundamentally an a-c generator because, internally, in the armature conductors, the current reverses periodically as the wires move to cut lines of force succesively under the north and south poles. Principle of Motor Action When an electric generator is in operation, it is driven mechanically and develops a voltage, which in turn can send a current through a load resistance. When an electric motor is in operation it develops torque, which, in turn, can produce mechanical rotation. Thus the electric motor converts electrc energy into mechaniical energy. Before a motor can develop torque, which is a tendency to produce rotation, it is necessary that forcesbe created. This is done simply by placing conductors in magnetic fields and then sending electric currents in the proper directions through the conductors. Briefly summarized, the foregoing principle of motoraction requires (1) the presence of magnetic lines of force and (2) current through conductors lying in the magnetic field before (3)

force, and therefore torque, is produced. Force and Torque Developed by Direct-current Motors. The force action exerted by acurrent-carrying conductor placed in a magnetic fields depends, among other things upon (10 the strength of the main field and (2) the value of the current tthrough the conductor, because the resultant nonuniform magnetic field is determined by both the main field and the flux set up by the current-carrying conductor. Commutation in Direct-current Motors. When a d-c motor is in operation, a unidirectional current is fed to the armature conductors through brushes and the commutator. For any given position of the armature, the current directions adjust themselves so that in those conductors under the north poles, the plow is in one direction, while in those conductors under the south poles, the flow is in the opposite direction. The dividing axes between the ingoing and outgoing currents are along lines exactly midway between north and south poles, assuming uniform flux densities under the latter Main Fields in Direct -current Machines The polarities of the main field poles in d-c generators and motors remain unchanged while such machines are in operation. This implies, of course, that the poles are either permanent magnets or electromagnets excited with direct current. The electromagnet construction permits excitation to be produced in several ways, among which are the following: 1 The excitation of each pole may be produced by a single coil of many turns of comparatively fine wire. 2 Excitation may be produced by a single coil of few turns of comparatively heavy wire. 3 Excitation may be produced by two coils of wire, one of them having many turns of comparatively fine wire and the other having a few turns of rather heavy wire. .: winding with fine wire and many turns will carry a low current.While winding with the heavy wire and few turns will carry a high current. Shunt Machine -when a generator or motor has a main field winding with many turns of fine wire, the winding is connected directly across the brush terminals where full voltage exist. Compound machine - when a generator or motor has a main field consisting of two windings, one of them with many turns of fine wire and the other with few turns of heavy wire, the shunt winding is connected to the line terminals or across the brush terminals, while the series winding is connected in series in one of the line wires or in series in the armature circuit.

Lenz's Law
We still have not specified in which direction the emf generated by a time-varying magnetic flux linking an electric circuit acts. In order to help specify this direction, we need to make use of a right-hand rule. Suppose that a current circulates around a planar loop of conducting wire, and, thereby, generates a magnetic field . What is the direction of this magnetic field as it passes through the middle of the loop? Well, if the fingers of a right-hand circulate in the same direction as the current, then the thumb indicates the direction of the magnetic field as it passes through the centre of the loop.

Magnetic field generated by a planar current-carrying loop.

Consider a plane loop of conducting wire which is linked by magnetic flux. By convention, the direction in which current would have to flow around the loop in order to increase the magnetic flux linking the loop is termed the positive direction. Likewise, the direction in which current would have to flow around the loop in order to decrease the magnetic flux linking the loop is termed the negative direction. Suppose that the magnetic flux linking the loop is increased. In accordance with Faraday's law, an emf is generated around the loop. Does this emf act in the positive direction, so as to drive a current around the loop which further increases the magnetic flux, or does it act in the negative direction, so as to drive a current around the loop which decreases the magnetic flux? It is easily demonstrated experimentally that the emf acts in the negative direction. Thus: The emf induced in an electric circuit always acts in such a direction that the current it drives around the circuit opposes the change in magnetic flux which produces the emf. This result is known as Lenz's law, after the nineteenth century Russian scientist Heinrich Lenz, who first formulated it. Faraday's law, combined with Lenz's law, is usually written
(196)

The minus sign is to remind us that the emf always acts to oppose the change in magnetic flux which generates the emf.
Right Hand Rule -if you grasp the conductor with your right hand, the direction where your thumb points will be the direction of the current, while the encircling fingers will then indicate the direction of the

lines of force around the wire. The Elementary Alternating-current Generator The armature of a generator contains a large number of coils of wire, all connected together in such a manner as to contribute to the desire terminal voltage. Each one of these coils will actually generate an alternating voltage as it is rotated on the laminated slotted steel core inside the several north and south poles. In general terms, the frequency of the alternating current in cycles per second is P/2 revolutions per second or, more conviniently, where rpm/60 = rps, f = P X rpm = P X rpm 2 60 120

Lorentz's law is a law discovered by the Dutch physicist Hendrik Antoon Lorentz. Lorentz's law defines force that acts on moving charged particles in an electricmagnetic field. Force consists of magnetic force and electric force.

F = qE (electric force) If the charge is positive, the direction of the electric force equal to direction of electric field.

F = qv*B (magnetic force) The direction of the magnetic force is given by the right hand rule. If charged particle move with velocity v in an electic field E and a magnetic field B F = qE + qv*B F : force (vector) q : charge (scalar) E : electric field (vector) v : velocity of particle (vector) B : magnetic field (vector) * is vector cross product.