ep

---- and instrument !=tying

PtigiM - instnrment nying a:-D

Before beginning this section, a distinction must be made between Instrrtment Right Rules
( P B ) and ndmtrsment i%te~r~Eogical Conditions (IMC). IFR means following the rules of
instrument flight - this can be in very good weather, clear of cloud, using radio navigation aids,
Air Traffic Control and so on. IMC means flying with sole reference to the instruments - namely
no visible horizon, no ground references, no way to determine the helicopters pitch, roll and
heading except from cockpit instruments. A subtle difference, but very important, as will be
shown shortly. F C can be simulated using an instrument hood, and it need not be in the
airways structure .
As far as the airways' (i,e. IFR) procedures are concerned, instrument flying in helicopters is
very little different from that in an equivalent speed fixed-wing aircraft. Fixed-wing flying is a
much cheaper way to learn instrument air sense, then it is only necessary to learn to fly a
-
helicopter on instruments. This is a large enough step in itself why is it so =cult?
E R Flight ]Envelope
The first thing to understand about instrument flying in a helicopter is, aside from helicopters
fitted with very complex autopilots and special instruments, only half the flight envelope is
usable for instrument flying, Most light helicopters that are instrument flight equipped have a
minimum airspeed when IF^ in the flight manual. For the sake of argument, lets say this
airspeed is about 60 knots. Why is this speed there at all?
There are many good reasons for setting a minimum speed in IMC.
Unless a low-airspeed sensing system has been fitted (discussed later), the airspeed
system is pretty well useless below 40 KIAS. A 20 knot margin between minimum
IFR speed and the speed where the AS1 stops making sense isn't too large, and might
be acceptable, if it weren't for several other problems, namely:
The shape of the power required vs. airspeed curve around 60 KIAS is relatively flat,
but, as speed decreases below this airspeed, starts to go negative - that is, more
power is required to maintain level flight at a slower airspeed. If you haven't tried
maintaining 40 KCAS in level flight, under simulated IMC, it's an interesting exer-

-cise. I wouldn't recommend it in real IMC.

The helicopter has very little directional stability a t these low speeds very small
amounts of out-of-trim can cause large yaw rates, and that makes it difficult to
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maintain heading accurately. The slip ball is very insensitive a t these airspeeds, and
a small amount of out-of-trim condition can cause large heading changes. Slip
strings, of course, are not fitted to the inside of the helicopter, so it makes the instru-
ment scan or cross check slightly awkward.
There is very little, if any, static stability in the longitudinal axis below 60 I(TAS. I11
avoid a very complex discussion, and say that even when trimmed for a particular
airspeed, if a gust changes the airspeed, the helicopter is happy to stay at the new
airspeed and not return towards the original speed. Another way to say this is any
small change in longitudinal stick position will affect a very large change in airspeed
in this region. In simple terms, it is ditEcult to hold an airspeed around 60 RIAS in
anything other than ideal, flat calm conditions.
Wrhy is He1lcopter
All of this is merely to discuss why only half the flight envelope is usable, but doesn't tell us why
it's difficult to fly helicopters on instruments in the first place. Unlike fixed-wing aircraft, which
are more or less stable in both the longitudinal and lateral-directional axes, the helicopter is
dynamically unstable in the longitudinal axis, and neutrally stable in the lateral directional
axis. Big words - what do they mean?

* A safety pilot is needed however end someone to look-out on the same side as the pilot 'under the bag'is very
worthwhile.
t See the confusion? Don't they mean when IMC?
94-@ Instrument
$3 -
Flying MigM and hstrument Ffying
-- ----- -- -----
There was some discussion earlier about instability in the hover. You may remember some discussion
about the increasing oscillations and the requirement for small continuous controlinputs or corrections
to stop this from developing - they are equally valid here. Left to its own devices, in forward flight a
helicopter w i l l develop larger and larger pitch oscillations. The pilot must prevent these from starting,
and in VMC, with good visual references, this is relatively easy. I n IMC,only the instruments to tell the
pilot what is happening. In turbulence, the attitude indicator, which is the primary reference for
attitude, has enough 'noise' to be difficult to interpret the exact attitude with any precision and decide
what to do at an early stage. Just like the hover, in calm conditions, the pilot must make corrections to
stop the oscillation from diverging about every 5 - 8 seconds.
f remember many hours of flying on instruments in the UH-1N (without a stabilization system) when
it was not uncommon for the altitude to change suddenly by 100 feet, or the airspeed to suddenly be 10
different with no perceived (i.e. seat of the pants) change.
Add to this the effects on the yaw axis when vertical gusts change the torque balance on the main rotor,
and the picture becomes very confusing. Most helicopters without an AFCS and that fly in IMCfIFR
(and they are almost all military) end up with the two pilots trading flying every 30 minutes or so it's -
too tiring to keep it up for much longer than this at one time. Is it any wonder nearly every civil IFR
helicopter has an autopilot in it?
Why aren't more civilhelicopters flown IER?The simple reason is that most civilhelicopters are single-
engined, and what happens when the engine fails*? Unless you have lots of clear air under the clouds
so you have enough time to find a suitable place to land, it's not a good idea to be up there. In most
European countries, it is not permitted to carry paying passengers in singleengine helicopters IFR.For
the few given dispensation, there must be no cloud below 1,500AGL in order to carry out a safe engine
off landing.
Disorientation
One of the main problems of instrument flying in helicopters is that in real IMC, it is very easy to get
disoriented (some people call it vertigo). Unless you are lucky enough to fly a big helicopter, the large
amount of glass area provided to give you a good view of the world when hovering can easily provide
powerful cues that w ill distract you from the instruments. I've seen people get disoriented several times,
and had it happen to me. For this reason, nearly every helicopter that operates at night or in an area
where there aren't really good visual cues for determining pitch and roll attitude, or height above the
ground should have an attitude indicator, and the pilot should have an instrument rating.
Interestingly, it is only the operating rules that require an attitude indicator for night flying - the basic
certificationrules don't require it. Just another of the strange things i n this world.
Hopefully when you get your instrument rating, you will be put in unusual attitudes and other
situations where you will learn to trust your instruments, and also how to survive disorientation.
UseM Instrument FIying Exercises
The following are useful exercises to develop instrument flying skills. It is noticeable that they
concentrate on IMC skills, as opposed to procedural IFR skills. These should all be practiced with an
instructor or competent helicopter pilot as safety pilot.
Slow BFHighk
The first exercise is slow flight. Slow down to 60 RIAS and practice turns,climbs and descents and then
combine turns with climbs or descents. While the maximum angle of bank you might expect to see for
a standard rate turn is quite low (about 13"), you should try fmmto 30°, just for the practice.
When changing power for climbs and descents, notice how difticult it is to keep the ball in the middle.
When you get tired of doing this with all the instruments working, try partial panel with the attitude
indicator failed, and if you have a turn and slip indicator, using the turn and slip to do a standard rate
(rate 1) turn. Time turns through 60°, 90" and 180" of heading, on partial panel (i,e. no attitude
indicator).

* Unfortunately,the engine failure rate on turbine single engine helicopters is still too high to permit carrying passengers
m.
----- and--InstrumenP
Night -- I"fylng Autorotations at Night, in Clouds, etc. wed,

Once you get the hang of that, try slowing down to 40 RIAS and turning, climbing and
descending. Be careful of letting the airspeed get too low, and also be prepared for very small
angles of bank to generate large heading changes.
Changing Airspeed
Change the airspeed while m a i n k i h g altitude, h m 40 HIAS to VH and back.
Pu~iirngIt All Together
The best training exercise for learning to fly on instruments is the coordinated climbing turnor
descent. Basically, starting a t a convenient airspeed and on a cardinal heading (East or South,
for example) and at an easy-+remember altitude (2,50OYA1MSL,for example), start a climb at
500 feet per minute and then start a standard rate (3" per second) turn. Every minute you
should be 500 feet higher, and 180" different in heading. Work at it until you can be sure of the
heading being 30" different every 10 seconds, and the altitude being 125' different every 15
seconds. Minor corrections to power, rate of turn and so on will be needed. This exercise will
sharpen cross check skills immensely, and make followingradials and ILS bars a piece of cake.
Ik3adv-t mc
This is a touchy subject. There are numerous schools of thought on this, and lots of things to
think about. Lots of helicopters which are very well equipped to fly in IMC crash while trying
to stay in VMC conditions.
Consider your options before you set out on a trip. If you're in an area without many obstacles,
and you're not likely to encounter icing conditions, and you're current in instrument flying, and
not likely to mess up instrument approach procedures, then I would seriously think of climbing
to a minimum safe altitude rather than trying to scud run.
rve had to do this three times in my relatively tame career. Each time, it was very
straightforward. We had encountered deteriorating weather, and had the necessary conditions
to be able to climb into IMC. We contacted the local controlling authority and were given
permission to proceed IF'R. (In one case we were a long way away, and climbed to the minimum
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enroute altitude for that area and tried to contact Air Traffic Control we were so far away, it
took us a while before we could get in touch with them, but we were well below any altitude they
would have been using in that area anyway). Otherwise, no problems a t all. ATC weren't upset
a t us, there was no grand inquisition to ask us why we did this, and everyone was happy
I've done this in several countries, and no-one has complained about it. I was certainly happy to
have this capability I ability!
In some organizations, IMC is the last resort, and pilots are led to believe that using the
procedure just described is a career-ending move. Far from it!

Just like we have no reliable long-term warning of when engines will fail, we have no guarantee
they will not fail at night or other times of poor visibility. Even multi-engine helicopters can
have occasion to use autorotations if they have fkel problems (a distinct lack of it, for example),
or a tail rotor failure.
What to do if the need arises when you are not sure of the ground underneath, and have no
choice about autorotation? The answer is in a little known technique called the 'constant
attitude autorotation', invented (I think) in the UK. The name derives from the constant
attitude maintained throughout the maneuver, although the name 'constant airspeed' might
just as well be used - there is no flare a t the bottom.
Typically, this autorotation uses a lower-than-normal airspeed, about 35 to 40 KIAS, plus half
the windspeed, with the helicopter facing into the surface wind*. Maintain this airspeed all the
way to the time of pulling collective pitch, and if any margins are to be given, err just slightly
to a higher airspeed. Slowing below this slow airspeed quickly increases the rate of descent and
makes it d3Yicult to regain (or even hold) airspeed due to errors in the pitot static system.

* which means it's a good idea to keep a mental note of the surfacewind direction and speed.
tnstrument Flying Rules (IFR) Might and Instrttmmt Fiying
.-- .--- "" -
The effect for most of the descent is quite serene - there is little sensation of plummeting towards the
earth. This changes dramatically at about 10OYAGL,when the ground rush starts to become apparent
in a real hurry. The philosophy of the constant attitude autorotation is that at night with the landing
light on or in IMC (fog all the way down to low altitude), the ground would start to make its presence
known a t about this point.
A radar altimeter is really essential if you're going to fly in cloud for real, if only for this reason.
In daylight (the best place to practice this), wait until the ground rush is really quite pronounced (at
about 5OYAGL)before starting to feed in collective, slowly at first, and then as rapidly as needed. The
amount of collective to apply is quite natural, but there is little room for error. Do not flare, accept the
slight forward speed! It should be quite obvious to even the most casual observer that there is no point
in flaring. From a technical point of view, there is not enough kinetic energy to change the flight path
and it would only change the attitude on ground impact.
The logic for this maneuver is something like this: a t night or in IMC, there are not enough cues for the
pilot to judge height above ground for a flare to stop the rate of descent. The purpose of the flare is to
stop the rate of descent and get rid of the kinetic energy of forward speed.A misjudged flare might mean
hitting the ground with high forward speed as well as a vertical speed and is worse than hitting the
ground with very little forward and relatively low vertical speed. So the constant attitude autorotation
is a compromise.
-
For those of you who say this is silly who would want to fly a single engine helicopter in cloud or at
night - well, not only will people do it (it's normal in some militaries), but multi-engine helicopters can
also have emergencies where an autorotation is the only way out. They fly at night and in cloud a lot!

I'm very disappointed that the Air Traffic system has not seen fit to recognize the special needs and
capabilities of the helicopter. It is only within the last few years that we have seen helicopter-only
instrument approaches which utilize a maximum speed on approach which is representative of the
helicopter's capabilities.
While this is a big step forward, there is still much to be corrected. We need to have fuel reserves which
recognize that helicopters can't carry as much fuel as fixed wing airplanes, so it is impossible to be able
to carry alternate fields and fuel reserves and a meaningful payload. The chances of achieving a
successful approach with the slower approach speeds the helicopter uses would also ensure that less
fuel reserves would be needed. One of the other reasons fixed wing aircraft carry fuel reserves, runway
closure, is also less of a hazard for helicopters, as we typically don't need runways for landing. All in all,
we are being hampered by yet another hold-overfrom the fixed wing world.
With the advent of precision GPS approaches, perhaps it is time to revisit the fuel reserve requirement.
As this book was going to print, I read that the FAA is relaxing these requirements - about time, too!
G B alld rn
There is a great tendency to use a simple, hand-held GPS for a lot of helicopter flying. For VFR
operations, this is a great idea (but see "Using GPS Intelligently" on page 434*). If you're planning to
use GPS for IFR however, a hand-held machine can be lethal. One of the primary concerns of
instrument navigation is reliability of radio navaid signals. For some of the radio navaids we use, (VOR,
ILS) there are flags on the displays to tell when the signal is not correct or has been lost. For ADF, there
is no flag to tell when the signal is lost, so it is necessary to listen to the audio signal during an ADF
approach to tell if the signal suddenly goes away; GPS has an equivalent 'flag', and it's called RAIM, for
Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring, This is only found in IFR approved equipment, and its the
GPS equivalent to the flags for VOR and ILS, or listening to the ADF.It tells the pilot that the required
navigation accuracy for an IFR approach (0.3nm) is not available. For those of you who think this less-
than-accurate state of affairs with GPS is never going to happen, I suggest you think again. I've read
lots of reports from hand-held users where the GPS was found to be up to 80 nautical miles off, with no
warning. Not the sort of thing to have happen on an IFR approach in the mountains, you'll agree. So, if
you're going to go IFR, get an appropriately approved GPS installation. And learn how to use it.
 f3
PdigM and
--
lnsttumenZ Ffying
*- " "
Instrument Flying
P --Rules
-- {IFRj :
;
Just to reinforce the point, you wouldn't think of routinely using your hand-held Nav-Com
transmitter with VOR receiver to do a VOR approach would you?You & remember to monitor
the ADF signal when you're using that for an approach don't you?
Helicopter Only Approaches
I've seen a few of these, and for the most part they help to utilize the unique capabilities of the
helicopter. We need to learn from our fixed wing brethern though, as they have specialtests that
must be satisfied when an airplane is approved for anything other than a 3" glideslope. We're
slightly luckier in the helicopter world, in that most approach paths that are steeper than 3"
don't cause a problem, but really steep ones (greater than go,for example) can be interesting to
fly.
The other problem with helicopter only approaches is %t they should only be carried out into
the wind. Again, our firred wing brethern have a rule that anything more than a 10 Knot
tailwind must be specificallyflight tested and approved. We seem to have ignored this, with the
added peril that a tailwind on approach can lead to nasty things like vortex ring state. High
crosswinds can also lead to some interesting crab angles a t the final stages of the approach. A
lot of work needs to be done before we get to the next stage, which is-
Zero-ZeroApproaches
The zerolzero approach is one where the visibility is zero, and the ceiling is zero. In other words,
some pretty intense fog, This is actually extremely rare, and there is generally some vertical and
horizontal visibility.
We are a long way from achieving this in the helicopter world on an everyday basis. Previous
comments on low airspeed sensing systems are very pertinent here, but more mundane things
like how w i l l we be able to transition from the approach to a go-around, or land safely in the
event of an engine failure* a t the very last part of the approach? What kind of lighting system
wiU we need for the landing site? What kind of crosswind limits will be permitted?
Related to this subject is the need to consider what type of helicopters we are going to permit to
do these type of approaches. If we slick to our major concern of engine failures (and this itself
may not be the real problem in helicopter flying) then it is probable that only multi-engine
helicopters will be permitted to conduct these approaches. Even if we then accept that Category
A helicopters have good single engine capabilities, they aren't able to fly away from all
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conditions the flight profiles are set up to make sure the helicopter can land safely from a
failure on very short final, for example. So, if we have a zero-zeroapproach to the hover at some
point the helicopter is going to be committed to land if an engine fails. So, being committed to
land, it follows that we need guidance to touchdown (or some other low visibility) in case the
visibility is really that bad. Given the capabilities of GPS and most especially Differential GPS
(DGPS), this should be no problem.
I've seen some zero-zero approaches in helicopters that were absolutely spectaculaq and if
implemented would truly unlock the potential of the helicopter. A lot of work needs to be done
to make this reality.
Single Pilot lFR
The helicopter, being a more expensive machine to operate, has more impetus to have only one
pilot on board, in order to maximize the number of revenue seats on the machine. So what about
single pilot IFR? I find it interesting to note that for IFR,we r e q d e two of nearly anything.
(?"he US is the only country to permit IFR in single engine helicopterswith passengers on board,
although single engine fixed wing IFR with lots of restrictions is permitted in several countries.)
We require two navigation aids, two altimeters, two radios, and so on. But the part that has been
shown to fail most frequently, and in the most un-explained way, the part with the single
information processor (brain) and single engine fieart), is permitted to operate without a

* Not well known or understood.It's buried in the airframe certificationrules, and not spelled out in Flight Man-
uals.
-f You will note that I
'm not wen considering single engine helicopters for zerolzem approaches.
 w? lnstnrment Flying Rules (IFR) NigM and fnstrummt Rylng--
a+-
#
;a.- .- -.-- "---

backup. After I read of a pilot flying IFR by himself with passengers, at night, having a heart attack
and landing the aircraft safely at a conveniently close-by airport, I really questioned this philosophy
S ry of Chapter 36
We've covered a bit of night flying and instrument flying- two things which are often considered the
same in the fixed wing world. For helicopters, they are two different scenarios, and both need special
trailling.