INTRODUCTION

Denim and jeans - where do the names come from? The word jeans come from a kind of material that was made in Europe. The material, called jean was named after sailors from genoa in Italy, because they wore clothes made from it. The word 'denim' probably came from the name of a French material, serge de nimes: serge (a kind of material) from nimes (a town in France), Jeans are trousers made from denim. Some of the earliest American blue jeans were made by Jacob Davis, Calvin Rogers, and Levi Strauss in 1873. Starting in the 1950s, jeans, originally designed for the U.S. Army and working people, became popular among teenagers. Historic brands include Levi's, Lee, and Wrangler. Jeans come in various fits, including skinny, tapered, straight, boot cut, Mommy-cut, maternity, and flare. Jeans are now a very popular form of casual dress around the world, and have been so for decades. They come in many styles and colors; however, "blue jeans" are particularly identified with American culture, especially the American Old West.

History
The word "jeans" comes from the French phrase bleu de Gnes, literally the blue of Genoa. Jeans fabric, or denim, originated independently in two places:
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The French town of Nmes, from which 'denim' (de Nmes) gets its name. From Dongari Killa in India, from which the word 'dungarees' came.

A pair of loose fit jeans

Manufacturing process of Denim:

Denim trousers for sailors

Denim trousers were made in Chieri, a town near Turin in Italy, during the Renaissance and were popularized in the 19th century. These trousers were sold through the harbor of Genoa, which was the capital of the independent Republic of Genoa which was long an important naval and trading power. The Genoese Navy required all-purpose trousers for its sailors that could be worn while swabbing the deck and the denim material met this need. These trousers were laundered by dragging them in nets behind the ship, and the sea water and sun would gradually bleach them to white. Jeans (at the time known as "dungarees"), along with light-blue stenciled "cambric" shirts, became part of the official working uniform of the United States Navy in the first part of the 20th Century. A working uniform was selected to protect traditional uniforms from becoming soiled or torn in the ship's rugged working environment, leaving them for ceremonial occasions. They were first issued in 1901, and were originally straight-legged but by the mid-20th century the trousers became Boot-cut style to permit ventilation in the ship's hotter working environments and to ensure sailors could shed their dungarees if they fell overboard or had to abandon ship. The same type of uniform consisting of jeans and chambray tops was issued as prison uniforms in some correctional facilities mainly because of the durability and low-maintenance of denim which was deemed suitable for the rugged manual labor carried out by inmates. A popular example of the use of denim as prison wear can be seen in the film Cool Hand Luke.

Close-up on the jeans fabric Denim Fabric

Denim Fabrics woven of 100% cotton would be very strong and durable. Traditionally Blue Denim is warp faced cotton fabric with 3 x 1 twill construction with warp being dyed in a solid colour and weft left un-dyed. The look and quality of the Denim Fabric shall improve after dyeing, the process of which differs from plant to plant. Normally the process of dyeing dictates the technology of Denim manufacturing. The dyeing for Denim Fabric happens at the sizing stage. Generally there are two most popular methods of dyeing Denim Fabric. They are: o Rope Dyeing o Sheet Dyeing A company can adopt any of the methods. In countries like India Sheet Dyeing Method is commonly used for manufacture of its Denim Fabrics, which has following advantages over Rope Dyeing Method: o The technology is less capital intensive. o The technology is a proven one. o The cost of production is lower. o The process time is lower. o The Sheet Dyeing machines are very easy to operate. The only defect in Sheet dyeing is that their is a problem of center to selvedge shade variation.

DYEING
Dyeing is the process of changing the colour of a yarn or cloth by treatment with a dye. Dyeing is a process in which we impart color to the fabric. All commercial textile dyeing processes take place by the application of a solution or a dispersion of the dyes to the textile material followed by some type of fixation process. The dye solution or dispersion is almost always in an aqueous medium. A major objective of the fixation step is normally to

ensure that the colored textile exhibits satisfactory fastness to subsequent treatment in aqueous wash liquors. For the majority of the thousands of years in which dyeing has been used by man to decorate clothing, or fabrics for other uses, the primary source of dye has been nature, with the dyestuff being extracted from animals or plants. In the last two centuries, man has produced artificial dyes to achieve specific colours, and to render the dyes 'fast', so that they do not run when the material is washed. Dyes are applied to material by direct application, or by immersing the yarn or cloth in the liquid dye or a solution of the dye. In order to remove natural or unwanted colour from material, the opposite process of bleaching is carried out. Dyeing is mainly depends on the type of fabric, structure of fabric and the properties of dyes. Dyes use for Denim Sulphur Dyes Vat Dyes

SULPHUR DYES:
Sulphur dyes are widely used on cotton mainly because they are economical to use. They have well to excellent wash fastness and good light fastness in dark shades. Light fastness of pale shades is poor. Sulphur dyes are usually dull in shade since the molecular structures are complex. As a class, the sulphur dyes are not resistant to chlorine containing bleaches. Chemical nature of sulphur dyes

Partial chemical structures involved in dyeing with sulphur dyes

Dyeing with sulphur dyes of various types

VAT DYES:
Vat dyes are mainly applied on cellulosic fibres, but some can be applied to protein fibres. They usually have outstanding color-fastness properties. Vat dyes are more expensive and difficult to apply than other classes for cellulose such as directs, sulphurs, and reactive. Indigo is a special case in the vat dye class. Indigo is attractive for its pleasing blue color and for the unique fading characteristics of garment dyed with it. Vat dyes are characterized by the presence of a keto group. Vat dyes in keto form are water insoluble pigments. CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION OF QUINONE VAT DYES

CI Vat Red 42 (1); leuco compound formed by reduction (2); vat acid formed by protonation of the anionic leuco derivative (3); CI Vat Blue 4 (4)

DENIM DYEING:The classical jeans were produced out of indigo-dyed Denim fabric. The special character of this fabric only the warp thread is dyed makes it necessary to carry out dyeing in yarn form. The yarns applied for Denim were exclusively produced on ring spinning machines in former times. The development of OE(open end) yarns by applying smaller rotors with a spinning speed of up to 200 m/min has led to the application of OE rotor yarns both for warp and weft. The yarns applied for weaving must be of high quality: a high fiber for strength, regularity as well as a small part of short stapled cotton fibers belong to the basic features of the denim yarn. For regular jeans qualities the warp yarns are spun in a fineness of 50 to 90 tex, for the weft yarn the fineness ranges are mainly 75 to 120 tex. If Denim is made out of Tencel or Modal especially for jeans shirts the finenesses are up to 25 tex. Indigo, sulphur and indanthrene are mainly used in the dyeing process. Two methods are applicable for continuous dyeing with indanthrene dyes: rapid dyeing and vat dyeing. While processing the basic colored denim, reactive dyes are used and fixed with hot caustic soda solution. The dyeing process is mainly influenced by the dyestuff characteristics, dyeing temperature and necessary chemicals used in the process. Indigo dye is the most popular choice as it has good depth of shade and suitable rubbing and washing fastness. When cotton yarn is dyed with indigo, it leaves a ring-dyeing effect, because of which the outer layer of warp yarn is coated with indigo, and the core of the yarn remains undyed. This gives the denim garment a unique faded look and a rich blue shade after repeated use and wash.

Originally, the warp yarns or ends were put through the dye bath side by side to form a sheet of yarn, which passed continuously through several dye baths, squeeze rollers or airing sequences. However, if there were breaks in the yarn (and there would be, as each yarn had to take the tension of being pulled through these processes virtually on its own), the dyeing process had to be stopped. The yarns would be then mended, or else it would lead to very bad tangling. These stoppages would in turn cause large shade variations, and the yarn breaks would show up as bad faults in the fabric. Now, an infinitely more efficient system has been introduced. Special attention shall be paid here to Indigo, the king of dyestuffs since it plays an important role in obtaining the jeans effect. Indigo belongs to the category of water insoluble dyestuffs. It was first mentioned in a book 13 BC; at that time the name Indian blue indicated the country the color came from. It is said to have been used for dyeing in India and China 2000 years BC already. The Indigo plant is used for preparing Indigo

This plant came to Europe in the 16th century via India and gradually replaced the woad which was one of the most important dyeing plants up to this time. Only the leaves were used for good qualities whereas the leaves together with the stalks were applied for normal qualities. In a vat filled with water and partially with human fermented urine as alkali donor stems and leaves were exposed to a putrefactive process. During this putrefactive process hydrogen was created by means of micro-organisms which, as a reduction agent, transformed the dyestuff contained in the Indigo plant into a watersoluble form. When this process was over the whole mass was filled into a liquid where the fermented mass was stirred with poles. The reason for doing so was to transform the Indigo into its water insoluble form again by air oxidation. In a last step the water-insoluble dyestuff particles could then deposit on the bottom of a stationary vat. Then the liquid standing above was drained and what was left was a thin mash which was dried in the open air and was put on the market in pressed or in powder form

As shown in figure trading form of Indigo at that time, approx. 9 cm length of edges and 163 g in weight. When looking at these methods one can easily imagine that the reduction of Indigo was considered to be an evil-smelling trade. In 1880 Adolf von Baeyer succeeded in carrying out the first synthetic production of Indigo. In the year 1897 the Badische Anilinund Sodafabrik in Ludwigshafen -hich is nowadays called BASF was able to carry out an industrial-scale production of the Indigo dyestuff for the first time. A few years later this synthetic dyestuff replaced the indigo coming from British-India almost completely. As was already mentioned Indigo is a dyestuff insoluble in water. In order to be able to apply it on cotton it must be transformed into a water-soluble form. Similar to the former production of Indigo this is done by reducing the dyestuff. In practice this is nowadays carried out with sodium dithionite or hydroxiacetone in the alkaline range.

This is Fiber cross-section of a yarn dyed with Indigo simplified description of the reduction/oxidation of Indigo In former times dyeing with Indigo was carried out in wood or metal vats, normally in rope form.

Indigo sample dyer as very clearly visible on the above picture, at the bottom side of the rope the water-soluble Leuco form of the indigo is yellowish and on the side of the rope oxidized with air the indigo blue can be seen again. Nowadays, yarn dyeing with indigo is done continuously. Here the various dyeing processes with different concentrations of chemicals as well as the subsequent yarn sizing exert an influence on the quality and the appearance of the ready fabric.

HOW TO MAKE INDIGO SOLUTION

In a tank of 1000 liters: a. take 400 litres of water (soft)

b. add setamol ws--> 4 g/l (stirring) ( dispersing solution) c. Add 100 kg of Indigo ( at 1.8 % shade -see the indigo calculations- stirring) d. add caustic soda --> stirring ( for solubilising and pH) e. allow to cool it for 2/3 hours f. Add hydrosulphide (As reducing agent) g. Make the solution to 1000 l by adding water. If pH is fluctuating, if it is > 11.7 then hydro is added (2-3 kg), if (<11.2) then caustic is added. For 100 kg of Indigo, Caustic Required= 90 kg Hydro Required= 80 kg 1. Receipes For Different Shades on Denim

A) Black-on-Black Black-on-Blue Recipe Liquid Sulphast Black= 200 gpl Sodium Sulphide= 20 gpl Sandozol HSI = 10 gpl Soda Ash= 10 gpl B) Blue-on- Blue Receipe Liquid Sulphar Navy Blue = 100 gpl Liquid Sulphast Black= 50 gpl Sodium Sulphide= 20 gpl Sandozol HSI= 10 gpl Soda Ash= 10 gpl

C) Reactive Series Receipe 01) Ramazol Turquoise Blue G = 110 gpl Urea= 100 gpl Swanic 6L= 10 gpl 02) Sodium Silicate= 250 gpl Caustic Soda = 10 gpl Ratio of 01) and 02) = 3:1 D) Ramazol Coffee Brown G Receipe 01) Coffee Brown G = 100gpl Urea = 100 gpl Swanic 6L= 10 gpl 02) Sodium Silicate = 250 gpl Caustic Soda= 10 gpl Ratio of 01) and 02) = 3:1 E) Ramazol Parrot Green Receipe 01) Ramazol Turquoise Blue G = 90 gpl Ramazol Yellow FG = 40 gpl Urea= 100 gpl Swanic 6L= 10 gpl 02) Sodium Silicate = 250 gpl Caustic Soda = 10 gpl Ratio of 01) and 02) = 3:1

F) Ramazol Blue Receipe 01) Ramazol Black B = 70 gpl Urea = 100 gpl Swanic 6L = 10 gpl 02) Sodium Silicate = 250 gpl Caustic Soda = 10 gpl Ratio of 01) and 02) = 3:1

Indigo Dyeing on a 20 rope range:

INDIGO CALCULATIONS
For 12 ropes, at 24 m/min, of 344 ends of 14000 m length of 7s count. wt of yarn = (12*344*14000*100*453.6)/(7*840*36*2.54*1000) kg= 5000 kg at 24 m/min, a lot of 14000 m will be completed in 14000/24 = 583.3 min At 1.8% shade 100 kg of yarn needs--> 1.8 kg of Indigo 5000 kg of yarn needs --> 90 kg of dye

At 100 gpl 100 gms of dye = 1 lit of solution 90 kg of dye = 900 litres 900 litres should be completed in 583.3 min 1 litre would be completed in = 583.3/900= 38.8 seconds so flow rate will be 38.8 seconds / litre Similarly flow rate of caustic and hydro can be determined Hydro is taken around 100 gpl caustic is taken around 90 to 100 gpl There are three processes in the practice for continuous dyeing: 1) Rope Dyeing 2) Slasher or Sheet Dyeing 3) Loop Dyeing

ROPE DYEING
Indigo Rope Dyeing When dyeing according to the rope dyeing or cable dyeing method.350 - 400 warp threads are bound on the ball warper to very thick cables of10000 15 000 m length. On the continuous dyeing installation, 12 to 36 cables are led side by side, wetted, dyed and dried after the dyeing process on cylinders and put into cans. Then the cables are dissolved to warps on the long chain beamer. The warps are added to the sizing machine, sized and then led together to warp depending on the total numbers of threads. In practice, this method has proven to be very good through obtaining an optimum indigo dyeing. However it is important that the cables have a constant tension in order to avoid warp stripes. The disadvantage compared to other methods is that yarn breakages do occur more often. Size of the dyeing unit is between 60 - 80 m. normally, 6 dyeing vats are in use. There are nevertheless variations with 3 to 8 dyeing vats. The dyeing methods described here do not allow a total penetration of the dyestuff during the short dyeing time and give the desired and necessary ring dyeing important for the jeans effect.

ROPE DYEING PROCESS

PROCESS CONTROL OF ROPE DYEING FOR DENIM

1. Concentration of Hydrosulphite It is measured by vatometer. It should be from 1.5 gpl to 2.5gpl , or by redox potential of dye bath which should be from -730 mV to -860 mV. 2. Caustic Soda or pH value Should be from 11.5-12.5 3. Dye concentration in Dye bath it is measured by spectrophotometer. It should be in g/l

Guidelines High Indigo Concentration --> Shade is greener and lighter Low Indigo Concentration --> Shade is dull and Red. High pH or Caustic Concentration --> Redder and lighter Low pH or caustic concentration --> greener and darker Dipping Time Longer the dipping time, better will be the penetration and lesser will be the ring dyeing effect. It varies from 15-22 seconds. Squeeze Pressure High pressure will lead to lower wet pick up and result in lesser color and better penetration. At rope dyeing, squeeze pressure is 5-10 tonnes, ie. wet pick up is as low as 60%. Hardness of squeeze roller is about 70-75 deg. shores. It squeeze rolls are too hard then there are chances of slippage and uneven yarn tension. If squeeze rollers are too soft then shading will occur. Surface of the squeeze rolls should be ground twice a year. Airing Time It should be 60-75 seconds. Longer airing time results in high tension on the yarn and subsequent processes will become difficult. Drying Insufficient or unevenly dried yarns will result in poor rebeaming

Calculation of Replenishing Dye feed/min Conc. of stock vat is g/l= 90 range speed in yards/min=25 count = 7s totoal ends = 4100 Wt of yarn dyed /min= (4100*25*1000)/(7*840*202)= 7924 gms shade desired = 2% Amount of dye to be replenished/min= 158.5 gms Effect of pH At pH of 10.5 to 11.5, there will be formation of more monophenolate ions, which lead to higher color yield, as strike rate of the dye to the yarn bundle is very high, and wash down activities will be very good. At pH higher than this, dye penetration will be less and wash down characteristics are also poor.

Testing 1. Alkalinity in Dye Bath Liquor Pipet 10.0 ml of vat liquor into 100ml of distilled water in a 150 ml beaker. place under continuous agitation and insert the electrodes of a pH meter calibrated at pH 7.0 with standard buffer solution. Titrate with tenth normal HCl ( 0.1 HCl) to pH 7.0 (ml = A) calculate g/l of NaOH = A *0.40 2. Hydro in Dye bath Liquor Add 2 ml of 37% HCHO to 150 ml beaker. Add 2 ml of dye range liquor . Add 6 ml of 25% glacial acetic acid solution prepared by diluting 1 part acid with 3 parts water. Add 2 ml of starch/KI indicator. Add ml of water. Titrate with 0.046 N ( prepared by diluting 460 ml of 0.1 N Iodine to one liter ) solution until the color changes from emarald green to bluish purple. G/l of hydro= mo of 0.046N of Iodine

Importance of High Concentration of Free Hydrosulphite

The clearest shades with minimum reddish streaks are observed at by relatively high conc. of hydrosulphite. On the other side, with lack of hydrosulphite, the leuco indigo is less dissolved and thereby adheres to a greater extent to the fibres. With lack of hydrosulphite furthermore, the amount of unreduced dyestuff by oxidation at the upper level of the liquor and through activiation of unfixed dyestuff, gets separated from the fibrous material would constantly rise as the reducing agent for creating leucoform would be missing. Under these circumstances a reddish bronze like shade results due to dispersion of not reduced dyestuff in the yarn. The min. proportion of hydrosulphite should be around 1.3 to 1.5 gpl in case of rope dyeing and 3-4 gpl in case of sheet dyeing. Also to avoid the lack of hydrosulphite or Indigo at certain places in the immersion, vat, the whole quantity of the liquor should be circulated 2-3 times every hour.

Reaction Time
At very short reaction time, an adequate liquor exchange ( i.e. the amount of chemicals consumed and replaced by fresh addition of reduced indigo) is not assured. This has a negative influence on dyeing and depth of dye penetration. In addition to this the time available for diffusion of dyestuff until oxidation commences is too short. To ensure an even and good depth of dye penetration by dyeing in several passages, the reaction time should be 20-30 sec. for each vat (eg. at a speed of 20m/min for a reaciton time of 10 seconds, the immersion path should be maximum 3.3 meters). A reaction time exceeding 60 seconds should be avoided as the amount of dyestuff again get reduced and released may again supersede that of additionally take up dye stuff, resulting in higher shades. Softening Agent: 8 g/litDrying: Rest humidity should be 30% and then sized.

Addition of chemicals
1. Red Tinge: reduce addition of NaOH, increase slightly Na2S2O3 2. Darkish Red: increase Hydro 3. Light Greenish: decrease Hydro 4. Dark Green: Increase Caustic

SLASHER DYEING
Indigo Sheet or Double Sheet Dyeing (Slasher Dyeing).When dyeing according to the sheet dyeing method, instead of cables the warp threads are fed to the machine parallel next to each other. These are much smaller compared to the rope dyeing machines. Another advantage is that the cables don t need to be open after dyeing. Moreover, each yarn wets much faster and in this way reduces the dipping and wetting times during dyeing. All in all, each thread has a larger surface compared to a dyeing cable and this requires somewhat more hydrosulphite to prevent a premature oxidation of the indigo.

Whereas during rope and sheet dyeing the yarns are always led in succession to the dyeing baths, the fabric of the loop dye method is led several times through the same dyeing bath. The machine is then much shorter and the hydrosulphite consumption is lower. Depending on the number of dyed passages and the concentration of indigo in the dyeing vats, different dyeing of the yarn.

WORKING PRINCIPLE OF SLASHER

Warp beams are brought to the dyeing and sizing section in sheet form as per requirement. The warp sheet is taken to wetting tank (like mercerize, semi mercerize and causticize tanks depends upon the dyeing methods) which swells the fiber and increases its dye uptake. It is then taken to a hot washing tank whose temperature is maintained at 850C. It is then taken to cold washing tank whose temperature is maintained at 600C. Warp sheet is then taken to dyeing tanks where dye is reduced to soluble leuco form by using sodium hydrosulfite, yarn is then contacted with the reduced dye, and the dye is absorbed by the fibers. The fixed leuco indigo in the yarns of the warp sheet was oxidized to form pigment during transport of the warp sheet in the air space following the dwelling chamber, taking approximately 60 seconds. It is taken to two hot washing tanks for fixation. Following rinsing, warp sheet is dried on cylinders dryers prior to the application of sizing agent. Oxidized indigo During the slashing process, the sheet of yarns is passed through the size box which contains the hot water solution or mixtures of sizing agents. The yarns pick up the required quantity of size solution in the size box, excess size is squeezed off as the yarns pass through squeeze rolls. After the size box, the yarns go through the dryer section. The wet yarns are dried by using drying cylinders. Cylinder drying is done using steam heated hot rolls. The Teflon coating is done on all the cylinders to prevent sticking of yarns. Accumulator stores 150 meters of warp sheet. Due to the nature of sizing, the yarns in the sheet may be stuck together at the exit of the dryer section. They are separated into individual sheets by leasing rods and individual ends of yarns are separated by passing through comb then the yarns are wound on to a loom beam for weaving. Sheet Dyeing Process This process eliminates a few intermediate processes of the rope dyeing. The yarn sheet is washed with chemicals such as caustic and washing soda and after squeezing the excess water; the yarn sheet is allowed to pass through Dyeing Troughs one time for oxidation and

development of dye on yarn. After dyeing, the dyed yarn is washed again with fresh water for two-three times and finalIy squeezed before allowing it to pass through six drying cylinders. The dyed yarn enters the starching device and sizing is done. After sizing, the sized warp beam goes for weaving. After weaving, the woven Denim Fabrics goes for various finishing processes consisting of brushing, singeing, washing, impregnation for dressing and drying. Brushing and singeing should eliminate impurities and help to even the surface of the fabric. Dressing regulates the hand and rigidity of the fabric while compressive shrinking regulates its dimensional stability. Even today Denim Fabric without Indigo Dyeing is not called authentic Denim. Initially when Denim Fabric entered the fashion market, Denim manufacturers were using Natural Indigo Dye, which was costly and giving a natural finish. Though Synthetic Indigo Dye has gradually replaced Natural Indigo Dye, some unorganised manufacturers still prefer the latter and attract premium after branding them Natural Dye Used . Warp Preparation - Dyeing and Sizing Processes Warp yarns are indigo dyed and sized with the help of two methods. (i) Threads from several back beams are combined to form a warp sheet and dyed and sized on the same machine. (ii) Threads, about 350-400 in number are formed into ropes. 12-14 ropes run adjacent to each other through the continuous dyeing unit. After dyeing, the ropes are dried on drying cylinders and then collected in a can. After that, a worker's beam is prepared. Sizing is then done in the conventional manner.

There are various dyeing and sizing processes, which can be classified into four categories.

Continuous Indigo-Rope dyeing and sizing.

y y y

Continuous Indigo dyeing and sizing. Indigo-back beam dyeing and sizing. Continuous dyeing and sizing.

Continuous Indigo-Rope dyeing and sizing The yarn coming out from the ring frames is wound into cheeses or cones and then placed on the ball warper on which 350-400 threads are formed into a rope and are cross wound to a ball in accordance with the length of warp beam. During this process, lease bands are inserted at particular intervals as they are required for further processing on Long Chain Beamer. Based on the size of the rope dyeing plant, 12-24 ropes, at a time, are dyed, oxidized, dried and placed in large containers. These ropes are then opened on the Long Chain Beamer through tension roll and expansion comb and wound on to a back beam. Back beams are then sized and the sized warp is then woven. This system is commonly used in the US.v Continuous Indigo dyeing and sizing: In this process, back beams are processed on the dyeing/ sizing machine instead of ropes. The warp is dyed, oxidized, dried and sized at a one go. Although this process is less cumbersome, the risk of individual thread breakage is greater than dyeing in rope form. This method is commonly used in the European countries. Indigo-back beam dyeing and sizing Dyeing and sizing is done in two stages in this method. In the first stage, back beams are dyed, oxidized, dried and wound on a batch roll. The batch roll is then sized, dried and wound on a weaver's beam.

Denim Fabric Dyeing Problems

Indigo, a special case Denim takes a special place among modern textiles: The indigo-blue color and fashionable washout effects make all the difference Dyeing jeans The most difficult stage in the making of jeans is dyeing, a process which actually faces two problems. Pulcra Chemicals offers solutions to both. Problem number one: With denim, only the warp yarn is dyed instead of the whole fabric. Up to 4,000 parallel fibers are simultaneously washed and then pass through several successive baths. Indigo is insoluble in water and will only take when the chemistry is right. The dyeing vats are injected with sodium lye and the reductant hydrosulfite, which converts the indigo into a soluble form and changes its color to yellow. Step by step, each single fiber is coated with six initially yellow, later green dye layers, with a light gray zone remaining in the center. Once the dye has been deposited on the fibers, the sodium lye and the reductant are removed from the bath and the initial blue color is restored.

Loop dye system 1 for 6 Similar to the sheet dyeing systems 10 16 warper beams with the total number of ends required for the weaver beams are used. The warper beams are placed in a moveable warp creel which can be loaded whilst one set is in potation.

The yarn sheet is guided to the soaking bath through a feed-in system with tension compensation rollers. The soaking bath has the task to prepare the yarn for the following dyeing operation. The yarn sheet after having been immersed into a single indigo dye bath runs into a long loop where oxidation takes place. As you can see from the slide the back beams are inside the yarn sheet passes through the dye box as often as necessary to obtain the required deepness of shade. One of the advantages is: Ideal, utilization of Hydrosulphite through squeezing 4 6 layers simultaneously and oxidation of yarn in a comparatively long oxidation loop. After the oxidation the yarn sheet is guided through 2 washing boxes into a yarn accumulator and finally on to a series of drying cans, dried up to 25 30% final moisture content prior being immersed into size boxes, dried and wound onto a weavers beam. FALUTS OF DYEING: FALUTS IN MACHINE: Leakage of steam in drying cylinders Wear and tear of rollers if bearing is jammed Improper working of load cell on squeezing roller. Which causes entanglement of warp sheet as pressure is not properly distributed Faults in dosing system can cause serious problem of shade variation. If the accumulator do not work properly than the machine is stopped. If speed of the machine is kept greater than the yarn` s bearable strength

FALUTS IN RAW MATERIAL: The main causes of the dye ability variations in yarn are: Immature fibres Dead fibres Vegetable matter or other foreign matter Wrong twist Bad splice Neps Count variations Finishing The final woven fabric, wound on a cloth roll, is taken out from weaving machines at particular intervals and checked on inspection machines so that any possible weaving fault can be detected. In this quality control exercise, wherever any fault is seen, corrective measures are taken then and there only. The woven Denim Fabrics then goes through various finishing processes, such as brushing, singeing, washing, impregnation for dressing and drying. Brushing and singeing eliminate impurities and help to even the

surface of denim fabric. Dressing regulates the hand and rigidity of the fabric while compressive shrinking manages its dimensional stability. The standard width denim fabrics is then sent for making up. In this process, the fabric is cut into the desired width according to the size required. The made- up denim fabric is then thoroughly checked for defects such as weaving defects, uneven dyeing, bleaching and dyeing defects, oil stains, or patches. After inspection, the final product is categorized quality-wise. The fault less fabrics are sent to the packaging department while the defective ones are sent for further corrections.