HARDNESS TESTING THEORY

Hardness is usually defined as Resistance to permanent indentation under static or dynamic loads Energy absorption under impact loads Resistance to abrasion Resistance to cutting or drilling There are three main types of tests used to determine hardness: Scratch Tests are the simplest form of hardness tests. In this test, various materials are rated on their ability to scratch one another. Mohs hardness test is of this type. This test is used mainly in mineralogy. In Dynamic Hardness Tests, an object of standard mass and dimensions is bounced back from a surface after falling by its own weight. The height of the rebound is indicated. Shore hardness is measured by this method. Static Indentation Tests are based on the relation of indentation of the specimen by a penetrator under a given load. The relationship of total test force to the area or depth of indentation provides a measure of hardness. The Rockwell, Brinell, Knoop and Vickers hardness tests are of this type. For engineering purposes, mostly the static indentation tests are used.

DYNAMIC OR ELASTIC HARDNESS TEST

The Shore Scleroscope:

Scleroscope hardness is expressed by a number given by the height of rebound of a small pointed hammer after falling with in a glass tube from a height of 10 in. against the surface of the specimen. The standard hammer is approximately 1/4 in. in diameter, 3/4 in. long and weighs 1/12 oz, with a diamond striking tip rounded to a 0.01 in. radius. The indications obtained by the use of this instrument depend upon the resilience of the hammer as well as that material tested, but the permanent deformation of the material is also an important factor. When the hammer falls onto a soft surface, it penetrates that surface to some extent before rebounding and produces a minute indentation. In so doing, part of the energy of fall is absorbed, and the energy available for rebound is comparatively small. If the hammer is dropped on a hard surface, the size of the indentation is much smaller, so that less energy is absorbed in making it. The rebound of the hammer in this case is therefore much higher than before. The height of rebound, rather the diameter, or depth of indentation, any one of which might logically have been used, is taken as the measure of hardness. Various precautions must be observed if reliable results are to be obtained. The surface of the specimen should be flat, smooth, and free from oil or other materials. The glass tube through which the hammer falls must be carefully plumbed to avoid rubbing of the hammer on its inners surface. All specimens should be securely clamped to the anvil to avoid inertia effect. When making a hardness determination, several reading should be taken to get a fair average, but the hammer should not be dropped more than once on any one spot because of the possible effect to strain hardening.

 The condition of the diamond point is very important and should be checked frequently by using hardened steel reference blocks. The indicated hardness should not vary more than 5 percent from that stamped on the blocks; larger variations are indicative of possible cracking or chipping of the diamond.

SCRATCH TESTS / RESISTANCE TO CUTTING OR ABRASION Scratch Hardness Test:

This test was developed by Friedrich Mohs. The scale consists of 10 different standard minerals arranged in order of increasing hardness. In this test a mineral will scratch other minerals that are lower on the scale (smaller hardness number) and will in turn be scratched by minerals higher on the scale. Talc No. 1, gypsum No. 2, etc., up to 9 for corundum, 10 for Diamond. If an unknown material is scratched noticeably by No 6 and not by No. 5, the hardness value is between 5 and 6. This test has never been used to any great extent in metallurgy but is still used in mineralogy. The primary disadvantage is that the hardness scale is non uniform. When the hardness of the minerals is checked by another hardness test method, it is found that the values are compressed between 1 and 9, and there is a large gap in hardness between 9 and 10. With the development in recent years of extremely hard abrasive has come the need for more adequately distinguishing between materials in the range of hardness between that of quartz and that of diamond. An extension of Mohs scale devised for this purpose is given below. Scratch hardness - mineralogical basis Mohs scale Hardness Reference No mineral 1 Talc 2 Gypsum 3 Calcite 4 Fluorite 5 Apatite Extension of Mohs scale Hardness Reference No mineral 1 Talc 2 Gypsum 3 Calcite 4 Fluorite 5 Apatite

Metal Equivalent

Feldspar (orthoclase)

6 7

Orthoclase Vitreous pure silica Quartz Topaz Garnet Fused zirconia Fused alumina Silicon Carbide Boron Carbide Diamond

7 8

Quartz Topaz

8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Stellite

Sapphire or corundum

Tantalum carbide Tungsten carbide

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Diamond

Sclerometers:
In an attempt to obtain a quantitative measure of hardness on the scratch principle, a number of tests have been proposed in which there is measured either the pressure required to make a given scratch or the size of scratch produced by a stylus drawn across the surface under a fixed load. The device for making such a test is often referred to as a Sclerometer. Sclerometer tests are simple in principle but they are difficult to standardize and interpret and have not come into general use except in the Bierbaum scratch hardness test of plastics. In this methods an accurately ground diamond point, shaped in the form of the corner of a cube and carrying a load of 3g, is moved laterally by means of a worm gear causing the point to cut a groove in the surface of the test specimen. The Bierbaum scratch hardness equals the load on the diamond point, in kilograms, divided by the square of the width of the scratch in millimeters.

File Test:
The test piece is subjected to the cutting action of a file of known hardness to determine whether a visible cut is produced. Comparative tests with a file depend upon the size, shape, and hardness of the file; the speed, pressure, and angle of filing during the test; and the composition and heat treatment of the material under test. This test is generally used industrially as one of the acceptance or rejection. In many cases, particularly with tool steels, when the steel is properly heat-treated it will be hard enough so that if a file is run across the surface it will not cut the surface. It is not unusual to find heat-treating specifications which simply say heat-treat until material is file-hard. By running a file across the surface an inspector may rapidly check a large number of heat treated parts to determine whether the treatment has been successful.

STATIC INDENTATION TESTS Brinell Hardness Test:

Johan August Brinell introduced the first standardized indentation hardness test in 1900. The Brinell hardness test consists in indenting the metal surface with a 10-mm diameter steel ball at a load range of 500-3000 kgf, depending on hardness of particular materials.

Procedure:
To make a test, the surface of the specimen should be flat and reasonably well polished; otherwise difficulty will be experienced in making an accurate determination of the diameter of the indentation. If the specimen is prepared from rough stock, the surface should be dressed with a file and then polished with a fine emery cloth. In the standard test, the full load is applied for a minimum of 10sec for ferrous metals and 30sec for softer metals, after which interval the load is released and the diameter of the indentation is measured with the microscope. The material of the specimen is permanently deformed for an appreciable distance below the surface of the indentation. If this indentation is extends to the lower or opposite surface, the size of the indentation may be greater for some materials and less for others than for thicker specimen of the same materials. If an indentation made and the thickness was less than the critical value a spot of altered surface was visible on the underside of the specimen. No marking shall appear on the side of the piece opposite the indentation and also requires the thickness of the specimen to be at least 10 times the depth of the indentation.

 If an indentation is made too near the edge of the specimen, it may be both too large and unsymmetrical. If made too close to a previous one, it may be one large owing to lack of sufficient supporting materials or too small owing to work hardening of the material by the first indentation. However, test have shown that the errors may be neglected if the distance of the center of the indentation from the edge of the specimen or from the center of adjacent indentations is equal to or greater than 2.5 times the diameter of the indentation. If the compressive properties of a flat specimen are not uniform, owing perhaps to direction of rolling or to cooling stresses, a noncircular indentation will result. In this case, the average Brinell hardness of the material may be obtained. The Brinell hardness number is nominally the pressure per unit area, in kilograms per square millimeter, of the indentation that remains after the load is removed. It is obtained by dividing the applied load by the area of the surface of the indentation, which is assumed to be spherical.

Where: P = Applied Load (kgf) D = Diameter of indenter (mm) d = Diameter of indentation (mm)

A well structured Brinell hardness number reveals the test conditions, for example "75 HB 10/500/30" which means that a Brinell Hardness of 75 was obtained using a ball of 10mm diameter with a 500 kgf test force for a period of 30 seconds.
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 The Brinell hardness number using the standard ball is limited to approximately 500HB. As the material tested becomes harder, there is tendency for the indenter itself to start deforming, and the readings will not be accurate. The upper limit of the scale may be extended by using a tungsten carbide ball rather a hardened steel ball. In this case, it is possible to go to approximately 650HB. Compared to the other hardness test methods, the Brinell ball makes the deepest and widest indentation, so the test averages the hardness over a wider amount of material, which will more accurately account for multiple grain structures and any irregularities in the uniformity of the material. This method is the best for achieving the bulk or macro-hardness of a material, particularly those materials with heterogeneous structures.

Limitation:
The Brinell test is a simple one to make, several precautions are necessary in order to obtain good results. It is not adapted to testing extremely hard materials, because the ball itself deform too much, nor is it satisfactory for testing thin piece such as razor blades, because the usual indentation may be greater than the thickness of the piece. It is not adapted to testing casehardened surface, because the depth of indentation may be greater than the thickness of the case and because the yielding of the soft core invalidates the results; also for such surface, the indentation is almost invariably surrounded by a crack that may cause fatigue failure if the part is used in service. The Brinell test should not be used for parts the marring of the surface of which impairs their value.

Rockwell Hardness Test:

The Rockwell test is similar to the Brinell test in that the hardness number found is a function of the degree of indentation of the test piece by the action of an indenter under a given static load. Various loads and indenters are used, depending on the condition of test. It differs from the Brinell test in that the indenters and the loads are smaller, and hence the resulting indention is smaller and shallower. It is applicable to the testing of materials of having hardnesses beyond the scope of the Brinell test, and it is faster because it gives arbitrary direct readings. In the operation of the machine, a minor load of 10 Kg is first applied by slowly raising the specimen against the indenter, which causes an initial indentation that sets the indenter on the material and holds it in position. Then the major load is applied through a loaded lever system. This major load is customarily 60 to 100 kg when steel ball is used as an indenter though other loads may be used when found necessary, and it is usually 150 kg when the diamond cone is employed. The ball indenter is normally 1/16 in. in diameter, but other of larger diameter such as 1/8, 1/4, or 1/2 in. may be employed for soft materials. After the major load is applied and removed, the hardness reading is taken from the dial while the minor load is still is in position. A shallow impression on a hard material will result in a high number while a deep impression on a soft material will result in a low number. The dial of the machine has two set of figures, one red and the other black, which differ by 30 hardness numbers. The dial was designed in this way to accommodate the B and C scale, which were the first ones standardized and are the most widely used.
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 Two advantage were gained by this shifting of the zero points: Negative number were avoided on soft material such brass, when tested on the B scale; and This established B 100 as the upper practical limit of hardness that might be tested with the 100Kg major load and the 1/16 in. ball without deforming the ball. The B scale is for testing materials of medium hardness such as low and medium carbon steels in the annealed condition. The working range of this scale is from 0 to 100. If the ball indenter is used to test material harder than about B 100, there is danger that it will be flattened. If the 1/16 in. ball is used on material softer than B 0, there is danger that the indenter that holds the ball in place will make contact with the specimen or that the weight arm will descend too far. Below B 0, the 1/16 in. ball owing to its shape, become supersensitive and the readings are erratic. The C scale is the one most commonly used for materials harder than B 100. The hardest steels run about C 70. The useful range of this scale is from C 20 upward. Any in accuranies that occur in grinding the diamond cone to its proper shape have a proportionately greater effect on small indentations, and it should therefore not be used below this lower value. Because of the many Rockwell scales, the hardness number must be specified by using the symbol HR followed by the letter designating the scale and preceded by the hardness numbers. For example 82HRB means a Rockwell hardness of 82 measured on the B scale (1/16in. ball and 100kg load). Because of the smallness indentation and because of the way it is measured, there are some differences in selecting and preparing test piece for the Rockwell test as compared with the Brinell test. Certain precautions are necessary, of which the following are the more important. The test surface should be flat and free from scale, oxide films, pits and foreign material that may affect the results. A pitted surface may give erratic reading, owing to some indentations being near the edge of a depression. This permits a free flow of metal around the indenting tool and results in a low reading.

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 Oiled surface generally give slightly lower readings than dry ones because of the reduced friction under the indenter. The bottom surface should be free from scale dirt, or other foreign materials that might crush or flow under the test pressure and so affect the results. The hardness number determined by indenting a curved surface is in error because of the shape of the surface. In industrial applications, this problem is often encountered, commonly in the case of shafts. If it is feasible, a small flat spot may be filed on the rod before making the indentation. Thickness should be 10 times higher that the depth of the indenter. Also the spacing between the indentations should be 3 or 5 times the diameter of the indentation. If the table on which the Rockwell hardness tester is mounted is subject to vibration, the hardness numbers will be too low, since the indenter will sink farther into the material than when such vibrations are absent. The accuracy of Rockwell hardness tester is checked by the use of special test blocks that are available for all ranges of hardness. If the error of the tester is more than 2 hardness number, it should be reconditioned and brought into proper adjustment.

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Rockwell Superficial Hardness Test:

This tester is a special purpose machine, intended exclusively for hardness tests where only very shallow indentation is possible and where it is desired to known the hardness of the specimen close to the surface. It is designed particularly for testing nitrided steel, safety razor blades, lightly carburized work, and brass, bronze, and steel sheet. The superficial tester operates on the same principle as the regular Rockwell tester but employs lighter minor and major loads. Instead of the 10 kg minor load and the 60, 100 or 150 kg major loads of the regular Rockwell, the superficial tester applies a minor load of 3 kg and a major load of 15, 30 or 45 kg. Since the diamond cone in these superficial machines is intended especially for use on nitrided work and the 1/16 in. steel ball for testing thin sheet, the letters N and T have been selected for these two scale designation. The W, X and Y scales are used for very soft materials. Major Load, Kg Scale Symbols T scale, W scale, 1/16in. ball 1/8in. ball 15T 30T 45T 15W 30W 45W

15 30 45

N scale, diamond cone 15N 30N 45N

X scale, 1/4in. ball 15X 30X 45X

Y scale, 1/2in. ball 15Y 30Y 45Y

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Rockwell Hardness Scales

Scale Indenter Dial numerals Black Red Black Black Red Red Red Red Red Red Red Red Red Red Red Minor Load F0 kgf 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 Major Load F1 kgf 50 90 140 90 90 50 140 50 140 50 90 140 50 90 140 Total Load F kgf 60 100 150 100 100 60 150 60 150 60 100 150 60 100 150 Value of E 100 130 100 100 130 130 130 130 130 130 130 130 130 130 130

A B C D E F G H K L M P R S V

Diamond cone 1/16" steel ball Diamond cone Diamond cone 1/8" steel ball 1/16" steel ball 1/16" steel ball 1/8" steel ball 1/8" steel ball 1/4" steel ball 1/4" steel ball 1/4" steel ball 1/2" steel ball 1/2" steel ball 1/2" steel ball

HRA . . . . Cemented carbides, thin steel and shallow case hardened steel HRB . . . . Copper alloys, soft steels, aluminium alloys, malleable irons, etc HRC . . . . Steel, hard cast irons, case hardened steel and other materials harder than 100 HRB HRD . . . . Thin steel and medium case hardened steel and pearlitic malleable iron HRE . . . . Cast iron, aluminium and magnesium alloys, bearing metals HRF . . . . Annealed copper alloys, thin soft sheet metals HRG . . . . Phosphor bronze, beryllium copper, malleable irons HRH . . . . Aluminium, zinc, lead HRK . . . . } HRL . . . . } HRM . . . .} . . . . Soft bearing metals, plastics and other very soft materials HRP . . . . } HRR . . . . } HRS . . . . } HRV . . . . }

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Vickers Hardness Test:

Vickers Hardness machine also function on the same principle as the Brinell hardness testing machine, but employs a square based pyramid made of diamond as the indenter. The size of the indenter is also very small. The included angle between the opposite face of the pyramid is 136o. The machine is more versatile than the Brinell hardness tester. Instead of changing the indenter as well the loads depending upon the nature of the material tested, only the load is changed in the Vickers hardness tester. Varying loads from 1 Kgf onwards up to 120 Kgf are employed. Owing to the fineness and the small size of the indentation obtained, the specimen needs a glossy surface finish for testing. The indenter and an objective to measure the indentation can be swung into the correct positions are required. After indentation the size of the indentation is accurately measured by swiveling the microscope into position. The impression obtained will have a square sectional area. The diagonal is measured using a crosswire focusing device in the optical equipment. In some types of hardness machines like the Galileo type, the indentation can be focused onto a graduated ground glass screen and measured. As in the case of the Brinell hardness tester, the numerical value of Vickers hardness number is equal to the load applied, divided by the surface area of the pyramidal indentation. Thus the diamond pyramid hardness number D.P.H =1.845P/D2 Where P = Applied load, and D = Diagonal length of the impression
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 The Vickers hardness should be reported like 800 HV/10, which means a Vickers
hardness of 800, was obtained using a 10 kgf test force. Standard charts are supplied along with the Vickers machines, which give the Vickers hardness number depending upon the diagonal length of the impression at each load. Using these charts, the hardness number can be readily found. The machine is the most accurate and versatile. Very high degree of polishing of the metal surface is required so that the impression can be perfectly focused and viewed and the diagonal accurately measured. Very careful handling of the indenter is recommended; besides periodic checking of the instrument against the standard steel blocks supplied along with.

Impressions made by Vickers Hardness:

A perfect square indentation (a) Made with a perfect diamond- pyramid indenter would be a square.

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The pincushion indentation (b) Is the result of sinking in of the metal around the flat faces of the pyramid. This gives an overestimate of the diagonal length (observed in annealed metals). The barrel-shaped indentation (c) Is found in cold-worked metals, resulting from ridging or piling up of the metal around the faces of the indenter. Produce a low value of contact area giving too high value.

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Knoop Hardness Test:

This is a special purpose machine, used for determining the hardness of extremely thin materials. Nitrided or cyanided cases and decarburized surfaces of steel and the micro-constituents in an alloy can be tested by this instrument. The depth of penetration of the indentation does not exceed on micron in this test. Knoop tests are mainly done at test forces from 0.01 to 1000 kgf, so a high powered microscope is necessary to measure the indent size. Because of this, Knoop tests have mainly been known as Micro-hardness tests. The instrument done all the operations automatically by electronic control device. To test the hardness of a micro-constituent in an alloy, the polished and etched specimen is placed on the stage of the instrument. The phase under test, whose hardness is being determined, is accurately focused and the specimen is lifted up by moving the stage upwards just below the indenter. Then the instrument is put on by pressing the button. The automatic mechanism functions and performs the following operations:

Further movement of the specimen to touch the indenter, Stopping the upward movement and applying the load, the dwelling time is normally 10-15 sec. Upward movement of the indenter after loading, and Lowering of the stage and thereby the specimen to the initial position. The Knoop indenter, which is generally used, is a typically shaped diamond pyramid. The pyramid is cut to an included longitudinal angle of 172o 30 and transverse angle of 130o, within a 1% tolerance. This facilitates in obtaining an impression which is rhombic in shape with the longer diagonal approximately seven times the shorter diagonal i.e. 7:1.
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 The longitudinal diagonal is the one measured in the impression. The numerical value of the Knoop hardness number is given by the formula:

Where P = Applied load in Kgf L = Length of long diagonal, mm Instead of using the Knoop indenter, an ordinary Vickers type pyramid indenter may also be employed in the machine. In such a case the hardness calculation should be performed as in the case of the Vickers hardness testing.

Precautions:
The instrument is very sensitive and great care should be taken to see that the measurement of the diagonal is made accurately. Since only the projected area of the indentation is taken into account, the measurement should be exactly at right angles to the surface under test. To achieve this, the bottom portion of the specimen should also be carefully prepared, so that it rest properly on the stage of the instrument.

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Hardness Testing Techniques

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Accuracy of Any Indentation Hardness Test:

Some of the factors that influence the accuracy of any indentation hardness test are:

Condition of the indenter:

Flattening of a steel ball indenter will result in errors in the hardness number. The ball should be checked frequently for permanent deformation and discarded when such deformation occurs. Diamond indenters should be checked for any sign of chipping.

Accuracy of Load Applied:

The tester should apply loads in the stated range with negligible error. Loads greater than the recommended amount should not be used for accurate testing.

Impact loading:
Besides causing inaccurate hardness readings, impact loading may damage diamond indenters. The use of a controlled oil dash pot will ensure smooth, steady operation of the loading mechanism.

Surface Condition of the Specimen:

The surface of the specimen on which the hardness reading is to be taken should be flat and representative of sound material. Any pits, scale, or grease should be removed by grinding or polishing.

Thickness of Specimen:
The specimen should be thick enough so that no bulge appears on the surface opposite that of the impression. The recommended thickness of the specimen is at least ten times the depth of the impression.

Shape of the Specimen:

The greatest accuracy is obtained when the test surface is flat and normal to the vertical axis of the indenter. A long specimen should be properly supported so that it does not tip. A flat surface should be prepared, if possible, on a cylindrical shaped
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specimen, and a V-notch anvil should be used to support the specimen unless parallel flats are ground, in which case a flat anvil may be used.

Location of Impression:
Impression should be at least 2 diameters from the edge of the specimen and should be at least 5 times diameters apart for ball tests.

Uniformity of Materials:
If there are structural and chemical variations in the materials the larger the impression area the more accurate the average hardness reading. It is necessary to take many readings if the impression area is small to obtain a true average hardness for the material.

Advantage and Disadvantages of Different Types of Tests:

The selection of a hardness test is usually determined by ease of performance and degree of accuracy desired. Since the Brinell test leaves a relatively large impression, it is limited to heavy sections. This is an advantage, however, when the material tested is not homogeneous. The surface of the test piece when running a Brinell test does not have to be so smooth as that for smaller impressions; however, using a microscope to measure the diameter of the impression is not so convenient as reading a dial gauge. Because of deformation of the steel ball, the Brinell test is generally inaccurate above 500 HB. The range may be extended to about 650 HB with a tungsten carbide ball. The Rockwell test is rapid and simple in operation. Since the loads and indenters are smaller than those used in the Brinell test, the Rockwell test may be used on thinner specimens and the hardest as well as the softest materials can be tested. The Vickers tester is the most sensitive of the production hardness testers. It has a single continuous for all materials and the hardness no is virtually independent of load because of the possibility of using light loads, it can test thinner sections than any other production test, and the square indentation is the easiest to measure accurately. The micro-hardness test is basically a laboratory test. The use of very light loads permits testing of very small parts and very thin sections. It can be used to determine
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the hardness of individual constituents of the microstructure. Since the smaller the indentation, the better the surface finish must be a great deal more care is required to prepare the surface for micro-hardness testing. The surface is usually prepared by the technique of metallographic polishing. The principal advantages of the scleroscope are the small impressions that remain the rapidity of testing, and portability of the instrument. However, results tend to be in accurate unless proper precautions are taken. The tube must be perpendicular to the test piece, thin pieces must be properly supported and clamped, the surface to be tested must be smoother than for most other testing methods, and the diamond tip should not be chipped or cracked.

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Typical Applications of Indentation Hardness Tests

Brinell Structural steel and other rolled sections Most castings, including steel, cast iron, and aluminum Most forgings Cutting tools, such as saws, knives, chisels, scissors Forming tools Small castings and forgings Sheet metal Large-diameter wire Electrical contacts Plastic sheet or parts Case-hardened parts Cemented carbides Rockwell Finished parts, such as bearings, bearing races, valves, nuts bolts, gears, pulleys, rolls, pins, pivots, stops, etc Rockwell superficial Same as standard Rockwell except where shallower penetration is necessary, as in: Thin casehardened parts, to .010 in. Thin materials down to .006 in. Cemented carbides Powdered metals Vickers Same as Rockwell and Rockwell Superficial except where higher accuracy or shallower penetration is necessary, as in: Thin casehardened parts, .005 to .010 in. MicroHardness Plated surfaces Coating, such as lacquer, varnish, or paints Foils and very thin materials down to .0001 in. To establish case gradients

Thin materials down to .005 in. Bimetals and laminated Higher finished materials parts to avoid a Very small removal parts or areas, operation such as watch gears, cutting Thin sections, tools edges, such as tubing thread crests, Weak structures pivot points, etc Plating thickness Very brittle or fragile materials (Knoop indenter), such as silicon, germanium, glass, tooth enamel Opaque, clear,
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or translucent materials Powered metals To investigate individual constituents of a materials A determine grain or grain boundary hardness

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