School of Tourism & Hospitality Management & Commerce and Management

Academic Writing Guide

In an academic context, you will often be writing to be graded on an assessment. These writing guidelines have been prepared for students at Southern Cross University to help you: understand what is meant by critical thinking understand what is expected of you when writing assignments at university correctly construct an academic essay, report, annotation or critical review reference correctly improve your writing skills

These guidelines provide generic advice. You need to be aware that each unit may have different requirements that you might have to meet. Always check the assignment requirements in your units information guide. This booklet is a compilation of some of the Academic Skills information guides created by the SCU learning Assistance Unit and can also be found through the SCU Learning Assistance Unit website, http://www.scu.edu.au/services/la/ . There you can click through to all the Academic Skills Information Guides that provide a range of practical strategies and examples to help you with your assignment writing and studying. These examples have been provided to demonstrate features of academic writing only and so are not intended to be examples of appropriate content and/or references. Thanks to the students who gave us the samples of text to modify and use.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS What is Expected of Me in Assignments?__________________________________________3 Writing Paragraphs ___________________________________________________________4 Critical Analysis _____________________________________________________________6 What is Critical Thinking?______________________________________________________8 Interpreting the Assignment Task: Essay __________________________________________9 Writing Essays ______________________________________________________________10 Essay Structure _____________________________________________________________11 Essay Writing Checklist ______________________________________________________12 Developing an Argument: Essay ________________________________________________14 Introduction and Conclusion: Essay _____________________________________________16 Interpreting the Assignment Task: Report_________________________________________17 Report Writing ______________________________________________________________18 Report Writing Checklist______________________________________________________22 Writing an Abstract or Executive Summary _______________________________________24 How is an Abstract or Executive Summary different from an Introduction? ______________25 Introduction and Conclusion: Report_____________________________________________26 Writing a Critical Review/Book Review__________________________________________27 Writing a Literature Review ___________________________________________________29 Writing a Case Study_________________________________________________________30 Reflective writing ___________________________________________________________33 Writing an Annotated Bibliography _____________________________________________35 Paraphrasing and Quoting _____________________________________________________37 In-text Referencing: Harvard___________________________________________________39 Reference Lists _____________________________________________________________41

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What is Expected of Me in Assignments?

The purpose of assignments is to provide you with an opportunity to demonstrate your level of interaction with the content of a particular unit of work. The lecturer (marker) then assesses the extent of that interaction. While this might seem a somewhat obvious statement, keep this in mind as you construct your assignment to ensure that it reflects appropriate engagement with the course materials.
This can be in your books of readings, in journal articles (which can be in the library or on library databases) or in the books in the library. Reading widely means that you become better informed and aware of the variety of perspectives on a topic.

In general you are expected to:

read widely to become familiar with the literature in your field of study think critically about the ideas in the literature (see over for more on critical thinking) construct your response using the ideas in the literature Check out our other acknowledge the source of ideas by appropriate referencing information guides for use the appropriate format (e.g. essay/report) for your response more on all of these write clearly & logically. expectations. So this means the journey starts with analysing the assignment task and assessment or marking criteria, involves much reading, thinking, note-making, writing, rethinking, rewriting and thorough editing, and finishes with the submission of the completed assignment! Unit objectives
Lectures Assignment task Tutorials Textbook Recommended readings and additional research Assessment or marking criteria

Your completed assignment!

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Writing Paragraphs
Paragraphs are groups of sentences. They can be used to: give a definition, explain a theory or a model See over give a description of a practice e.g. work-place, interview situation, group give justification for your position e.g. when you have to develop an argument give your analysis and/or evaluation about what is happening in a particular situation/workplace practice in relation to theory See over.

See over

In general, a paragraph should have the following structure: an introductory or topic sentence stating what the paragraph is about sentences to develop this idea e.g. by explaining the idea further, giving examples all ideas/examples/statistics that are not your own appropriately referenced a sentence that concludes by stating the relevance of the ideas in the paragraph e.g. to the point (stated in the beginning sentence), to the assignment task or relevant part of the assignment task.
Remember that you must acknowledge the source of the ideas even if you feel like you already had the same idea prior to undertaking the research! Use your ideas to make critical comments about the literature.

So a sentence or two does not constitute a paragraph! At least four sentences are needed.

Questions to ask yourself before you write your paragraphs Ask yourself what it is you need to do. Do I need to describe, e.g. a situation or a workplace? Do I need to give a reason for my viewpoint?

Do I need to present an analysis, e.g. of a practice or behaviour? Do I need to give my analysis and evaluation, e.g. of a practice or behaviour? Do I need to reflect or give my opinion e.g. on a practice, situation, issue?

Remember that while descriptive writing has a place in university writing, it is not the most common form required. Descriptive writing is required when you need to establish the what, when, where and who, that is, set the scene for situations or projects that are subsequently analysed, reflected upon and/or evaluated. Description is most useful for describing cases and situations, for reporting data/findings and for outlining objectives or giving the background, for example, to a business or project. It is inappropriate to write descriptively when you are asked to demonstrate critical analysis, evaluation or reflective thinking.

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Example 1: A paragraph that demonstrates (part of) an analysis of a practice

Assignment task (in brief): Undertake a critical review of the development of dedicated purpose built convention and exhibition centres in Australian capital cities. Note how this paragraph has sentences that: state the writers point about the economic and social benefits explain the benefits and give examples acknowledge the difficulties in quantifying benefits draw the ideas presented to a logical conclusion. The MICE industry has also brought economic and social benefits to capital cities (The Commonwealth Department of Tourism 1995, p.7). For example, with the development of the ACC, SCEC, MECC and PCEC there were increases in the number of hotels, restaurants, public transport facilities and shops located within easy proximity to these venues (see Appendices A-F for further information) which provided increased employment opportunities as well as an increase in direct/indirect spending because of delegate spending (McCabe et al. 2000, p.70). Another benefit has been the redevelopment of blighted areas of cities (e.g. SCEC at Darling Harbour, Sydney and the MCEC at Southbank, Melbourne) into centres (Fenich 1992, p.186) that revitalise the area. This enables the city to reposition itself and make a comeback (McCabe et al. 2000, p.70) thus increasing the potential for economic benefits. Even so, as has been acknowledged by the Commonwealth Department of Tourism (1995, p.10), An accurate assessment of the economic significance of the MICE industry has been hampered by the lack of reliable, comprehensive data. Likewise it would be difficult to trace the exact contribution of a purpose built centre because of the simultaneous occurrence of other events. Nevertheless, it seems that the MICE industry has made a positive contribution to capital cities.

Example 2: position

A paragraph that provides justification for a

Assignment task (in brief): Vigorous physical contact is an inherent part of many sports. Is sport a cure for violence in society or does it promote violent behaviour on and off the field? Critically discuss. Essay.
Watching sport can increase the readiness of some fans to become violent (Gould & Weinberg 1999; Sleap 1998). However, violence will usually not occur unless a trigger, either environmental or game related, sets off the crowd (Gould & Weinberg 1999; Sleap 1998; Hargreaves 1985). According to Sleap (1998, p.172), triggers include rivalries, alcohol, gender, socio economic status, violence on field, perceived cheating by opposition or referees and crowd density. In the case of soccer

Note the structure here i.e. the sentences that: give one of the reasons for the argument provide explanation and justification for that reason draw the ideas to a logical conclusion.

hooliganism, which has been exceptionally bad for its sport especially in the UK, UK clubs have identified the triggers and set about eliminating beer, raising prices, segregating the crowd, curtailing their players on-field behaviour and having a strong police presence (1985, p.166-67) to curb crowd violence. However, given the pressure cooker atmosphere of the match and the unpredictability of sport, not all triggers will be able to be removed from the arena and therefore crowd violence is still a possibility.

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Critical Analysis
Critical analysis involves two steps. It means asking questions about the material being analysed to clarify the facts and then making judgements about the material. First you ask questions to help you identify the different elements of something (e.g. substance/topic/process/model/concept) so that the different elements/parts, and the relationships between them, can be investigated. Then you ask more questions to help you judge (be critical of) the value or truth of the subject under study. The criteria you use to make those judgements may come from your lecturer or you may have to find the criteria in the literature. Take great care when interpreting what is expected of you in assignment tasks! In many assignment tasks, the word critical is often omitted. You must always ask yourself, what is the purpose of just analysing? Is it to find out about how particular causes bring about effects and decide (judge) which causes are more relevant than others? Is it to analyse a variety of viewpoints about a topic so that you can decide (judge) what you think? How do I undertake a critical analysis? Ask questions to clarify:
This should enable you to make further decisions e.g.

What is this idea, statement, theory, model, behaviour or practice, So how good is the evidence? that is under investigation? So what are its strengths What are its parts and what is their relationship to one another? Ask more questions to make judgements such as: How is it and/or its parts similar to or different from other ideas, statements, theories, models, behaviours and practices? What does this mean in practice or what is its overall importance?
and weaknesses? Are there more credible and/or appropriate alternatives?

How do I structure a critical analysis?

Remember that when you think critically and analyse things from a variety of perspectives, there is seldom one right answer or viewpoint. However, you do have to be convincing and ensure that your viewpoint is credible.

In essays, provide your viewpoint/position/answer in the introduction. Ensure that paragraphs in the body are presented in a logical order, and structured to convey critical analysis and judgement. In the conclusion, restate your viewpoint (i.e. the results of your analysis), together with an overview of the main reasons given for your viewpoint/answer. In reports, state the purpose of the report in the introduction. Provide the theoretical basis for your analysis. Ensure that paragraphs (in the appropriate sections of the body e.g. discussion section) convey analysis and judgement. State your findings together with the reasons in the conclusion. Include any recommendations (if relevant). See over for an example of a paragraph.

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Example of a paragraph from a section within a report Assignment task (in brief): Select a community and analyse it. Determine the factors impacting on the development of the community. Plan a community development to achieve positive change within the community. 2000 word report.
Note that there are 3 parts to this assignment task. This section belongs to part 1 of the assignment task and represents one of 6 dimensions actually covered. This section belongs to part 2.

3.0 3.1

Analysis of community Cultural dimension of the community

This paragraph commences with the writers analysis of the cultural aspects of the chosen community. Examples (description of relevant aspects of the community) are given to explain and substantiate this point. The writer concludes the point with a judgement about the culture of the community.

Culturally the community embraces a diversity of lifestyles, values and beliefs. On the one hand, the community prides itself on having an alternate lifestyle movement with a variety of cultural activities such as art classes and exhibitions, dance and theatre performances, drama and yoga, which are available to all residents (XYZ Community Calendar 2000). Recently, with an increase in the number of indigenous residents in the area (Williams 1982, p.5) and the active inclusion of tribal elders in community activities (Rogers 1998, p.3), there has been a greater acknowledgement, promotion and appreciation of indigenous culture. As a result there has been the development of activities such as Aboriginal dance troupes and story telling. On the other hand, there is a also a highly visible illicit drug culture in the community (Simpson & Woodbridge 2000, p.3) with its own values and beliefs. This culture attracts young people, particularly young males to socialise in the main street (Rogers 1998, p.7) and undertake activities which include drinking, drug use, sexual promiscuity and generalised criminal conspiracy(Heitzeg 1996, p.365). Overall, it seems that the values and beliefs that go hand in hand with the drug culture negate the positive cultural aspects of the community (Rogers 1998).

4.0 The key contextual factors that impact on community development Note how the writer has not only identified a factor but also has made a judgement about the value or importance of this factor.

One of the main factors that impact on the development of this community is tension that arises because the towns drug based notoriety claims more of a focus than the positive aspects of community life. As noted previously, while there are many positive cultural community activities (remainder of paragraph omitted)

The paragraph in Example 2 could also belong in an essay for Critically evaluate the factors that impact on community development in the XYZ community. The paragraph in Example 1 could belong in an essay that requested a critical analysis of the XYZ community.

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What is Critical Thinking?

In our everyday lives we think of the word critical as meaning negative, however, at university it has another meaning. At university, being critical means taking a critical approach with your learning. A critical approach involves clarifying what it is that you are investigating and making judgements about its value or worth or truth. It means not accepting ideas at face value, or believing that there is only one way of thinking about something. It also means recognising that when you think critically and analyse and judge things from a variety of perspectives, there is seldom one right answer or viewpoint. While there is seldom one right answer or viewpoint, you do have to convince others that your viewpoint is credible and based on the appropriate literature of your discipline/subject area. In order to be critical, that is, to make judgements, criteria are needed to measure or judge the idea/approach/statement/document/issue that is under examination. Sometimes these criteria are given to you by your lecturer as part of the assignment task (e.g. when you are directed to use a particular model), sometimes the criteria are more obvious than others (e.g. when you are asked to evaluate a manager in relation to models of leadership), but often you have to read the literature and sort out what you think are the valid ways of judging the idea, model, theory, statement, practice or behaviour specified in your assignment task.

Take great care when interpreting what is expected of you in assignment tasks! In many assignment tasks, the word critical is often omitted, yet most academic assignments require a critical approach be taken even if it is not obviously stated in the assignment task. Think about it what is the point, for example, of comparing and contrasting if you do not consider the significance of the differences or similarities and make a judgement about them. How do I develop my critical thinking? You develop your critical thinking by asking questions to clarify and then to make your judgement/s. Questions to ask to clarify Questions to ask to make judgements What is this thing (idea, fact, statement, theory, argument)? What are its parts and what are their relationships to one another? How is it and/or its parts similar or different from other related things? How well is it supported by evidence? What do others have to say about it? Are there other ways of looking at it? Has important/relevant information been omitted? What does this all mean in practice or what is its overall importance (or implication)?

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Interpreting the Assignment Task: Essay

When interpreting the assignment task, begin by reading the task literally, and then interpret it, that is, read it within the context of your discipline/subject area/course.
Remember discuss means consider all views but come up with your viewpoint and develop an argument to justify your viewpoint.

The following questions will help you to interpret the task.

What is the assignment about? What is the topic area?

How does this assignment task fit into this unit of work i.e. how does it relate to the Unit Objectives? What is the idea/concept that underlies the whole assignment? Do you need to explain or define this concept? Do you need to find out about this before you proceed any further? What are you being asked (or expected) to do with the knowledge? What directional words are used? Have you been asked to compare and contrast or discuss, critically analyse, critically evaluate? Does it relate to: (a) theory only, or (b) theory and its application to practical situation or scenario? Are there any constraints/limits to be taken into account? What do the marking criteria tell you about what is expected of you? What other instructions have you been given for this assignment task? How long should it be? When is it due? Are there any other instructions?

Take care with interpreting assignment tasks. Remember that a critical approach is required in most university work. So in cases where the word critical is not used (e.g. analyse, discuss), it is generally implied. Think about it, what is the purpose of comparing and contrasting if you do not consider the significance of the differences and/or similarities and make a judgement about them.

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Writing Essays
There are two main types of essays: those based on theory and those based on the application of theory to a practical situation or scenario. Essays based on theory are often centred on problems or issues under debate and generally require a formal response to a set question, statement or a proposition. This is to encourage you to research and think critically about the various viewpoints and ideas presented in the literature to enable you to form your own viewpoint/position/answer to the question. So in this kind of essay you have to have a viewpoint (argument) and convince the reader, that your viewpoint or perspective is credible i.e. develop your argument. You do this by using the ideas of others to justify your viewpoint.
And acknowledging the sources by in-text referencing!

Essays based on theory and practice generally require either: relating and/or evaluating a theory (or theories) to practice/s (e.g. explain communication theory/theories and give examples from everyday life), or evaluation of a practice by using criteria from theory (e.g. analyse and evaluate communication practices in your workplace).

Again you must form your viewpoint/answer and use and acknowledge the ideas in the literature to support your viewpoint. Common problems with the presentation of ideas in essays Not developing an argument. This is one of the most common problem in essays particularly those essays that ask the student to respond to a question or proposition. Not making the link between theory and practice (where appropriate of course!) Not justifying the analysis/evaluation/reflection with sufficient theory and thus use of intext referencing. Not writing to convey analysis and/or evaluation but rather writing descriptively i.e. telling a story. Not communicating the link between the ideas in the essay and the assignment task/question. Not writing in paragraphs (i.e. having a couple of sentences together rather than having groups of at least 4 sentences that follow from one to the next). Not inserting a space between paragraphs.
Lecturers frequently make comments about these problems.

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Essay Structure
Introduction
The purpose of the introduction is to set the scene for your essay i.e. to state your position or outline your response to the assignment task, the main ideas that will be covered, set parameters e.g. any limitations and define key terms (leave long definitions until the first paragraph after the introduction).

Body
The purpose of the body is to develop and provide justification for your response to the assignment task. It is important to use a series of appropriately constructed paragraphs to develop your ideas. It is also important that these paragraphs are arranged in a logical order. See also pamphlet on Writing Paragraphs
Do you need to give a reason for your viewpoint?

Ask yourself what it is you need to do in your paragraphs.

Do you need to describe, e.g. a situation or a workplace?

Conclusion
The purpose of your conclusion is to draw the ideas presented in the body to a logical conclusion that reaffirms your position. This leaves the reader (marker) with the feeling that you have answered the assignment task.

Do you need to present an analysis e.g. of a practice or behaviour?

Do you need to give your evaluation e.g. of a situation, practice or behaviour?

List of References
The purpose is to provide the full bibliographical details of all the references cited in the essay. It should be placed on a separate page and follow all the rules for the presentation of these lists. Generally you are given guidelines by your school for the system of referencing that you are required to use. So check these out and follow them exactly i.e. include all details and ensure punctuation is correct.

Headings MAY be used throughout (consult your lecturer) but generally point form is not used in an essay. Regardless of whether headings are used or not used, an essay should have paragraphs. It is a good idea to ensure that the words in the introductory sentence of each paragraph position the paragraph in the essay as well as introduce the idea presented in the paragraph. Such words act like a thread to lead the reader through the essay. So even if you use headings in an essay, ensure that words in the paragraphs are used to create the link between the ideas in the essay and the assignment task.

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Essay Writing Checklist

1. Does the introduction in the essay: have an answer (also called a position statement or thesis) to the essay question or its parts? have a plan of coverage to tell the reader the main points you will use to substantiate your viewpoint? mention any boundaries you have drawn to set the context (e.g. about the extent of the content covered)? have, if short, a definition of any necessary terms, or if the definition is longer, is it included in the first paragraph after the introduction? consist of sentences that follow on from each other (i.e. a chunk of sentences and not a series of single sentences with gaps in between) and are these sentences in a logical order? 2. Does the body consist of a series of paragraphs? See over for paragraph structure. Are these paragraphs in a logical order? Does each paragraph have a purpose and fulfil that purpose? 3. Does the conclusion draw the ideas presented to a logical conclusion by: restating your position/ thesis/ answer to the assignment task? giving an overview of the main reasons for this position/ thesis/ answer? Remember that NO new information should be presented in the conclusion. 4. Have you constructed a List of References or Reference List? Is it on a separate page?

Are the sources listed alphabetically? Is the punctuation (underlining, italics, full stops etc.) consistent? Always refer to your School Guide for details on requirements for referencing.

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Check your paragraph structure Ask yourself the following questions

Paragraphs generally have 4-6 sentences following on from each other i.e. in chunks. There is no such thing as a single or two sentence paragraph!

Does the beginning sentence state what the paragraph is about? Does the topic sentence communicate to the reader how this paragraph/idea fits into the essay? Do the subsequent sentences develop this idea by explaining/giving examples/ providing justification? If appropriate, are the theoretical ideas linked to practical situations i.e. to explain the relevance of the theory to practice? If appropriate, is there a comment that indicates an alternate view? (Remember acknowledgement of alternate views strengthens your viewpoint!) If you have an alternate view, have you disposed of this view i.e. returned to your position? Are ALL the ideas appropriately referenced? Does the paragraph have a concluding sentence i.e. a sentence that states the relevance of the ideas presented?

Overall Ensure that your writing is conveying what is expected of you. Remember that while descriptive writing has its place, it is generally ONLY used to provide a basis for subsequent critical analysis and/or evaluation. Therefore descriptions are generally brief. If you have used the first person, I, is it appropriate? Check with your lecturer if you are in doubt. Have you paraphrased i.e. put the ideas into your own words, more than you have quoted? Remember paraphrasing is generally preferable to quoting. If your essay is too long ask yourself the following questions. o Does the information included relate directly to the assignment question? o Is there any unnecessary detail? Could I say the same thing using fewer words? If your essay is too short go back to: o your paragraphs and ask yourself questions to see where and how you can develop ideas e.g. by giving more in-depth explanations and/or examples. o the marking criteria and check that you have included everything that is required.

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Developing an Argument: Essay

Many university essays expect you to develop an argument. This is not the everyday sort of argument where you, often emotionally, just present your generally biased viewpoint. It is one where you try and convince the reader of your point of view by presenting a well-reasoned and supported justification for your point of view. How do I develop an argument? In order to develop an argument and be persuasive and credible you need to: 1 2 3 4 analyse the assignment task carefully to determine exactly what is being asked of you. undertake your research so that you can find out about this topic, statement, concept or idea. weigh up all of this research and formulate your point of view or opinion/position/answer to the question. structure the essay so that it clearly states that viewpoint/position and has a clear line of reasoning to justify that viewpoint/position. Remember that it is important to have words that act like a thread to lead the reader through the essay.

Dont be tempted to sit on the fence! You cannot develop an argument if you do not have one!

Structuring your essay to develop an argument means having: an introduction which contains a statement of your position, viewpoint or answer (thesis) together with an outline of the reasons for your position. This outline should also represent the order of the ideas presented in the essay. paragraphs within the body to convince the reader that your viewpoint is credible. You develop paragraphs by stating the particular point in your argument and (a) using the ideas of others (and thus acknowledging these ideas) to justify your viewpoint and (b) using examples to support your point of view, if appropriate. These examples can come from the literature but may also come from your experience. alternate views/evidence. You include the alternate views then explain why those views are not as credible or do not fit with the position you have taken. Remember that it strengthens your viewpoint if you show you have considered alternative viewpoints as part of deciding your viewpoint. paragraphs that are ordered logically to help develop your line of reasoning. a strong conclusion which sums up or draws together the evidence to substantiate your thesis.

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Example:

Structural elements from an essay that develops an argument

Assignment task (in brief): Discuss the role of places in whole tourism systems with examples from places in Australia and/or abroad. 700-1200 word essay. A common view would be that a place refers to the destinations in the study of tourism. However, if a whole tourist system is defined as consisting of five elements: a tourist, a generating region, a transit route, a destination region and the tourism industry (Leiper 1990, p.3), it can be seen that there are three types of places in whole tourist systems. These are the traveller generating regions (TGRs)1, the transit routes (TRs)2 and the tourist destinations (TDRs)3. This essay argues that each of these three places plays a different but vital role in the system. This is because they are the places where tourism originates, the places along the route taken to the destination and the places at the end of the journey i.e. the destination. They are all integral to the whole tourist system none can exist without the other. Note how paragraphs1,3,4 present the line of reasoning i.e. the argument to the reader. Note how the conclusion restates the thesis together with an overview of the reasons for this position. Traveller generating regions (TGRs)1a play a vital role in whole tourist systems because they are the places that the tourism originates. There are many characteristics of TGRs1b and it is these that determine the number and type of departures from a region. Likewise the Transit routes (TRs)2 play a vital role in whole systems because they comprise the places on the route taken to and from the TGRs to the TDRs. The third types of place, the destination place (TDRs)3a, also have a crucial part to play as this is where a traveller becomes temporarily a tourist (Leiper 1995). There are a number of factors that shape a place in to a tourist destination3b . In this introduction, note the statement of argument i.e. answer to assignment task (underlined) together with plan of argument 1,2.3. These are the beginning sentences of the paragraphs in the essay. Note how the paragraphs 1b and 3b add more information about 1a & 3a respectively. Note the reuse of the words from the assignment task. This ensures an explicit connection to the assignment task.

All three places are a vital part of the whole tourism system. Although attention is often given to the destination as the place in tourism, there are actually three places in a tourism system. All three places: the traveller generating region, the transit route and the tourist destination region, have vital roles in the whole tourism system. In order to have a whole tourism industry, it is necessary for travellers (the first element in the system) to be generated from a place (TGR), and arrive by way of a transit route (TR) at the final place i.e. the destination (TDR). A whole tourism system would simply not exist without each element. The roles of these places are different because of their function in the whole tourism system and so there are differing implications for businesses in each place. It is important therefore, for businesses in all three places to be aware of the roles of each of the other places so that they can work together to promote the whole tourism system.

Note too how the order of presentation 123 mirrors the order of 123 in the introduction.

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Introduction and Conclusion: Essay

Assignment task (in brief): Avoidance of obesity is an important factor in maintaining health and retarding the progression of chronic disease. Discuss. 1500 word essay.
Note how this introduction: commences with a statement that sets the context includes a definition of obesity (key concept) with intext reference includes a position statement (answer to the question) provides an overview of the reasons1234 for this judgement in the order of presentation. Note how this conclusion: restates the writers position together with an overview of the justification for this position has more explanation of reasons (discussed in the body) than is provided in the introduction. Notice that there is no use of the words critically analyse here, but the implication of discuss is to analyse and make a judgement about whether you agree with this statement or not. When striving for health and vitality there are many conditions of the physical constitution which must be examined; one of these is obesity. According to McLaren and Meguid, obesity occurs when there is an imbalance in the height-to-weight ratio in individuals, specifically where the weight component is too high for the height factor. An excess of body fat of 20% or more is classed as obese with the lesser condition of overweight measuring between 10% and 19% (1988, p. 148). The effect of obesity can be far-reaching affecting the quality of life physically1, psychologically, 2 socially3and economically4 thus necessitating serious and focused action to avoid being obese and therefore achieving the desired result of good health. Whilst many other factors contribute to the loss of general well being and to the onset of disease, the avoidance of obesity is an important factor in maintaining health and retarding the progression of chronic disease.

Certainly, a causal relationship between obesity and loss of general wellbeing exists. Physically1 extreme overweight detracts from the maintenance of health through the individuals decreased ability to operate to the highest potential and increased proclivity to chronic diseases such as CVD, diabetes and cancer and reduced life expectancy. Obese individuals are also affected psychologically2 and socially3 as they are likely to experience a lessening of the quality of life through increased physical disability, low self-esteem, social discrimination and exclusion and elevated risk for disease. There is also an economic4 impact (e.g. provision of treatment, loss of productivity) which costs both the individual and society. Given that the prevalence of obesity in the adult population is on the rise and that it has serious implications for loss of health and well-being, the management of obesity is vital to maintaining health and vitality and avoiding disease.

R emember th ere s h o uld be no new i nf or ma tio n pr es ented i n the c o ncl usio n

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Interpreting the Assignment Task: Report

When interpreting the assignment task, begin by reading the task literally, and then interpret it, that is, read it within the context of your discipline/subject area /course. The following questions will help you to interpret the task. What is the assignment about? What is the topic area? How does this assignment task fit into this unit of work i.e. how does it relate to the Unit Objectives? What are you being asked (or expected) to do with the knowledge?

What directional words are used? Have you been asked to compare and contrast or discuss?

What is the idea/concept that underlies the whole assignment? Do you need to explain or define this concept? Are there any constraints/limits to be taken into account e.g. about what content you should include or not include? What sort of research do you have to undertake? Is it to research by:
Related pamphlets: Report Writing and Report Writing Checklist - formulating a research question/hypothesis, gathering and analysing the data and interpreting the results?

- reading only? - evaluating a selected or given practice (e.g. management practice) or behaviour (e.g. interview technique)?

What instructions have you been given about the format required? If no directions are given, determine the purpose of the report. Is it a: Research report? Use this when formal report format is requested. Research by reading-type report? Evaluative-type report.

What other instructions have been given for your assignment task: How long should it be? When is it due? What do the marking criteria tell you about what is expected of you?

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Report Writing
Reports have a variety of purposes. Some are to: report on a research study/project you have undertaken (research report) report on a research study/project you plan to undertake i.e. a research proposal (research report) report on what you have found out by researching by reading about a topic (research by reading report) report on (and often evaluate) a workplace practice (e.g. management practice) or behaviour e.g. interview technique (evaluative report). Note that while reports are quite like the type of writing required in the workplace, often workplace reports do not include referencing whereas referencing (both in-text and a list of references) is essential in university assignments. Suggested structures for three types of reports Research report (use when formal report format is requested) Research by reading report Evaluative report
In the absence of specific guidelines from your lecturer, it is the purpose of the report that generally dictates the particular structure for the presentation of the ideas. All reports have sections with headings and sometimes subheadings. Often these are numbered in larger reports. The number of sections (and thus headings and subheadings) varies according to the type of report and to the specific assignment requirements.

A research report The structure of this report type is the traditional or formal report structure and typically includes the following sections and headings (and subheadings). Often the headings are also numbered. Letter of transmittal (generally ONLY requested in Business and Tourism) Title Abstract (Executive Summary or Summary in Business and Tourism) Table of Contents 1. Introduction 2. Methods, Procedure or Methodology For subheadings within each 3. Results of the major sections, 1.1, 4. Discussion or Interpretation of Results 1.2 etc. can be used. 5. Conclusions 6. Recommendations List of References Appendices (or Appendix if there is only one)

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A research by reading report This report structure is often used when you have to present a report based on the findings of research by reading. It is a variation of the traditional formal report format. It may contain all or some of the following sections depending on the length of assignment and of course the instructions given. Letter of transmittal (generally ONLY requested in Business and Tourism) Title Abstract (or often referred to as an Executive Summary or Summary in Business and Tourism) Table of Contents Introduction Body (This term is generally not used as a heading)
The body of this type of report is often structured with headings and subheadings relevant to the topic/s researched.

Conclusions Recommendations (if relevant) List of References Appendices (may include photographs, illustrations etc) An evaluative report This report structure is often used when you have to research theory and apply it to a practical or real situation. It is a variation of the traditional formal report format. It may contain all or some of the following sections and headings (and necessary and relevant subheadings) depending on the length of the assignment and of course the instructions given in your assignment task. Letter of transmittal (generally ONLY requested in Business and Tourism) Title Abstract (Executive Summary or Summary in Business and Tourism) Table of Contents Introduction Body (This term is generally not used as a heading) The body of this type of report is usually structured with headings and subheadings to: provide a factual description of the workplace/situation ('to set the scene' for the subsequent findings (analysis and/or evaluation) conclusions and recommendations). present the theory, results or findings and interpretations (evaluation/s) of these observations. There are several options for presenting the body section. See over for options. Conclusions Recommendations (if relevant) List of references Appendices (or Appendix if there is only one) List of References

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Options for presentation of body of an evaluative report Option 1: 3 Separate sections (and headings/subheadings) for: theory observation evaluation/interpretation. Option 2: 2 Separate sections (and headings/subheadings) for: theory observation and evaluation/interpretation.

Option 3: Separate sections (and headings/subheadings) for each component of the theory each comprising of: observation/evaluation/interpretation and theory or vice-versa. Explanation of components of reports Letter of transmittal This is a letter that establishes contact with the receiver and so acts as a formal record of delivery of the report. Title This is a succinct statement of the problem /question/content being investigated. Abstract (or often referred to as an Executive Summary or Summary in Business and Tourism.) The abstract (executive summary) provides the reader with a succinct overview of the whole report so it generally contains at least one sentence from each of the parts of the report (i.e. the aim/purpose; the procedure/methodology/analytical process; the major findings and recommendations). It is generally written on completion of the report to ensure that it gives the reader a succinct overview of the complete report BUT it is placed at the beginning of the report, prior to the Table of Content Unlike other sections in a report, the abstract is meant to be a stand-alone section. An abstract or executive summary provides those (executives/students) without the time to read the whole report with an overview of the whole report. Executives can read the abstract and make decisions and/or pass the report on to those who make decisions. Students can read an abstract and decide whether to continue reading the whole report i.e. decide whether the report is relevant to their study and/or particular purpose. Table of Contents This is a list of headings, tables, figures and plans that have been used in the report. Include the page number next to each item. The Table of Contents is placed on a separate page. Introduction This section sets the scene for the reader. It includes: the aims or objectives of the exercise, or the purpose of the report, or report proposal. the scope of the report what the report covers, how the information or report is limited/constrained, and may include any relevant background information if it is a short report (e.g. definitions, review of similar research). If it is a more comprehensive research report (i.e. longer report) the review of the literature is often given in a separate section under its own heading. an outline of how the sections/information will be presented.
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Methods, Methodology or Procedure This section describes, factually, how the study was carried out. It includes an outline of how the information was gathered (e.g. interviews, questionnaires for the report or data). Results This section presents the results obtained from the data gathering. Present the information clearly, concisely and record only facts. No personal opinions are included. Include any relevant graphs, tables or plans to summarise the findings. Discussion or Interpretation of Results This section discusses the results i.e. the results are interpreted and compared to those of relevant studies/theories mentioned in the literature review. Conclusions This section states or summarises the main points or findings of the investigation i.e. what do the findings actually mean. Ensure that the conclusion is consistent with the information presented in the body section. No new information should be included. Recommendations (if requested)
As a result of the investigations and your understanding of the relevant theory, what recommendations can be made (e.g. for further study of the problem/issue, to improve the workplace practice, behaviours)?

List of references List all the references that have been cited in the report (e.g. readings, research, captions, tables, graphs, plans, diagrams or appendices). Appendices (or Appendix if there is only one) An appendix is used when information would be useful to give background information to the reader, but would interrupt the flow if included in your report e.g., transcripts of interviews, club rules, or plans that are not immediately relevant. Number each appendix and check that your numbering corresponds with the numbers given within your report. Ensure that all information is appropriately referenced. Common problems with reports include: having an abstract or executive summary that reads like a conclusion rather than a summary of the whole report discussing the results in the results section when the results section should ONLY contain the results and no discussion of these results numbering that is inconsistent (when a numbering system is used for headings and subheadings) writing descriptively when analysis and/or evaluation is required insufficient use of theory (and thus in-text references) to explain and/or substantiate interpretations an over-reliance on headings to do the work for the reader. Ensure that your first sentence after the heading introduces the section/paragraph not changing the writing style (particularly the verb tense) to suit the particular sections.

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Report Writing Checklist

Research report Consider this structure if you are writing a research proposal or if you have gathered your own data via interviews, etc. and it is important to report the method and results or when you have to write a proposal. Evaluative report Consider this structure when you have to evaluate a workplace or other activity. Research by reading report Consider this structure when you are expected to gather the information for your report by reading from books of readings, textbooks, journals and other materials you find in the library.
Research Report Evaluative Report Research by Reading Report Is there a summary sentence for each main part of the report? (About 5 6 sentences.) Is there a summary sentence for each main part of the report and especially for the major conclusions? Does this contain the purpose of the report, the main issues/topics that have been identified, reasons why they are issues/topics and the conclusions? Have I:

Abstract Summary/ Executive Summary Introduction

Have I:

Have I:

Sometimes presented in a separate section: Literature Review.

stated the aim of the report? identified any limitations to the study? defined essential terms? provided the background information to establish the context? given a review of the literature? referenced accurately? moved from the general to the specific?

stated the purpose of the report? identified the criteria used to evaluate the practice, situation? given a short definition of essential terms (if appropriate)? identified limitations (if appropriate)? given my conclusion/s (if appropriate)? What else does the reader need to know (theory, description of the situation or workplace?) to lay the foundation for my analysis/evaluation?

stated the purpose of the report? established the context or given background information about the topic? stated how the investigation was limited (if appropriate)? defined basic terms (if short)? referenced the definition?

Sometimes this is given as part of the introduction and at other times in its own section (with heading).

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Body

Method: Have I: given all the details on how the data was gathered? Is it in a logical order? justified my methodology? Results: Have I: recorded only the results in this section and avoided interpreting? introduced tables, graphs or maps, that is, given them a title? Discussion: Is my information organised in a logical way? Are the headings/ titles appropriate? Have I: selected the major findings and interpreted them in relation to the theory presented in the literature review? used appropriate references? discussed how my findings are similar or different from the ideas in the literature? Have I: identified my major finding/s? mentioned other findings? shown the relevance of the findings to the big picture?

Have I: organised the Body under headings to represent the various sections (e.g. description of the work place, relevant theory, evaluation of workplace)? used paragraph structure appropriate to my purpose, that is, description of the workplace and analytical/reflective/ evaluative/critical comments where appropriate? demonstrated how my findings relate to the theory? explained the implications? used appropriate references?

Have I: organised the Body under headings related to the main issues/points? used paragraph structure appropriate to my purpose? Does the first sentence of each paragraph state the point I want to make? Does the paragraph make sense without the heading?

A common mistake in a separate results section is to discuss results.

Have I: explained how the main points are relevant to the topic? explained how these issues relate to a practical situation? used appropriate references?

Sometimes the Results and Discussion sections can be combined.

Conclusion/s As reports are investigative, there is often more than one conclusion to be drawn. List of References

Have I: identified my major conclusion/s in relation to the assignment task? made recommendations (if appropriate)?

Have I: identified the main issues/points? stated why they are the main issues/points? identified implications of these issues/points?

Do I have a list of references on a separate page? Is the format and punctuation appropriate? Check your schools referencing guide.

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Writing an Abstract or Executive Summary

What is an Abstract? (often referred to as an Executive Summary or Summary in Business and Tourism.) The purpose of an abstract (or executive summary) is to provide the reader with a succinct overview of the whole report. There is generally at least one sentence from most sections of the report. For example, in a formal report or research report format the abstract would generally contains at least a sentence about: the aim/purpose of the report the procedure/methodology/analytical process main results/findings conclusion/s (based on the results & discussion) any recommendations (if applicable) .
An Abstract provides an overview of the whole report. For example, executives could read the abstract and make decisions and/or pass the report on to those who make decisions. Students could decide whether or not a report/journal article is relevant to their study, by reading the Abstract.

Example of an Abstract

Note that it appears that results have been given about the presence of frogs but not about the abundance and distribution!

The aim of this study was to detect the presence, abundance and distribution of a number of targeted frog species in north-eastern NSW. This study was part of a long-term monitoring program to provide valuable baseline data on rainforest frog populations for conservation management of the area. The survey involved recording data on the presence, numbers and distribution of frog species at three locations: the Border Ranges National Park, Whian Whian S.F and the Richmond Range area, over a four-week period in September/October 1997. Three of the seven target species were detected, one of which is listed as rare and vulnerable in NSW. Given that the gathering of baseline data is incomplete, it is recommended that monitoring continue to enable the identification of critical habitat areas for conservation management and for the reassessment of protection status. Continued monitoring may also help to identify the processes responsible for recent frog decline. Note that: the Abstract is usually written on completion of the report to ensure that it gives the reader a succinct overview of the complete report. the Abstract is generally placed on a separate page at the beginning of the report prior to the Table of Contents. As always, refer to your Schools guide for specific requirements!

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How is an Abstract or Executive Summary different from an Introduction?

Remember that report format can vary according to the discipline of study, and assignment task and/or requirements! Note how this abstract gives an overview of the whole report by stating:

the aim/purpose of the report

the conclusions drawn

Abstract The aim of this report was to investigate the inventory control practices in the food and beverage departments at the XYZ Leagues Club. It was found that the practices in the food department were quite informal and somewhat ineffective whereas the beverage department was quite strict in how the whole inventory control activities and procedures were documented and implemented. Recommendations to improve the inventory control activities and procedures in the food department included the establishment of documentation for each stage in the cycle and especially the registration and tagging of items to enable the tracking and rotation of stock.
Note how the verb tense changes according to the purpose of each section of the report.

recommendations for improvement

In contrast, the introduction sets the context for the report and states the purpose of the report and does not include any results/findings and/or conclusions. Note that often in an evaluative or research by reading report, such as this report, the headings in the body section are specific to the content of the assignment. In a formal or research report, generic headings are used throughout.

Introduction Inventory control or stock control is an essential part of operating a business. Inventory control or stock control, as defined by Waters (1999, p.4) consists of all the activities and procedures used to ensure that the right amount of each item is held in stock. It should begin at the time of purchase and be maintained until the item is actually sold and the revenue for the goods received from the customer. The purpose of this report is to investigate the inventory control practices in the food and beverage departments at the XYZ Leagues club and to make any recommendations for improvement.

Inventory Control Activities and Procedures Effectiveness of the Procedures at XYZ Conclusion and Recommendations The food and beverage departments of the XYZ League Club have different approaches to inventory control. While the beverage department follows the practices well, the food department is far more relaxed and as a result has some problems in controlling their stock. Recommendations include . This will ensure that .

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Introduction and Conclusion: Report

Assignment task (in brief): Evaluate two methods of recording dietary intake. 2000 word report. 1.0 Introduction
Note how this introduction has: a broad statement about diet to set the context a brief definition of diet: a key term a narrowing of the focus i.e. to assessment of diet importantly, a statement of the purpose of the report and what is covered in the report (underlined). Note: An in-depth definition/ explanation of both of these concepts was given in subsequent sections of the report.

Diet plays an important role in maintaining health and vitality and, conversely, when diet falls short of recognised dietary guidelines, it can contribute significantly to lack of vitality and ill health. Diet refers to the customary amount and kind of food and drink taken by a person from day to day (Miller & Keane 1991, p. 241). Assessment of diet provides the means to help determine areas of dietary deficiency and enable recommendations to be made to improve diet in terms of types and amounts of food and the nutrient intake, and so enhance wellbeing. This study evaluates two methods of recording dietary intake and two methods of analysing diet, one quantitative and one qualitative. It also provides recommendations for the improvement of the dietary intake studied, to enable it to meet recognised nutritional goals. Remember that reports always have headings!

2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0

Method Results. Discussion

Conclusions/Recommendations
Note how this conclusion: states the evaluation i.e. the results of the comparison of the two methods gives a brief explanation of the reasons for this decision includes the result of these findings i.e. the recommendations.

The study of food intake is a valuable tool for dietary assessment. Both the Weighted Food Method and Household Measures Method of collecting data have strengths and limitations. The Weighed Food Method is more accurate and easier to record, however the accuracy is dependent upon the commitment of the participant. SERVE and Core Food Groups analyses also have strengths and limitations. SERVE provides a detailed nutrient analysis which may be of benefit in analysing a particular nutrient deficiency, while the Core Food Groups provides information on food groups and gives an overall picture with regard to particular food group categories. The diet studied was generally reasonably well balanced. However, it is recommended that red meat be included to increase iron, zinc and B12 intake. In addition, two serves of breads and cereals and one serve of vegetables per day should also be included, with smaller serves of protein meats and cheeses. Assessment of the diet provides important nutritional information to assist in the determination of the quality of the diet and allows recommendations to be made to enable dietary maintenance of optimum health and vitality.

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Writing a Critical Review/Book Review

A critical review is a critical evaluation of a document (or book or chapter or article). It is not just a summary of the contents. You are expected to read, make judgements about the document and justify these judgements by using the criteria given to you by your lecturer or indicated in the theory. Simply making personal comments about the material is neither acceptable nor convincing. How do I undertake a critical review? 1. Prepare yourself for reading the document by
formulating some questions to answer. See suggestions below.

If you have been given criteria to undertake the review in your assignment task (or in the marking criteria), use those criteria to formulate questions.

researching some related literature so you can make comparisons between the assignment document and the related literature. 2. Read the document. Read carefully, questioning as you read. Make notes as you read but reserve judgement until you have finished the article.

Questions to ask
What is the authors

purpose?
To clarify

Make a short statement (one or two sentences) about the authors purpose. If you cannot do this it may mean that you have not read the article carefully enough or it may mean that the authors purpose is not clear or well developed.

How has the author developed his/her thesis/ideas? Are there paragraphs to support the authors purpose? Are there paragraphs that dont support the authors purpose? Are there any ideas that are unclear? Are the ideas supported/not supported by other research? What do you think about the evidence that has been used to substantiate the authors claims e.g. is it reliable, dated? Is there a particular focus/bias? If so, is this because of the authors purpose, or because assumptions have been made, or because a particular perspective has been taken? Is this a limitation? What is my overall evaluation i.e. what is the documents worth or value? Does the author achieve his/her purpose? What are the particular strengths and weaknesses of the document e.g. in the way the information is presented, in the way the argument has been structured and/or in the evidence used? How does the document contribute to knowledge in this field and to your understanding of this knowledge?

To judge

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3.

Write the critique

Construct an introduction that:

* specifically identifies the document at the beginning of the review i.e. include the bibliographic reference details (author, date, title, publisher) * states your overall evaluation of the document (thesis) based on your critical analysis, and * outlines the major points of your argument. Construct a body that provides justification for your evaluation e.g. * identifies and substantiates the strengths and/or weaknesses of various aspects of the document * clearly identifies and explains the criteria used in your evaluation * states how the document has contributed to the related field of knowledge * states how the document has contributed to your understanding of the topic.
Ensure that appropriate paragraph structure has been used to present these ideas. See below

Construct a conclusion that restates your overall judgement together with an overview of the reasons for that decision. Often the conclusion also contains recommendations about the value or usefulness of the article/book in relation to a specific purpose e.g., to your study, to practitioners. Construct a list of references. Ensure that you list all references cited in the review. If the document that you have reviewed is not readily available, it is a good idea to include a copy as an appendix. Check the assignment guidelines, especially the marking criteria, to ensure that you have met the expectations! Example: A paragraph from a critical review of an article
Note how the writer has used other literature to make judgements about the content of Renk et al.s article Note the use of paragraph structure to: make a judgement about the content of the article give examples to support that judgement draw a conclusion about the content. The findings by Renk et al. (2003) are both consistent with those of other researchers but also differ on some points. For example, the finding by Renk et al. (2003) that mothers predominantly take responsibility for child-related tasks is consistent with a large body of related research (e.g. Yeung 2001; Baxter 2002; Sanderson & Thompson 2002; Craig 2003; McBride & Mills 1993, cited in Renk et al. 2003, p. 313). Also Renk et al.s (2003, p. 313) findings that the age of the child impacts on the time parents spend with their children is consistent with other research. There is also supportive evidence (e.g. Hoffman & Moon 1999; Sanderson & Thompson 2002) for the original proposition put forward by Renk et al. (2003) that non-traditional gender roles and attitudes positively affect the amount of time fathers spent with their children. In contrast, there is little support for the finding by Renk et al. (2003) that there is no significant difference in either direct interaction or accessibility by mothers and fathers. In fact, other research data indicates that mothers spend significantly more time than fathers interacting with and being accessible to their children (e.g. Silver 2000; Yeung 2001; Baxter 2002; Child Trends 2002; Craig 2003; Craig & Bittman 2003). Overall many of Renk et al.s findings are corroborated by other research but not their findings that there are no differences between men and women in terms of their direct interaction with or access to children.

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Writing a Literature Review

What is a literature review? A literature review provides a comprehensive review of the literature in a specific area of interest. It enables you to: investigate previous research and find out whats been done before consider theoretical frameworks identify gaps in existing knowledge i.e. to find out if your study is worth doing determine/clarify/justify your research question/problem select the most appropriate methodology (if applicable). Importantly, a literature review sets the context for your study and provides the framework for interpreting the results of your study. Writing the literature review While there are different approaches to preparing literature reviews depending on your purpose, usually the review process involves critically evaluating each piece of literature before writing your review. You then put together the ideas (mesh the ideas not just list) to give a cohesive overview of what you have found. Demonstrating your knowledge of the field of study is an essential part of a Literature Review and hence, referencing is extremely important. After you have critically read and summarised each article, think about organising the ideas so that you identify the broad subject area, give an overview of the big picture to date, and then get more specific with the relevant details of what you have found in the literature e.g. the views/theories about this topic area and the findings from previous studies. You do this to set the context for your particular topic/research area. This enables the reader to see how your study/topic area fits into, or follows on from previous research.
So try and structure the review so that It moves from the broad study area

to the specific area/topic of your study.

A literature review like an essay has an introduction, body and a conclusion.

Questions to ask to help you organise your ideas

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For the introductory section What is the subject area under review? Is there a concept underlying this subject that needs defining? What are the main concerns/areas of investigation? Is there an overall view e.g. is there a general consensus or is there a variety of views?

In the body section Which writers write about the same ideas? How do these ideas fit into the bigger picture? How is the writers work similar/different? Are there any areas of agreement/disagreement? Are there any limitations in the literature/studies? In the concluding section What is my final summary of the review? Is there a gap in the existing knowledge? How does my proposed study relate to these findings (if applicable)? How will I conduct my investigation (if applicable)? This question will lead you into deciding how you will gather information for your study. Why will I use this method of investigation and not some other? This question will lead you to justify your methodology (if applicable). Make sure you: organise your review according to ideas/concepts/issues try to be analytical and critical write drafts to help clarify your ideas try to avoid just listing authors ideas. Listing the ideas makes the writing descriptive rather than analytical. Other Learning Assistance pamphlets that may help you: Guide to Reading Effectively and Efficiently Questions to Ask as You Read Language to Help you Present and Connect Your Ideas

Writing a Case Study

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What is a case study?

Case studies fall into the theory and practice type of assignments. Generally a case study is given to provide a description of a particular practice e.g. a business problem, scenario or situation, as a basis for a critical analysis/review/evaluation. Importantly, the critical analysis/review/evaluation of the case in point is then undertaken using the relevant theory. According to Summers and Smith (2001, p. 8), the main aim of case study type assignments centres around: assisting students in learning to apply selected theories through simulated problem solving and decision-making; allowing students to learn actively (i.e. by doing) rather than passively (i.e. by simply listening to lecturers or reading), and reinforcing the applicability of theory to practical situations.

Writing a case study

There are a variety of ways in which case studies are used, and hence there are a number of different ways that they can be structured. Refer to your Lecturer/Tutor for your Schools requirements.

Writing a case study in report format

A formal case report generally has the following headings/sections (and numbering if appropriate): Letter of transmittal (not always required) Title page Executive summary Table of contents 1. Introduction or case background 2. Body of the analysis 3. Alternative solutions 4. Conclusion/Recommendation(s) 5. Implementation plan (if requested) Reference List Appendices
When a case study is written as an essay, it has an introduction, body, conclusion and Reference List. The most important point to remember is to present the analysis of the particular case in relation to the theory and the best practice that stems from that theory.

Summers J & Smith B 2003, Communication skills handbook, John Wiley & Sons Australia, Milton, Qld.

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A paragraph from a case study that demonstrates analysis of that case

Note how:
the numbering on the heading indicates that this paragraph is from a report, but this paragraph could also belong to an essay on the same topic. 4.3 Nature of Organisational Design and Design Principles

ABC Mission has a matrix organisational design because it incorporates the following six design principles: specialisation, departmentalisation, chain of command, span of control, centralisation and decentralisation

the section is introduced even when there is a heading. the paragraph:

and formalisation (Robbins, Millet & Walters-Marsh 2004, p. 474). (remainder of paragraph omitted).

- makes a statement i.e. judgement about the cas in relation to one of the theoretical concepts
- explains how this theory is evidenced in the case under study - provides further theory and demonstrates how this theory applies to the case - draws the ideas presented in the paragraph to a logical conclusion i.e. one that connects with the judgment made in the beginning sentence.

The span of control at ABC Mission is one where there are dual lines of control (Robbins, Millet & Walters-Marsh 2004, p. 475). In the Aged Care business at ABC Mission, there are two Regional Directors, one for Western Region and one for Northern Region (see Appendix 3 for the organisational chart for ABC). While staff within each department have their respective managers heading the department, the two Regional Directors often request tasks/information from staff within these support departments. While there is the potential in this sort of structure for role conflict, unclear expectations and role ambiguity from having to report to two bosses (Robbins et al. 2004, p. 475), the issue of staff reporting to more than one boss does not seem to cause problems at ABC Mission. Therefore it seems that the dual lines of control in the organisation work well.
(paragraph omitted)

how this section is drawn to a logical conclusion.

(another paragraph omitted) (beginning of paragraph omitted)

So in the case of ABC

Mission, there is evidence of a matrix organisational design which appears to be effective for this organisation.

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Reflective writing
Reflective writing is a personal style of writing. It is expected when you are asked to reflect on and think critically (analyse and judge in relation to the theory) about ideas and practices that relate to you personally (e.g. your teaching practices). Its purpose is to help you strengthen your understanding of course material, help you create links between your past and present learning and clarify the relationship between theory and practice. You can write your paragraphs to give your opinion (interpretation/analysis) first then the supporting evidence (Example 1) or present the theory first to provide the basis for your subsequent opinion (Example 2). If you do not link your opinion to the theory, then your opinion lacks credibility (Example 3). Reflection is also an invaluable tool in helping you identify what sort of learner you are and what strategies work best for you. The language features of reflective writing 1. People are added to the writing when the writer is expressing personal experiences or opinions e.g. I, me, you, we, us. 2. People (i.e. I, me, you, we, us) are removed when referring to the theory. 3. The actions (verbs) are usually those of feeling and thinking e.g. feeling, felt, considered, experienced, wondered, remembered, discovered, learned. 4. When reflecting the language is usually modified e.g. may, perhaps, might.

Example 1:

Your opinion (interpretation/analysis) followed by supporting theory

Actions of thinking and feeling.

Note how paragraph structure is used to state a reflection/opinion

On contemplation, I realised that some of my values are in conflict with one another. One value is that financial security brings happiness. Another value of mine is that education is extremely important. These values are in direct conflict because the second (education) prevents me from achieving the first (security from monetary gains). As Egan (1977, p. 12) explains, conflict occurs if different values get in the way of one another. This conflict of values probably explains why I have been feeling distressed and anxious about coming to university.

give explanation and an interpretation about that reflection

provide a theoretical justification for the interpretation. This adds credibility to the interpretation.

Theory so no use of the language of people i.e. I, we etc.

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Example 2

Theory followed by interpretation/evaluation

Theory so no use of the language of people i.e. I, we etc.

Note how paragraph structure has been used to: state and explain the theory to provide the basis for the subsequent opinion give the personal example and interpretation of that example in relation to the theory draw the ideas presented to a logical conclusion i.e. an evaluation of the relevance of self-disclosure to the communication within the relationship.

Self-disclosure

is

an

important

component

of

developing

good

communication in a close relationship. According to Johnson (1999, p.45), self-disclosure is the act of letting people know personal information about oneself. It usually occurs within a personal relationship where there is a lot of trust involved or when there is a need to disclose personal information, for example. to a health professional. Early in my relationship with my partner, I felt that we had a good relationship based on trust and so I gradually disclosed things about myself. I remember feeling very apprehensive when I disclosed some of the mistakes that I had made as an adolescent, but being relieved that my partner accepted this and was not judgemental. After this, I felt that my trust in my partner was confirmed. I feel that this has probably contributed to the continued development of good communication within our relationship.

Note how the language used modifies the judgement.

Example 3:

Reflection/evaluation BUT with no credibility!

The reason for my choosing this relationship for analysis is that it intrigues me how two people can become such close friends when all we really have in common is the friendship itself. Ours is also a rare friendship in that we are both unfailingly honest with one another. Sometimes we even surprise ourselves at the depth of obligation to the truth and at the candid nature in which we can express it.

Here the writer presents his/her own thoughts and feelings, but does not link these to the theory. For example, does the literature say this is unusual?

What justification is there for this evaluation? As there is no link with the theory, this statement is not credible. It appears that the writer has NOT read nor utilised any reference material. So it reads like an entry in a personal diary and not like an assignment.

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Writing an Annotated Bibliography

What is an annotated bibliography? An annotated bibliography is a brief summary and evaluation of a number of selected texts. It is similar to a Reference List in that it includes the full referencing details of each text placed in alphabetical order but differs in that it also includes a brief description or summary of the contents, a brief critical analysis and often an evaluation of the relevance and usefulness of the text. You may be asked to produce an annotated bibliography: to become familiar with a particular topic or area of study to become familiar with a particular topic or area of study in preparation for a subsequent assignment (eg essay, literature review, research proposal) to produce a relevant resource list (eg an age specific reading list for a primary school class, a list of up-to-date resources/readings for a particular topic area), and to help you learn how to reference properly! In general, an annotated bibliography should include: the full bibliographic details of each text arranged and punctuated according to the referencing system you are required to use (eg APA, Harvard etc.) an overview or brief description of the contents of each text a critical analysis of each text (strengths and weaknesses of the text), and a statement of the relevance or usefulness of each text eg to others in that area of study or work, or to a particular assignment task.
As well each entry should be placed in alphabetical order according to authors surname.

So when you begin:

Check out what your lecturer is expecting by reading the assignment task and marking critieria carefully (eg number of annotations, word limit). Use your research skills and reading skills to select the texts that will enable you to complete your assessment task. For more ideas check out the information guides Effective Reading and Questions to Ask as You Read.

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Answering this question out aloud really helps!

Writing the summary In your own words write a summary of the main ideas in the text. Two questions to ask are: What is the main idea (or ideas) being presented? What ideas and evidence is used to support this idea/point? Writing the critique (ie comments about the text) The critique is your critical response to the text you have read. These comments can be placed after the summary or integrated into the summary. Some questions to help you evaluate or judge the text include:
So how well does the author achieve his/her purpose? Commenting here generally requires you to draw on additional or prior readings about the topic.

Does the text contribute to my understanding of the topic? If so, in what way? Does it add to the existing knowledge on this topic? If so, in what way? What about the structure ie organisation and presentation of the ideas in the text? Would I recommend this text to someone interested in this topic? How useful/relevant is the text for your topic area and/or your assignment or research?

Extract from an Annotated Bibliography [Nursing]

Assignment task (in brief): Read and begin to think about how you would respond to the ethical issues involved in the case study. Include 5 entries each with a max. of 200 words. Note how this annotation: begins with the bibliographical details for the text (in APA format) includes a brief summary of the contents/focus of the text includes critical comments about the text, in this case positive comments, as well as comments about limitations of the text evaluation of the relevance of the text for the assignment topic. Collis, S. P. (2006). The importance of truth-telling in health care [Art & Science: Literature Review]. Nursing Standard, 20(17) RCN Publishing Company. January 4, 2006. (pp. 41-45) Retrieved March 3, 2006 from http://gateway.ut.ovid.com.ezproxy.scu.edu.au/gw1/ovidweb.cgi This article examines the concepts of truth-telling and deception and whether deception is ever justifiable in health care. Possible reasons for the recent interest in truth-telling in health care are offered as well as issues associated with deceiving patients. Wider arguments supporting and opposing deception in health care are considered before suggested alternatives to the use of deception in patient care are outlined. It appears to be a well researched and well structured article that uses examples to provide a brief understanding of some of the ethical issues (eg trust and duty, truth-telling, deception or selective non-disclosure) that confront nurses when trying to communicate effectively and ethically with the terminally ill patient. However, while the article is very useful in helping to clarify arguments it does not give a rule as to how one should decide. This literature is highly relevant to the case study as it explores the ethical issues of truth-telling as opposed to non-disclosure in regard to beneficence and non-maleficence and recommends that these decisions should be individualized. It points out that the patient may suffer psychologically if told the truth, or if the manner in which they are told is not conducted with extreme sensitivity.

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Paraphrasing and Quoting

Paraphrasing is putting someone elses words into your own words whereas quoting is using the exact words as written by the author/authors. In most courses, paraphrasing is preferred to quoting because paraphrasing shows that you understand the ideas and helps you to incorporate others ideas into your writing. However, there are exceptions to this. For example, in Law, quotes are necessary and used frequently to accurately report law. Also in Humanities, lecturers often require direct quotes from the texts being studied. In other disciplines, direct quotes can sometimes be used to great advantage. For example, when you are defining a concept it is often a good idea to use a direct quote. This ensures that the meaning of the As you are generally expected to use mainly paraphrasing concept is precisely as the author rather than direct quotes in your assignments, it is better to intended. paraphrase as you take notes so that they can then easily How to paraphrase Firstly think about your purpose. If you are wanting to gain an overview of the whole article or chapter, then read the whole article/chapter and write down what the article/chapter was about. Try using the existing headings. If you are wanting to gather information/material for an assignment, then try to work with chunks of text. Read a section of the authors work, cover the original and then write in your own words what the writer is saying about that topic. Choose a chunk of text which is long enough so that you dont remember it word for word, but short enough so that it is covering one idea which you can understand. When you make notes, dont forget to copy down the full bibliographical details at the top of the first page of notes and jot down the page numbers in the margin for each paraphrase (or quote). Copy quotes using quotation marks carefully. This will ensure that you have the necessary bibliographical details for your in-text referencing and for your list of references Read this text and then see over for our paraphrase and quote taken from this text
A thesis sets up the argument of an essay, and for that reason it usually occurs in the introduction, unless the writer feels it is necessary to provide some contextual comments before stating the thesis. An argument, in this sense, is not like fighting with your neighbours about their dog digging in your garden; instead, it refers to a process of reasoning. What makes a thesis plausible, and an argument reasonable and supportable, is the evidence, which you will be expected to cite (or make reference to) in the body of your essay. Of course, it is the preliminary reading (or class notes) that has persuaded you to adopt a point of view to argue. Just as your teacher will be assessing your thesis, argument and evidence, so too you should be assessing these things in the material you read. This is one reason why intelligent and discerning reading promotes your ability to be an intelligent and discerning writer (Bate & Sharpe 1996, p. 15). Bate, D and Sharpe, P 1996, Writers handbook for university students, Harcourt Brace, Sydney. become part of your assignment.

A paraphrase from Bate and Sharpes (1996) text

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University essays need to be well structured to successfully develop an argument. According to Bate & Sharpe, when writing an essay which develops an argument, it is common to include a thesis statement in the introduction. Appropriate evidence also needs to be used in the body of the essay to backup or justify the thesis (1996, p.15). Therefore students who can support their argument with sourced material Note how: the main ideas of the text have been extracted and put into different words (synonyms).

not every main point in the text has been paraphrased. Information has been selected for the writers own purpose, which in this case is to support the point made in the first sentence.

the paraphrasing has been acknowledged with appropriate in-text referencing i.e. authors surnames, year and page number. Some lecturers consider page numbers unnecessary for paraphrases so check with your schools guide to referencing. If in doubt provide them! A quote from Bate and Sharpes (1996) text
Page numbers are essential for quotes

A well-structured essay has a position or argument (thesis) stated in the introduction. Unlike every day types of arguments, argument in university essays is not like fighting with your neighbours about their dog, rather it is about a process of reasoning (Bate & Sharpe 1996, p.15). Some general guidelines for using quotes When using quotations don't just insert them into the essay. Try to make sure you use words to link them with your writing. See example above. Try and avoid merely inserting the quote into the text with no connection to the previous sentence. Check out the expectations for the use of quotes in your discipline i.e. especially for Law and Humanities. In most disciplines, use quotations sparingly. If you can rewrite the idea in your own words do so because it helps you to blend other knowledge with yours. Quotations must be enclosed in single quotation marks and reproduced exactly (punctuation, spelling mistakes and all) as they are written. Use the Latin term sic in square brackets [sic] to indicate a mistake (e.g. a typo, grammatical mistake, politically non-correct or offensive terminology, sexist, racist etc). If you omit any section of the quotation indicate it by using three dots to replace the omitted text. A quotation that is longer than three lines (also called a block quote) is indented, singlespaced (as opposed to double or 1.5 spaced in the remainder of the essay) and is written without quotation marks. See extract on previous page.
Take note of how the quotations are managed in the journals you read within your field of study!

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In-text Referencing: Harvard

Referencing means giving or citing the source of your information. In the Harvard system, for each citation you give: the author's surname, year of publication and page number/s next to any quote or paraphrase in the body of your assignment. (Note some lecturers do not require page numbers for paraphrases.) the full bibliographical details in the list of references at the end of the assignment. Referencing is an academic convention that is important because it: ensures that you are not open to accusations of plagiarism. To plagiarise is to take and use (anothers writings, etc) as ones own (The Oxford guide to the English language 1984, p. 449). Plagiarism is a serious offence at university and can lead to a 'show cause'/failure. shows the reader the extent to which you know the literature that is considered acceptable in the field of study. helps you to take a position, demonstrate the validity or credibility of your position, introduce alternative viewpoints. identifies the source of your material for your readers which enables them to physically locate it if desired. Referencing also needs to be done correctly. Examine the following extract, presented as a block quote, which was sourced from page 15 of Bate, D and Sharpe, P 1996, Writers handbook for university students, Harcourt Brace, Sydney. Then check out the examples over the page.
A thesis sets up the argument of an essay, and for that reason it usually occurs in the introduction, unless the writer feels it is necessary to provide some contextual comments before stating the thesis. An argument, in this sense, is not like fighting with your neighbours about their dog digging in your garden; instead, it refers to a process of reasoning. What makes a thesis plausible, and an argument reasonable and supportable, is the evidence, which you will be expected to cite (or make reference to) in the body of your essay. Of course, it is the preliminary reading (or class notes) that has persuaded you to adopt a point of view to argue. Just as your teacher will be assessing your thesis, argument and evidence, so too you should be assessing these things in the material you read. This is one reason why intelligent and discerning reading promotes your ability to be an intelligent and discerning writer (Bate & Sharpe 1996, p. 15).

Note how the authors surnames, year and page number is given at the end of the quote. It is acceptable to provide this one reference at the end of this information, in this instance, because the quote has been presented as a block quote i.e. indented and separated from the text.

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Referencing paraphrases made from the previous extract Example 1: As Bate and Sharpe (1996, p. 15) point out, the term argument is used at university to refer to the process of reaching a conclusion.

Choose the verb that best suits your purpose.

Example 2:

Bate and Sharpe state that the term argument is used at university to refer to the manner of drawing a conclusion. It is the evidence used that provides justification for the argument which in turn renders the thesis believable (1996, p. 15). At university, the term argument refers to the way of reaching a conclusion (Bate & Sharpe 1996, p. 15).
Note how the writer has integrated the quotes i.e. not merely just inserted them.

Example 3:

Referencing quotes taken from the previous text Example 1: As Bate and Sharpe (1996, p. 15) point out, What makes a thesis plausible, and an argument reasonable and supportable, is the evidence, which you will be expected to cite (or make reference to) in the body of your essay. A well-structured essay has a position or argument (thesis) stated in the introduction. Unlike every day types of arguments, argument in university essays is not like fighting with your neighbours about their dog instead it is about a process of reasoning (Bate & Sharpe 1996, p. 15).

Example 2:

In-text referencing if there are more than three authors Use the first-listed authors surname followed by et al. (et al. means and others), e.g. Smith et al. (1991, p. 242). All names are included in the list of references. In-text referencing if an author refers to another author's work (e.g. Smith refers to the work of Brown). This is called a secondary reference. Below are 3 methods. Brown (cited in Smith 1986, p. 23) ... Smith (1986, p. 23) cites a study by Brown ... ... (Brown cited in Smith 1986, p. 23).

Referencing electronic sources in-text: aim to provide authors surname, year and page no.
(Always include the date of viewing the source and URL in the list of references)
The International Narcotics Control Boards web site <http://www.incb.org> provides details of the program

If there is no author, use the journal name, or organisations name. If there is no date use (n.d.). Electronic sources rarely have consistent page numbers. If you are unable to give a specific page number then give the paragraph number or section number of the quotation e.g. para. 6/ section 3.5. In-text referencing from a Study Guide: provide authors surname, year and page no In- text referencing from a chapter in an edited book: provide author of chapters surname,
year and page no. See List of References pamphlet for how to include in the List of References. - 40 -

Reference Lists
Generally a list of references, which contains details only of those works actually cited in the document, is given for academic work. Sometimes the term Bibliography is used, however this refers to a list of related source material that is not necessarily cited in the document. A list of references should appear on a separate sheet of paper at the end of an assignment. This list contains all the details of those works cited in your assignment. The list MUST be arranged alphabetically by authors surnames. If there is more than one work by the same author, then arrange chronologically i.e. earlier publication dates before later dates. Correct punctation is important. Note minimal capitalisation of book titles and maximal capitalisation of journal titles.

Example:
Web site

Reference List

A useful website for information about the APA system.

APA Online 2003, Electronic References, American Psychological Association, viewed 10 August 2004, <http://www.apastyle.org/elecref.html>. Becher, T 1990, The counter culture of specialisation, European Journal of Education, vol. 25, no. 3, pp. 330 6. Biggs, J & Moore, PJ 1993, The process of learning, 3rd edn, Prentice-Hall, Sydney. Bourassa, SD 1999, Effects of child care on young children, Proceedings of the third annual meeting of the International Society for Child Psychology, International Society for Child Psychology, Atlanta, Georgia, pp. 44-6. Covey, S 1991, The 7 habits of highly effective people, The Business Library, Sydney. Department of Health and Aged Care 1999, Hepatitis C: a review of Australias response, report prepared by D Lowe & R Cotton, DHAC, Canberra.

Journal article

Book with two authors Published conference proceedings

Book with one author

Consultants report CD-ROM

Chapter in an Dr Brain thinking games 1988, CD-ROM, Knowledge Adventure Inc., Torrance, California. edited book

Entwistle, N 1998, Approaches to learning and forms of understanding, in B Dart & G Boulton-Lewis (eds), Teaching and learning in higher education, ACER, Melbourne.

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Note minimalisation of capitals in names, except in names of journals.

Documents produced for a govt. agency

Health Promotion Committee 2000, The funding of anti-smoking campaigns, Department of Health, Brisbane. International Narcotics Control Board 1999, in International Narcotics Control Board report for 1998, United Nations, Vienna, viewed 1 October 2001, <http://www.incb.org/e/index.htm >.
Use n.d. if there is no date.

The date site was created or last revised.

Document within a web site

Useful Website

Suggested referencing for an Electronic Journal on a database. Note

that page number info varies according to the database.

Library and Information Service 2004, Harvard referencing, Curtain University of Technology, viewed 12 December 2004, <http://lisweb.curtin.edu.au/referencing/harvard.html>. Smith, D, Campbell, J & Brooker, R 1999, The impact of students approaches to essay writing on the quality of their essay writing, Assessment and Evaluation in Higher Education, vol. 24, no. 3, pp. 327 (11), viewed 10 August 2003, Proquest 5000 database.
First page no. and no. of pages

Smith, L 2003, An introduction to academic writing: module study guide, Learning Assistance, Southern Cross University, Lismore. Sunday too far away 1975, motion picture, South Australian Film Corporation, Adelaide, Distributed by Rainbow Products, Sydney, and starring Jack Thompson, Reg Lye and Max Cullen. The Oxford guide to the English language 1984, Oxford University Press, Oxford. The search for meaning 1998, radio program, ABC Radio, Sydney, 24 March. Towers, K 2000, Doctor not at fault: coroner, Australian, 18 January, p. 3.
If a newspaper article has no apparent author, provide all details in the in-text citation; no entry is then required in the reference list. For example, (Sydney Morning Herald 24 January 2000, p. 12). in the Sydney Morning Herald (24 January 2000, p. 12).

Lecturers study guide Movie Dictionary Radio program

Newspaper

Useful web site

UVM Libraries 2003, Citation guides and style manuals, The University of Vermont, viewed 12 December 2004, <http://library.uvm.edu/guides/cite/>. This example of a reference list has been constructed using guidelines and examples from: Style manual for authors, editors and printers, 6th edn, 2002 rev., Snooks & Co, John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd. Australia.

The School of Tourism & Hospitality Management uses the Harvard method of referencing.
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