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Annals of Tourism Research, Vol. 27, No. 2, pp. 301321, 2000 # 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved Printed in Great Britain 0160-7383/00/$20.00

PII: S0160-7383(99)00067-5

TOURISM INFORMATION AND PLEASURE MOTIVATION

Cees Goossens Tilburg University, The Netherlands
Abstract: This paper focuses on motivational and emotional aspects of destination choice behavior. In a marketing context, a conceptual model using push, pull, and hedonic factors is developed for research on evaluations of destination attributes. In this context tourists are pushed by their emotional needs and pulled by the emotional benets. Consequently, emotional and experiential needs are relevant in pleasure-seeking and choice behavior. From an information processing point of view, it is suggested that mental imagery is an anticipating and motivating force that mediates emotional experiences, evaluations, and behavioral intentions. The conceptual model is relevant for managers who want to know the affective and motivational reaction of customers to promotional stimuli. Keywords: promotional information, hedonic response, mental imagery, emotion, motivation. # 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. Resume: L'information du tourisme et la motivation du plaisir. Cet article discute des motivations et des motions dans le comportement du choix de destination. Visant un e contexte de marketing, un modele theorique a te tabli a la base de stimulation et e e d'encouragement ainsi que d'elements hedoniques, an d'etudier l'evaluation des attributs de destinations. Dans ce contexte affectif, les touristes sont stimules par leurs besoins et encourages par des bienfaits ventuels. Le besoin d'emotions et d'experiences est donc lie e aux comportements de choix et d'hedonisme. Du point de vue de l'assimilation de l'information, on suggere que l'image mentale est une force motivante et anticipatoire qui modie les experiences affectives, les valuations et les intentions du comportement. Ce e tre les motivations et les reactions que produisent les stimulus modele est utile pour conna publicitaires. Mots-cles: information publicitaire, reponse hedoniste, imagerie mentale, motion, motivation. # 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. e

INTRODUCTION According to Crompton (1979), most discussions of tourism motivation have tended to revolve around the concepts of ``pull'' and ``push''. The latter factors for a vacation are sociopsychological motives, the former, motives aroused by the destination that do not come from tourists themselves. Traditionally, push motives have been useful for explaining the desire to go on a vacation, while pull motives have usefully explained the choice of destination. From a marketing communication point of view, for example, it is under-

Cees Goossens is Assistant Professor in the Department of Economic Psychology, Tilburg University (PO box 90153, 5000 LE Tilburg, the Netherlands. Email< c.f.goossens@kub.nl >). He worked for several years at the Department of Leisure Studies, at the same university, where this article was written. The author is interested in hedonic consumption, experiential aspects of consumer (choice) behavior, information processing, advertising, and marketing issues in tourism.

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standable that researchers focus attention on the pull factors of tourist behavior, since they represent the specic attractions of the destination which induce travel there once the decision has been made (Dann 1981). But what about the pleasure-seeking and emotional aspects of tourist motivation? The purpose of this paper is to demonstrate that research on pleasure motivation in particular should explore the relationship between push and pull factors. Of course, this is not a new idea, though most researchers do not consider both factors as a single integrated concept in their theoretical models and empirical studies. But more exactly, the push and pull factors of tourist behavior are two sides of the same motivational coin. The psychological factor that connects both sides is the concept of emotion. From this perspective, consumers, and in particular tourists, are pushed by their (emotional) needs and pulled by the (emotional) benets of leisure services and destinations. Consequently, emotional and experiential needs are relevant in pleasure-seeking and choice behavior. In this approach, leisure is a positive and subjective experience accompanied by satisfying and pleasurable moods, emotions, and feelings (Mannell 1980:77). In particular, experiential processes, such as imagining, daydreams, emotions, and desires, play an important role in hedonic consumption (Hirshman and Holbrook 1982). In this context, it is reasonable to assume that when consumers imagine touristic behavior, for example, they direct their attention to desirable feelings and leisure experiences. Emotions and feelings about destination attributes probably motivate tourists to plan a trip. In short, if marketers want a full understanding of the motivational mechanism that triggers the destination choice process, these factors have to be incorporated in models. In addition to this research approach, this paper will discuss the role of motivation in a tourism marketing context. Subsequently, a conceptual model is presented to stimulate consumer research on the effect of promotional stimuli on involvement, modes of information processing, hedonic responses, behavioral intentions, and choice processes.

PLEASURE TOURISM MOTIVATION In general, motivation occurs when an individual wants to satisfy a need. A motive implies action; an individual is moved to do something. Motivation theories indicate that individuals constantly strive to achieve a state of stability, a homeostasis. Their homeostasis is disrupted when they are made aware of a need deciency. This awareness creates wants. But to be motivated to satisfy a need, an objective must be present. The individuals must be aware of a product or service and must perceive the purchase of that product or service as having a positive effect on satisfying that now conscious need. Then, and only then, will the individual be motivated to buy. It is the role of marketing to create awareness and to suggest objectives to satisfy needs (Mill and Morrison 1985:4).

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Tinsley and Eldredge (1995) summarized the results of a 15-year program to investigate the psychological needs gratied by leisure experiences and proposed a needs-based taxonomy of several leisure activities clusters, such as novelty, sensual enjoyment, cognitive stimulation, self-expression, creativity, (vicarious) competition, relaxation, agency, belongingness, and service. Fifteen years earlier, however, Iso-Ahola (1980) considered the question of the origin of such supercial leisure needs. He stated that people do not walk around with numerous leisure needs in their minds and do not rationalize specic causes of participation if their involvement is intrinsically motivated. There are strong reasons to argue that frequently expressed leisure needs (such as escape and relaxation) represent culturally learned stereotypes or explanations for leisure behavior. Sometimes, however, these needs accurately reect a person's basic motivational force: the need for optimal arousal as regulated by intrinsic motivation. Weissinger and Bandalos (1995) developed a scale to measure ``intrinsic leisure motivation''. This global disposition is dened as a tendency to seek intrinsic rewards in leisure behavior, and consists of four components: self-determination, is characterized by awareness of internal needs, and a strong desire to make free choices based on these needs; competence, characterized by attention to feedback that provides information about effectiveness, ability, and skill; commitment, characterized by a tendency toward deep involvement in, rather than detachment from, leisure behaviors; and challenge, characterized by a tendency toward seeking leisure experiences that stretch one's limits and provide novel stimuli. According to Fodness (1994), effective tourism marketing is impossible without an understanding of consumers' motivations. But a widely-accepted integrated theory of the needs and personal goals behind these reasons is lacking. In this context, Fodness stated that motivation is one of the least researched areas in tourism, both conceptually and empirically. Therefore, he developed an easy-toadminister self-report scale that relates leisure tourism to specic, generalizable motivators that resemble the taxonomies of functional theorists like Crompton (1979) and Moutinho (1987). In this scale, individual motivation is related to needs and personal goals (push factors). The ve reasons for travel can be described in terms of the potential that a functional approach holds for understanding, predicting, and inuencing the relationship between tourist motivation and behavior. These are the ``knowledge'' function (or cultural and educational motives); the utilitarian functions ``punishment minimization'' (or, the need to escape or stimulus-avoidance) and ``reward maximization'' (or pleasure and sensation seeking); and the value-expressive functions regarding ``self-esteem'' and ``egoenhancement'' (or social prestige). Fodness' research results indicate that these ve dimensions are useful for market segmentation. In addition, he was able to integrate the existing tourism motivation literature into the functional framework suggested by the results of his study. All in all, basic motivation theory describes a dynamic

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process of internal psychological factors (needs, wants, and goals) that generate an uncomfortable level of tension within individuals' minds and bodies. These inner needs and the resulting tension lead to actions designed to release tension, which thereby satisfy the needs. From a marketing perspective, tourism services and complementary products can be ``designed'' and marketed as solutions to consumers' needs. But what about the tourists' evaluations and emotional reactions to these products? Marketing Stimuli and Hedonic Responses Tourism managers and policymakers ought to know the effect of their marketing communication strategies, product innovations, and the like. By measuring the response of the target group to the marketing policy, the organization can better determine the success of its policy. Figure 1, for instance, can be used to structure this kind of marketing effectiveness research. The left side of this ``disposi-

Figure 1. A Hedonic Tourism Motivational Model

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tionstimulusresponse'' model displays the consumer's needs and motivesdispositions or ``push factors''. Examples are escape from a perceived mundane environment, exploration and evaluation of self, relaxation, prestige, regression, enhancement of kinship relationships, and facilitation of social interaction (Dann 1981:192). Furthermore, novelty seeking is often reported as a key motive in these studies (Dimanche and Havitz 1994). Lee and Crompton (1992), for instance, developed a scale to measure four interrelated but distinctive dimensions of the novelty construct related to vacations: thrill (excitement, sensation), change from routine, boredom alleviation, and surprise. These sociopsychological dimensions are also push factors. The right side of Figure 1 displays some environmental variables confronting the consumer, such as the marketing mix provided by the producers, including the supply of tourism services, sites, destinations, advertising, brands, and symbols. Rojek (1990), for example, argued that in postmodern society the superstructure of advertising, television, fashion, lifestyle magazines, and designer values has become more important than the economic substructure in explaining human desire and behavior. In a similar vein, Schoeld (1996) stated that, in Baudrillard's view, hyperreal society is dominated by advertising and electronic mass media, by highly processed communication, and by highly simulated pleasure and spectacle. He argues that one no longer consumes products, but signs and images. In Figure 1, those factors are marketing stimuli or pull factors for the consumer. In a tourism context, Dann (1981) argued, that pull factors of the resort (such as sunshine, relaxed tempo, and friendly natives) both respond to and reinforce push factor motivation. According to Gnoth (1997) the push factors are internally generated drives causing the tourist to search for signs in objects, situations, and events that contain the promise of reducing prevalent drives. In turn, pull factors are generated by the knowledge about goal attributes which he holds. Mansfeld (1992), emphasized that tourism motivation is generally considered the stage that triggers the whole decision process and channels it accordingly. Figure 1 employs an interactionistic perspective (Hirshman and Holbrook 1986). In this context, the push and pull factors melt together in the brain of the consumer, so to speak, and the individual is motivated, or not, to take advantage of the supply in the market. The ``involvement'' concept in particular plays a central role in integrating the push and pull factors. In general, involvement is dened as an unobservable state of motivation, arousal, or interest. It is evoked by a particular stimulus or situation, and has drive properties. Its consequences are types of searching, information-processing, and decision-making (Rothschild 1984). In a leisure and tourism context, Havitz and Dimanche (1990) emphasize the multidimensional character of involvementa psychological state of motivation, arousal, or interest between an individual and recreational activities, destinations, or related equipment, at one point in time, characterized by the perception of importance, pleasure value, sign

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value, risk probability, and risk consequences. From a hedonic consumption point of view, this paper emphasizes the ``pleasure value'' and denes involvement as a psychological state of motivation at one point in time characterized by the perception of self-relevance and the emotional benets of stimuli. Hirschman and Holbrook stated that ``Hedonic consumption refers to consumers' multisensory images, fantasies, and emotional arousal in using products. This conguration of effects may be termed hedonic response'' (1982:93). The present paper argues that such experiential responses occur during consumption and also in the information gathering and processing stage when tourists are involved with promotional information material (marketing stimuli). In this context, Figure 1 displays such hedonic responses as the consumers' mental imagery and emotions. These variables reect the reaction of the individual when the push and pull factors interact with each other. Reactions may arise, for instance, when the individual perceives marketing stimuli (such as destination attributes) and reects upon them. Generally, these responses arise through sensory or cognitive information processing (Tybout and Artz 1994). Information is often described as relevant data about choice alternatives (their scores on attributes or characteristics). The data become information if they prove relevant for someone attempting to make a better choice among competing alternatives. Information may be in a spoken, written, or pictorial format, and may come from personal, commercial, or neutral sources (Van Raaij and Crotts 1994:12). However, information can also provide fun. Tour operators' brochures, share many similarities with commercial leisure magazines. They are regarded by their users as being ``a good read'', whetting the appetite for the vacation products on offer (Hodgson 1990). MacInnis and Price (1987) dened imagery as a process (not a structure) by which sensory information is represented in working memory. They notice that the bulk of imagery research has focused on imagery processing at low levels of cognitive elaboration, such as mentally picturing a (static) stimulus object. In contrast, imagery processes at a high level of cognitive elaboration include creative thinking and daydreaming. This paper views imagery as dynamic processes like daydreams and fantasies. Further, images are dened here as conditioned sensory (in particular visual) responses to stimuli. Images or conditioned sensory responses are, in some cases, inextricably combined with emotional responses (Goossens 1994a; Staats and Lohr 1979). Thus, imagery is conceptualized here as a mode of information processing, which includes conditioned sensory representations (images) in working memory, that are used in much the same way as perceptions of external stimuli. The reader who is interested in a more structural and attitudinal approach to the image concept is referred to Echtner and Ritchie (1993), Poiesz (1989), Reynolds and Gutman (1984), and Walmsley and Young (1998). It is important to note here that the ``attitude'' construct is not incorporated in Figure 1, because it does not t in the ``experi-

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ential'' view of consumer research (Holbrook and Hirschman 1982). Nevertheless, the attitude concept is very functional in research on information processing and marketing stimuli (Derbaix 1995; Holbrook and Batra 1987; Moore and Harris 1996). Mental Imagery Processing According to Bandura (1986), human behavior is mostly purposive, and regulated by forethought. Through the exercise of forethought, people motivate themselves and guide their actions anticipatorily. Images of desirable future events tend to foster the behavior most likely to bring about their realization. By representing foreseeable outcomes symbolically, people can convert future consequences into current motivators and regulators of foresightful behavior. Moreover, images are related to emotions and they reect emotional states, can intensify emotional states, and are part of the mental maps made of the environment to help one adapt more successfully (Plutchik 1984). Obviously, motivation is intertwined with imagery and emotions. Phillips, Olson and Baumgartner (1995) argued that, whereas traditional information processing models assume verbal and semantic processing, the so-called consumption vision perspective focuses on visual and imaginal processing. This approach explicitly acknowledges creative sense-making processes consumers use to anticipate the future. Consumption visions help consumers anticipate and make plans to navigate an uncertain future by providing concrete, vivid images of the self interacting with a product and experiencing the consequences of product use. Consumption visions allow people to vicariously participate in product consumption prior to purchase. By forming different visions, consumers can mentally try out different choice alternatives and select the one that provides the greatest pleasure during consumption and leads to the satisfaction of important values and goals. Although MacInnis and Price (1987) provided several propositions about the potentially unique effects of elaborated imagery on consumer behavior (such as the stimulating inuence of elaborated imagery on affective experiences, purchase intentions, and purchase timing), they pointed out that elaborated imagery research is still in its infancy, so that theoretical grounding is necessary. Against this background, a mental imagery processing model has been developed for high-involvement situations and elaborated imagery processing (Goossens 1994a). This model describes how visual and verbal external information is mentally represented. Mental imagery is conceptualized as a mode of processing which includes perceptual or sensory (in particular visual) representations in working memory. The model starts from the principle that in an empirical consumer context it is not realistic to distinguish pure visual processes, because mental imagery is generated by an individual's word-image repertoire (Staats and Lohr 1979). Therefore, the model states that elaborated imagery processes are made up of a continuous interaction between a person's image and verbal sys-

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tems. Furthermore, the model describes how the represented (visual and verbal) information affects consumers' emotional responses and behavioral intentions. The cognitive mechanism that activates a person's emotion system consists of stimulus and response information. This mechanism is borrowed from Lang's (1984a) theory, in which emotion is conceived to be a broad response disposition, dened by a specic information structure (``propositional network'') in memory. A person can, for example, renew feelings (as opposed to simply recalling them) by mentally reliving an event that has already happened. The more vivid the reliving, the stronger the affect experienced. In such a case, the affect would not simply be retrieved from memory, but would be regenerated (Carver and Scheier 1990:25; Frijda 1988). Thus, imagery, feelings, and memories are interrelated concepts. According to Aylwin (1990), adults can use three different but interconnected forms of representation: verbal representation, or inner speech; visual imagery, or ``pictures in the mind's eye''; and enactive imagery, a kind of imagined action or role play. Enactive imagery is specialized for representing the temporal and affective aspects of a stimulus. This temporal perspective of enactive imagery extends to include the possible consequences of action. Enactive imagery provides an insider's perspective on situations, and allows access to subjective aspects opaque to subjects using verbal or visual representations. Aylwin (1990) states that affective and other subjective constructs are most frequent in enactive imagery. This is consistent with Lang's (1984a) work, which shows that representations involving active participation are accompanied by more affective arousal than purely visual representations. According to Goossens (1994a), this can be explained, because subjects who imagine themselves interacting with a specic situation (such as through do-it-yourself or experience-it-yourself thoughts) have to activate relevant ``self-experience'' knowledge structures in memory. By doing this, they indirectly activate the emotional knowledge structures which go with such situations. In contrast, visual imagery and verbal processing are more detached, with the ``self-experience'' knowledge structures not involved, so that it is less likely that the network of corresponding emotional knowledge structures will be activated. Therefore, it is suggested here that enactive imagery in particular is an anticipating and motivating force that mediates emotional experiences, affective appraisals, evaluations, and behavioral intentions. Emotions, Moods and Affect Cohen and Areni (1991) suggested that affect is a general descriptor of a ``valenced feeling state'' where emotion and moods are considered to be specic examples of affective states. Emotion is often described as states characterized by episodes of intense feelings associated with a specic stimulus. Moods, on the other hand, are generally described as less intense feelings characterized by dif-

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fuseness and lack of a stimulus object (Frijda 1993). Many studies, for instance in consumer research, are directed primarily to the more general class of affect, what Russell and Snodgrass (1987) termed affective appraisalan attribution to some object, event, or place of an affective quality (Floyd 1997:85). The emotional and experiential aspects of consumption play an important role in consumer choice behavior. Specically, the concept ``affective choice mode'' is developed to reect decision processes for highly-involving products that do not lend themselves to extensive (cognitive) information processing. This construct is contrasted with the conventional ``information processing mode'' (Mittal 1994:506). In an advertising context, cognitive involvement occurs when consumers process attribute-based messages or engage in self-generated cognitive reasoning about message contents. Affective involvement occurs, in contrast, when a person identies a new stimulus with an exemplar (encoding it as similar to something in the memory with which an affect is already attached), and then automatically transfers that affect to the product or brand itself. A person reacts to the stimulus based on prior experiences, the emotional experience the stimulus engenders, or social and personality images associated with the product's use. The more expressive the product, the more likely it would be appraised via ``affective choice mode''(Mittal 1994). Moore, Harris and Chen (1995) reported that individuals have been found to differ in the intensity with which they experience affect. Affect intensity can be described as the individual difference in the intensity of emotional response to a given level of affect stimulus. The ``affect intensity measurement'' scale assesses the strength of the emotions with which individuals respond to an affect-laden stimulus. In this context these authors investigated the extent to which individual differences in affect intensity inuence the message recipient's responses to emotional advertising appeals. In two experiments, high-affect intensity individuals, compared with those who scored low on the scale, manifested signicantly stronger emotional responses to the emotional advertising appeal, and showed no differences in emotional response intensity when exposed to a non-emotional appeal. Both negative and positive emotions mediated the inuence of affect intensity on attitude formation. Moore and Harris (1996) found that emotional responses mediated the effects of affect intensity on attitude toward the ad only when subjects were exposed to the positive emotional appeal. Other research indicates that emotions or feelings affect attitude toward the ad and attitude toward the brand (Burke and Edell 1989; Derbaix 1995; Holbrook and Westwood 1989). Research results indicate that emotional reports tap information with motivational implications that need not be integrated into attitudes (Allen, Machleit, and Schultz Kleine 1992). The ``need for emotion'' concept has been dened as the tendency or propensity for individuals to seek out emotional situations, enjoy emotional stimuli, and exhibit a preference to use emotion in interacting with the world. Individuals differ

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in their responses to situations, and attempt to maintain consistency in their responses by engaging in appropriate activities. In particular, persons high on the affect intensity dimension have been presumed to seek out and prefer emotional stimuli, and enjoy their stimulation (Raman, Chattopadhyay and Hoyer 1995). Emotions have been differentiated from longer affective states such as moods by being more intense, attention getting, and associated with specic objects or events. Individuals are usually aware of their emotions while longer emotional states such as moods are more general and less intense, and may operate beneath consciousness. Hull (1990) suggested, that potentially the most signicant impact of leisure-induced mood is its inuence on the behaviors and cognitions of persons long after they leave the leisure setting. One's past mood has the potential to color evaluations of new situations, the identication of future goals, and the development of such plans. Hence, mood may inuence future behaviors, moods, and cognitions. In general, people in positive moods have strong tendencies to provide positive evaluations and act accordingly. In some cases, however, negative mood states result in negative evaluations and actions (the ``congruency'' effect) and in other cases they have positive results (an ``incongruency'' effect). This latter effect is based on the premise that consumers in a negative mood will be motivated to process ad information in hopes of improving their current mood. Motivation will be reected by higher evaluations of the advertised product, relative to those in a positive mood. Those in such a mood will be less motivated to process the information, and their evaluations will be less strongly inuenced by their mood. Results indicate that evaluations of a ``feel-good'' (mood elevating) product are more favorable for subjects in a negative mood relative to those in a positive one (Gardner 1992; Hadjimarcou and Marks 1994). The reader who is interested in several strategic marketing areas (such as service encounters, point-of-purchase stimuli and communications) and mood-inducing tactics (such as procedures, personal interactions, marketing settings and contexts) is referred to Gardner's (1985) model of the role of mood states in consumer behavior. Moods can be differentiated along many dimensions such as valence, intensity, and source. Goodstein (1994) stated that, in particular, their ``sources'' can be used to unify many of the ndings discussed in consumer research: moods formed prior to exposure (pre-states) are qualitively unlike those formed during stimulus exposure (reactions). The primary distinction between the two is that pre-states are generalized affect without focus, and reactions are object-oriented. As a pre-state, moods function as general, nonspecic positive or negative input. As a reaction, they evolve with specic signalling functions about particular environmental occurrences. Stated more simply, mood has been conceptualized as an affective predisposition that is unrelated to the stimulus at hand. Alternately, it has also been conceptualized as an affective reaction with a known cause, namely the stimulus at hand. Consumers are

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motivated to attain positive affective states and avoid negative affective ones. This holds regardless of whether the state is developed prior to or during stimulus exposure. According to Goodstein (1994:527), the means of achieving the desired state depends upon whether the mood was pre-existing or a reaction to the stimulus. To sustain a positive one developed prior to stimulus may mean limiting processing of incoming information. Yet increasing processing could prolong a positive mood if the stimulus was the source of it. Likewise, a consumer motivated to terminate a negative mood is apt to process a new stimulus if it was pre-existing. However, a consumer is likely to limit processing if the stimulus was the cause of the negative mood. Motivation and Emotion Recently, Gnoth (1997) stressed that the motivation concept is complex both from a cognitive and an emotional point of view. Cognitions refer to mental representations such as knowledge or beliefs. Emotions, on the other hand, encompass drives, feelings, and instincts. He argued, for instance, that emotions are particularly important in holiday tourism, since it is a pleasure-seeking activity. Therefore, a tourism motivation model should acknowledge and operationalize emotional inuences in its formation processes. For this reason, two emotion theories become signicant here. In general, emotions arise in response to the meaning structures of given situations; different emotions arise in response to different meaning structures (Frijda 1988). According to Frijda (1985:249), emotions can be regarded as manifestations of a concern-realization system. ``Concern'' is the name for the disposition to prefer certain states of the world over others, which underlie hedonic experience and motivation. Inputs to the concern-realization system consist of upcoming and ongoing events. These are continuously scanned for their possible relevance to concern satisfaction. Outputs of the system consist of relevant signals and changes in action readiness in response to those signals. These changes are called emotions. This view regards emotion as based upon, and at the service of, motivation. The emotions of desire represent action readiness to achieve the preferred states of interests. Frijda (1986:224) argued that feelings and emotions are different kinds of experience. Feelings are concomitants of stimulus reception and imply mere acceptance or non-acceptance of the stimulus. In other words, feelings are experiences of an evaluative nature that stand by themselves. Emotions, on the other hand, are dened as experiences in which evaluation is manifest through the call for action or through elicitation of action tendency (behavioral intention). Therefore, emotion implies that an interest is touched upon and action or activation change is called for. In short, certain objects or situations elicit feelings; opportunities and risks in obtaining or avoiding those objects or situations elicit emotions. Regarding hedonistic needs, pleasure and desire are relevant emotions which have a strong motivational character.

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Another narrowly related approach to the emotion concept is provided by Lazarus:

When we use the term emotion, especially from a cognitivemotivationalrelational perspective, we are referring to a great many variables and processes such as the eliciting environmental and internal conditions that produce a personenvironment relationship, the mediating process of appraisal of that relationship, the tendency toward action, and the coping process, as well as the response itself, which combines actions, physiological changes, and subjective experiences in a coordinated fashion. When people use the term emotion they may have in mind either the whole conguration or one or another of its components (1990:17).

The cognitive part of emotions involves goals, plans, and beliefs and is about the stakes (active goals) and (coping) options a person has for managing the person-environment relationship. Both Lazarus' and Frijda's (1986) emotion theories are related to motivation and cognition. In the conceptual model framed in Figure 1, emotions can be operationalized by subjective emotional experiences, affective appraisal, and verbal reports of feelings about leisure products and touristic attractions. Motivation can be operationalized as behavioral intentions towards tourism attractionsrather than motives, as in Fishbein and Ajzen's (1975) attitude theory. Research Questions The involvement concept plays a central role in tourism and consumer behavior research. Regarding this, Dimanche and Havitz (1994:41) argued, for example, that researchers could explore how to increase tourists' levels of involvement with destinations or services. An involved consumer is more likely to understand and memorize promotional stimuli, and to purchase the product or service that raised his/her level of involvement. Though none have been conducted to date, numerous opportunities for controlled experimental studies exist in this area. In fact, the conceptual model of this paper focuses on related specic issues. Research questions regarding promotional stimuli include the effect of different modes of information processing on emotional experiences and behavioral intentions; the inuence of emotional information on affective reactions and behavioral intentions; when tourists use different choice modes, and their effect on the travel destination decision is; and the type of information which increases both the consumers' involvement and their ability to perceive more differences in service supply. These questions will be discussed and four propositions formulated to guide research on consumer information processing. The importance of emotion and imagery in consumer behavior is now well-recognized. As Gabriel and Lang stated, ``If the key to modern hedonism is the quest for pleasure through emotional experience rather than sensory stimulation, then modern consumption can be seen as an elaborate apparatus enabling individuals to imagine the dramas which afford them pleasure, to dream the scenarios

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which full their desires'' (1995:106). MacInnis and Price (1987) argued that, in the range of leisure services, an important part of choosing involves assessing how it will feel (the sensation surrounding the anticipated hedonistic or leisure experience). From this perspective, a denition of high involvement is proposed here for situations in which consumers gather and process information for a destination decision and for self-pleasing. As such, involvement is a psychological state of motivation at one point in time characterized by the perception of self-relevance and emotional benets of stimuli. The more emotionally involved consumers are with promotional stimuli (such as travel magazines), the more likely they will use imagery as a mode of information processing. However, elaborated imagery processing (fantasies) is a difcult process to control in experimental studies. Therefore, it is suggested here that subjects be given clear instructions to use their imagination. To simplify matters, two situations regarding touristic information processing and hedonic needs can be distinguished: non-enactive imagery, which is a form of representation in which the consumer is personally involved at a low level; and enactive imagery, a form of representation in which the consumer is personally highly involved with touristic information. Enactive imagery is a kind of role play or imagined action (consumption) in which individuals ``try out'' relevant (consumption) situations through do-it-yourself or experienceit-yourself thoughts (Goossens 1994a, 1994b). This conceptualization is comparable with the concepts ``self-relatedness,'' ``high involvement,'' and ``constructive processing'' (Bone and Ellen 1990, 1992; MacInnis and Jaworski 1989). MacInnis and Price (1987) provided several imagery propositions, some of them related to intentions: that there will be a greater change in behavioral intentions when elaborated imagery is used, as opposed to discursive processing; that self-related imagery will affect intentions more than imagery that does not include the self; and that the more concrete and emotional the imagery, the greater the change in behavioral intentions. Based on this literature and in accordance with Phillips, Olson and Baumgartner's (1995) consumption vision approach, two propositions may now be offered: 1. enactive imagery has a stronger potential to elicit emotional experiences and behavioral intentions than non-enactive imagery; 2. stimulus and hedonic response information will elicit stronger emotional experiences and behavioral intentions than mere stimulus information. Thus, in a self-pleasing information processing context, it is suggested that enactive imagery is a cognitive-affective motivating force that mediates hedonistic consumer behavior. Given the prevalence in Western culture of symbolic representations of touristic products and services, both propositions are relevant to marketing communication strategies. Urry, for example, stated that ``there is the probable development of virtual reality technology so that it will be possible soon to bring tourist sites into one's own room, not just

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through two-dimensional TV/VCR, but through a three-dimensional reality hardly less articial than Disneyland or indeed a simulated ride on a Grimsby trawler'' (1994:233). Future marketing research on the role of imagery in information processing should assess its impact. If enactive imagery intensies the consumer's emotional responses, appraisals, and behavioral intentions, then it is interesting for marketers to investigate what factors stimulate and trigger mental imagery. Regarding the second proposition, marketing communication experts should provide brochures, advertisements, commercials, and videos that consist both of ``stimulus information'' (destination and service attributes) and ``hedonic response information'' such as consumers' visions, mental images, feelings, moods, emotional experiences, and expressions (Goossens 1994b). This suggestion is supported by the proposition ``The greater the use of cues that appeal to hedonic needs, the greater consumers' motivation to attend to the ad'' (MacInnis, Moorman and Jaworski 1991). In the present paper, it is suggested that enactive and non-enactive imagery are independent variables or experimental conditions (such as by giving subjects instructions). In addition, stimulus and hedonic response information can be manipulated in promotional material (slides, scripts, pictures, video tapes). The subjects' affective response can be measured as a dependent variable. Regarding both propositions, researchers should focus attention on the intensity of emotional experiences. The effectiveness of ``emotional information'' in promotional stimuli can be tested and measured on three dimensions (pleasure, arousal, and dominance) that compose each emotion. In this regard, Lang (1984b) developed a scale with graphic characters that visually represent these, which avoids cultural and language problems suffered by verbal measures (Morris and McMullen 1994). However, several researchers, including Mehrabian and Russell (1974) and Westbrook (1987), provided ample evidence to support the use of verbal approaches to measure affective responses on the three bipolar pleasurearousaldominant dimensions: pleasureunpleasant, arousalunaroused, and dominancesubmissive. Pleasure describes feelings of happiness, fulllment, pleasantness, and enjoyment; arousal represents feelings of excitement, exhilaration, alertness, or surprise; and dominance refers to feelings of mastery, competence, power, or skill (Floyd 1997; Russell, Ward and Pratt 1981). Recently, Richins (1997) argued that although consumption-related emotions have been studied with increasing frequency in consumer behavior, issues concerning the appropriate way to measure these emotions remain unresolved. In her article, she describes six empirical studies that assess the domain of consumption-related emotions, that identify an appropriate set of consumption emotion descriptors, and that compare the usefulness of this descriptor set with the usefulness of other measures in assessing consumption-related emotions. In the marketing literature, Hirshman and Holbrook (1982) describe the imagery construction process (which occurs for experi-

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ential, expressive products) as ``more subconcious and private in nature,'' and as having ``latent content that does not appear in overt verbal reports.'' According to Mittal (1988:506) these are also the dening characteristics of the ``affective choice mode.'' It is argued that when products are expressive (when sought for psychosocial goals rather than for utilitarian goals), then the predominant mode of consumer brand selection is the affective choice mode, in contrast to the information processing mode. In this context, Mittal posited the hypothesis ``The more expressive the product, the more likely it is to be appraised via the [affective choice mode]'' (1988). Because destinations have an expressive potential it is likely that the ``affective choice mode'' occurs in the pleasure travel choice process. This leads to a third proposition: 3. In the information gathering and processing stage, tourists use both processing modes in destination decisions. They use affective choice mode for expressive destination attributes, such as the (hedonic) pictures in travel magazines and brochures, whereas the information processing mode is used to evaluate attributes such as the price and the service quality of touristic accommodations. For marketers who want to improve their promotional travel information, it is interesting to know which mode of processing is dominant in the destination decisions of different target groups. It is important to note here that expressive leisure products or services bought in the ``affective choice mode'' are by no means low-involvement decisions. What matters is not the extent of deliberation, but rather the focus of deliberation: component features or product attributes in the information processing mode, and holistic, self-implicating object impressions in the affective choice mode (Mittal 1994:257). Reid and Crompton (1993:183) discussed ve decision-making paradigms incorporating the inuence of involvement. This research has primarily focused upon identifying possible differences between high- and low-involvement purchases. Generally, researchers have concluded that when the purchase of a product or a leisure service is considered to be important to a participant's ego, self-esteem, or needs, or when there is a high level of nancial, social, or psychological risk, then a high-involvement state is likely to exist. This leads to evaluative processing of relevant information about the product or leisure service, and to a relatively complex decision-making process. A participant with a high involvement level is likely to seek out and use information about the choice alternatives and follow a comprehensive process of decision-making. On the other hand, when the service is less important or relevant and perceived to have minimal risk associated with it, then they tend to gather little or no evaluative information about choice alternatives and follow relatively simple, non-comprehensive decision-making processes. In this case, the participant has a low involvement level. Reid and Crompton's (1993) taxonomy of decision-making paradigms describes how participants make decisions about purchasing a

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leisure service. The typology claries and explores two independent variables purported to determine which of the paradigms is used in the decision: the participants' level of involvement with the purchase, and their ability to differentiate salient attributes of available choices. The intent of the typology is to guide future research efforts that examine the relationship between these independent variables and the decision-making paradigms. Both the involvement level, and the ability of the participant to perceive differences in the service alternatives are classied as either high or low. Consistent with the consumption vision approach, the present paper suggests a fourth proposition: 4. Visual and vivid information on pleasure destination attributes will increase both the consumers' involvement and their ability to perceive more differences in service supply. Subsequently, this will increase their determination in making the right travel destination decision. This proposition is based on the fact that the vividness of message information is assumed to inuence consumers' evaluations. Information may be described as vividas likely to attract and hold attention and excite imagination to the extent that it is emotionally interesting, concrete and imagery provoking; and proximate in a sensory, temporal, or spatial way (McGill and Anand 1989:188). Marketers can use these ingredients to increase consumers' involvement with promotional information. Jamrozy, Backman and Backman (1996:920) suggest, that more research is needed to determine the dimensions of involvement in terms of advertisements and situational involvement. In accordance with different involvement dimensions, informational or emotional advertising strategies might have positive effects in marketing to tourists. If they are emotionally involved in, for instance, a nature-based destination, they may respond more favorably to emotional advertising. Others may require more information in order to reduce the risk of making a poor choice. Their responses might vary based on the situation what type of trip is being considered, the annual vacation, or just one of many weekend trips. With suggestions like this, the relation between promotional stimuli, destination evaluations, decisions, involvement, and decision-making paradigms can be tested in several research settings.

CONCLUSION To market tourism services and destinations well, marketers must understand the factors that lead to decisions and consumption behavior. Consumer researchers argue that the ``experiential'' aspects of consumption, like consumer fantasies, feelings, and fun, play an important role in consumer choice behavior. In the choice of many leisure services, an important part of the choice involves

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assessing how it will feel (the sensation surrounding the anticipated leisure experience). Regarding the latter, experiential processes, such as imagining, daydreams, and emotions, play an important role in vacation choice behavior (Holbrook and Hirschman 1982; MacInnis and Price 1987; Mannell and Iso-Ahola 1987). In the context of tourism motivation, anticipation, and information processing, Liebman Parrinello stated, for example, stated that ``Specialized organizations, such as travel agencies, are now in a position to activate and stimulate motivation not only with the use of more rened photography, but also with the increasingly frequent use of videos and lms'' (1993:242). For managers, it is relevant to explore and examine how and under what conditions these marketing tools are successful in pleasing the target group. From a hedonic and motivational point of view, this paper emphasizes the use of experiential information in promotional stimuli. Both feelings of pleasure, excitement, relaxation (push factors), and touristic attractions like sunshine, friendly people, and culture (pull factors) are important sources of tourism information. In particular, a combination of push and pull information and hedonic responses will motivate tourists to plan a trip. Based on these assumptions, this paper presented a conceptual model of the relation between push and pull motives, involvement, information processing, mental imagery, emotion, and behavioral intention (Figure 1). The model is relevant for marketing managers who want to know the affective and motivational reaction of consumers to promotional stimuli. In addition, it functions as the motor of the pleasure destination choice process.& REFERENCES
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