Desalination 230 (2008) 5161

Performance study on solar still with enhanced condensation

K. Vinoth Kumar*, R. Kasturi Bai
Department of Bio-Energy, School of Energy, Environment and Natural Resources, Madurai Kamaraj University, Madurai 625 021, Tamil Nadu, India Tel. +91 (452) 245-8471, ext. 366; email: vinoy2kenergy@rediffmail.com Received 20 March 2007; Accepted 7 November 2007

Abstract Water scarcity and pollution pose critical situation in all walks of life especially in the developing countries. Among the available purification technologies, solar desalination process proves to be a suitable solution for resolving this existing crisis. This renewable energy technology operates on a basic principle of which the solar radiation enters through the glass surface inside a closed chamber touching the black surface generating heat energy, which gets trapped inside. This gradually raises the temperature of the liquid resulting in evaporation process and further condensation, which is drained out for use. In this connection, a basin type solar still (0.5 m2) with improved condensation technique was designed and built, and a performance study was carried out with different samples such as tap water, seawater and dairy industry effluent. The condensation occurs due to the temperature difference not only on the glass surface but also on the four sidewalls, which can be cooled by water circulation through tubes attached on the wall surface for efficiency enhancement. The maximum daily production of the solar still was about 1.4 L/m2.d, and its efficiency was about 30%. The condensate water quality was analysed and compared with water quality standards, which was found to be comparable with rainwater and mineral water. Efficiency of the still was calculated for all the samples and compared with each other. The reasons for the findings and their implications for the design of the system are discussed. Some design features that would further enhance the thermal performance of the still were also identified from this present investigation and highlighted. Keywords: Solar still; Desalination; Enhanced condensation; Temperature

1. Introduction Around 97% of the water in the world is in the oceans, approximately 2% of the water in the
*Corresponding author.

world is at present as ice stored in polar ice, and a mere 1% is fresh water available for the need of plants, animals and human life. The overexploitation of existing fresh water supplies is becoming a problem in many parts of the world. In the USA, water shortages in many states have

0011-9164/08/$ See front matter 2008 Published by Elsevier B.V.

doi:10.1016/j.desal.2007.11.015

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resulted in long-term plans being prepared for an increase in the use of desalination of seawater to supplement the supply of drinking water [1]. There are more than 15,000 desalination plants in more than 120 countries. It has been estimated that there will be a 100% increase in the active installed capacity of desalination plants during the period 20052015 [2]. The most common renewable energy sources are solar, wind, geothermal, and ocean. At present, uses of renewable energy sources for desalination are very limited. The worlds share of total renewable energy sources used for desalination is only about 0.02% of the total energy used. Desalination powered by renewable energies can be an ideal solution for some small communities where an affordable fossil fuel supply for desalination is not available [3]. Obtaining potable water through solar stills is one of the thermal applications harnessing the solar energy, which is viable and economical. In the worlds population, at least 80% of the habitations are in arid and semi-arid countries like India and among them about 40% are suffering from serious droughts. To resolve this existing crisis, different methods of desalination techniques, have been adopted in several countries. Among these, solar distillation is a process where solar energy is used to distill freshwater from saline or brackish water for drinking purposes and other application. Solar distillation works on the basic principle where the solar radiation from the sun gradually raises the temperature of the water inside a closed environment at a temperature higher than the ambient, resulting in the process of evaporation followed by condensation on the slanted glass surface and collected through vents. Solar distillation of brackish water is a practical alternative which offers life to those regions where the lack of fresh water hinders development. It has been shown that the solar desalination remains the most favourable process for the supplying of water to small communities in remote villages [4,5].

Desalination is used to produce potable water from water sources containing dissolved salts, and is most often used when water sources are salty; producing fresh water from seawater or brackish water. The main application of conventional desalination techniques is the production of fresh water on ships, islands, and in the coastal regions of some very arid Middle Eastern countries. The water that is produced may be so pure that consumers do not like the lack of taste, and small quantities of salt water may then be added (this is called palatization) to improve the flavour. There are several methods of water desalination. The most appropriate method can be selected on the basis of the TDS value of the raw water [6]. A report [7] published by the World Bank in 1982, which indicates that, out of 2.4 billion people living in the developing countries, less than 500 million have access to potable water and the number of people who lack potable water increases by 70 million every year. Most of the villages in many areas are isolated and the available source of potable water in these villages is the rainwater stored in wells. Especially in desert areas, ground water is saline which is considered to be unsafe for drinking purposes. On the other hand, in addition to quantity of water, there are many places even in urban areas where water is polluted and has a high salt content. It has been estimated that around 500 million people in the developing countries suffer from water-borne diseases. A general equation is developed [8] to predict the daily productivity of a single-sloped solar still. The developed equation relates the dependent and independent variables which control the daily productivity. This equation could be used to predict the daily productivity with a reasonable confidence level (maximum error 5%). The experiments were conducted [9] in Jordan using a solar still with various cover tilt angles of 15, 25, 35, 45 and 55. An optimum tilt angle for water production was found to be 35 during the month of May. Salt was added to study the effect

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of the salinity of water on solar distillation. Distilled water production decreased with salinity. The effect of water depth was also studied. The results show that water production decreased in a somewhat linear relationship with increasing water depth in the still. The performance of a solar still with different size sponge cubes placed in the basin was studied experimentally. The increase in distillate production of the still ranged from 18%273% compared to an identical still without sponge cubes under the same conditions. The effects of sponge cube size, percent volume of sponge, water depth, water salinity and the use of black coal and black steel cubes were also investigated. The study showed that the daily production of such a still can be greatly enhanced using sponge cubes [10]. Solar stills take advantage of direct solar energy via the greenhouse effect. The process is as follows. A black-painted basin, sealed tightly with a transparent cover, stores the saline water. Plastic black sheets can be used as well except of black paint. As the sun heats the water, the basin water evaporates and vapor comes into contact with the cool glass ceiling where it condenses to form pure water [11]. The water was drained from the solar still for potable use. The maximum efficiency of solar stills was 35% of the energy entering the still effectively utilized to evaporate the water [12]. This technology was optimized when running at capacities of nearly 0.8 kg/d. Using heat recovery devices and hybrid systems may make solar stills more cost-competitive [13]. Research has indicated that multiple-effect stills increase water production by 4055% when stacked in a vertical arrangement [4,12]. Solar stills require large amounts of land and can only handle small quantities of water. They are not a viable option for most areas in the US [11]. A prototype solar still having a vertical flat absorber of 0.817 m2 was designed, constructed and tested outdoors. It was constructed using locally available materials as well as local technical assistance. The total area of the glass cover

is 0.8769 m2, and the absorbing surface consists of a set of parallel black porous cloth wick plate located in an enclosure. The still is formed by a vertical absorbing surface, two transparent glass covers and a vertical back wall made of galvanized iron, darkened with black colour internally and covered externally with 5 cm of glass wool as insulator. Testing was performed on a batch basis with five modes of operation: (1) still operating alone for a 24-h period, (2) still connected to the collector for a 24-h period (all day), and (3) still connected to the collector during daylight hours 9 am to 5 pm only. These tests were performed with fresh tap water as feed in order to avoid corrosive effects on the still and collector material. The remaining two modes were: (4) saline water feed, 35,000 ppm, with the still operating alone for a 24-h period, and (5) saline water feed of the same salinity, with the still connected to the collector for 24 h. The work has led to the development of the vertical solar still and to a technical improvement. In order to achieve the yield of the distilled, the still orientation should be the direction at which the highest average incident solar radiation is obtained [4]. Experimental investigation [14] of the solar still collector system has shown that the productivity of the system was substantially increased in comparison with that of the still alone. Meanwhile, efficiency was reduced by a few percentage points. The results of testing are grouped into five modes of operation. The first three are for fresh tap water as feed and the last two are for saline water feed, as follows: 1. The daily production of the still alone was about 2 L/m2.d, and its daily efficiency was about 27%. 2. When the still was operated with the collector for 24 h, its production was increased by 231% but efficiency was decreased by about 2.5% compared to that of the still alone. 3. A slight increase in condensate production (about 2%) over that of the previous mode

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occurred when the still was connected to the collector during daylight hours only (8 am5 pm). 4. In operating the system with 35,000 of saline water, an increase in production of 52% was noticed when the still was connected with the collector over that of the still alone. 5. The most practical operating mode, regardless of the salinity of the feed, is that of the still connected to the collector for 24 h. Several types of solar stills exist, the simplest of which is the single-basin type. But the yield of this still is in the range of 24 L/d per m2 of still area, which is very limited. There are, however, several methods to augment this yield, which generally fall into two categories: concentrators and flat-plate collectors. This system, also called the active system, is probably appealing for countries such as Jordan where flat-plate collectors are already being installed in increasing numbers. All that is needed is to add-on a solar still to an already existing collector and obtain an extra amount of distilled water at no extra cost to the still. The reason why the efficiency decreases is that the average temperature of the still and collector combined is higher than that of the still alone. Because of a higher operating temperature range in the active solar distillation system due to additional thermal energy available from the collector, thermal energy loss increases. Hence, despite the higher yield, the efficiency of the active solar distillation decreases. A study was carried out with an active system of single-slopetype stills integrated with a flat-plate collector under the thermosyphon mode of operation. It was found that the maximum increase in the yield was up to 33% when the water in the still was preheated in the collector. The performance of a triple-basin still integrated with a solar collector [1517] was analyzed and found that the daily distillate was more than double compared with that of the still alone. Although it has been shown that the overall efficiency of a passive solar still is higher than that of an active one due to the

lower range of operating temperatures [18,19], the concept is still appealing in situations where the collectors are already available. Recent works [20,21] indicate that research is still active in the area, with more emphasis on multi-effect desalination connected to solar collectors. Another recent work [22] reports that a productivity of 25 L/m2.d was reached using such a system. There are, however, recent works [2325] that investigated similar systems that were integrated with storage tanks. It was found that coupling a solar still to a hot water tank generally doubles the distilled water output within a 24-h period [23]. A single-stage, basin-type solar still and a conventional flat-plate collector were connected together in order to study the effect of augmentation on the still under local conditions. The still inlet was connected to a locally made, fin-tube collector such that its outlet was fed to the still basin instead of the common storage tank. Measurements of various temperatures, solar intensities and distilled water productions were taken for several days at various operating conditions. Several modes of operation were studied: still connected to collector for a 24-h period; still connected only during sunlight hours from 8 am to 5 pm, and still operating alone for a 24-h period. These tests were performed using tap water and saline water as a feed. It was found that the mass of distilled water production using augmentation was increased by 231% in the case of tap water as a feed and by 52% in the case of salt water as a feed [14]. A number of solar distillation approaches have been recently reviewed [26], focusing on those involving humidification and dehumidification of air. Indeed, solar distillation projects have been demonstrated in several locations around the world [27]. Seawater input with 35,000 ppm of totally dissolved solids (TDS) was converted into potable water with a TDS of 12 ppm. Yields up to 9 L/m2 day are obtained at 35C ambient or approximately 1000 W/m2 of insolation [28]. Thus, this technology where solar energy is

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available in abundance can be adopted for converting saline or brackish water into pure distilled water. Numerous laboratory tests have indicated without exception that when water-containing bacteria has been fed into the still, the resulting evaporated/condensed water contained no bacteria. 2. Methodology The present study was carried out at Madurai Kamaraj University campus (954ON, 7806OE and 100 masl), which is situated 15 km from Madurai city, 450 km south of Chennai. The climate of values (average global solar radiation on a horizontal surface) of the order of 600 W/m2 throughout the year. Madurai is tropical with hot, dry summers and wet, mild winters. In summer months (from mid-February to mid-June) the average daily temperature is around 34C, while the average daily maximum day temperature is more than 38C. The insolation is strong with average daily values (average global solar radiation on a horizontal surface) of the order of 600 W/m2 throughout the year [29]. An additional condensation surface was provided on the sidewalls of the still to enhance the distillate yield and the efficiencies of still were studied for samples like tap water, seawater and dairy effluent. To identify the initial quality and characteristic of the samples, pH, EC chloride, total hardness, and total dissolved solids were analyzed. The results from this initial analysis were compared with that of the final distillate collected from the still to identify the quality of the condensate retrieved from the solar desalination process. 2.1. Preliminary experiment A preliminary experimental study was made to find out the rate of evaporation of the samples related to temperature, solar insolation and

Fig. 1. Preliminary experiment arrangement.

humidity in an open rectangular cement basin (0.5 m2) with black absorbing surface and monitoring devices as shown in Fig. 1. The data will be useful for the disposal of some liquid wastes. The samples selected for the present investigation were tap water, seawater and dairy effluent. The samples were poured into it and tested with and without surface temperature standardization. Experimentation was carried out for all the samples for five replication trials (two sets) each and averaged. Data regarding solar insolation, ambient temperature, temperatures of bottom surface, inner chamber, humidity etc., were recorded on an hourly basis from 10 am to 5 pm. The experiment was conducted during the months of JuneAugust 2003 when the ambient temperature ranges from 3336EC. This preliminary experiment was carried out to identify the rate of the evaporation of the working samples with respect to the environmental conditions. 2.2. Performance experiment In continuation of the preliminary experimentation, a basin type still (0.5 m2) was designed and fabricated (Fig. 2) with provision for water circulation (Fig. 3.) to have condensation effect on all the side walls. The inner wall of still was constructed with mild steel sheet of dimension 6767 cm2 and was coated with mat black paint

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Fig. 2. Performance experiment arrangement.

Fig. 4. Cooling tubes with condensate water drain channel arrangement.

Fig. 3. Water circulation for wall condensation.

25 cm2 in the front side and 8336 cm2 in the backside. Glass cover poses the major role in transmitting the solar radiation into the still and acts as a trap for the humid air inside the basin (should have high transmitivity ratio). In such a context, transmitivity ratio was identified for the glass cover (toughened). The glass cover was slanted at an angle of 15 positioned on the top in a northsouth direction (study area: 954ON, 7806OE and 100 masl), which was detachable for easy maintenance and cleaning. The insulation material provided was tightly packed glass wool of thickness 3 cm around the iron walls and 4 cm thickness below the bottom for heat loss reduction. The data was obtained for two cases. 1. Solar still working with condensation on the sidewalls. 2. Solar still working without condensation on the sidewalls. The data for each of these two cases were noted and compared for two different sample temperatures (25C and 65C). The experimentation was carried out for all the samples under seven replication trials, which was averaged per day and represented graphically. Finally the chemical characteristics of the distillate were

(absorptivity, 0.96; emissivity, 0.85) to absorb the maximum amount of sunlight for converting into heat radiation. An aluminium tube of length 72 cm and 0.5 cm diameter with three turns was welded on the walls of iron surface for cooling channel arrangement (Fig. 4). The outer structure of the still was cemented having dimensions 83

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analyzed and compared with the initial chemical characteristics of the samples further compared with that of rainwater, mineral water and EPA standards for potable drinking water. 3. Results and discussion The initial characteristics of the sample selected for the experimentation was analyzed and noted. From the preliminary experimentation, the rate of evaporation for different samples in two different conditions was noted and tabulated (Table 1). This study was made as a step to identify the initial quality of the sample and to compare with that of the distillate collected after
Table 1 Rate of evaporation for various samples Sml. no. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. Time (s) 6300 6300 7500 8400 9600 9900 11400 12300 9900 7400 11200 7400 Avg. ambient temp. (C) 36.5 36 34 33.7 35 34.5 34.0 33.0 35 34.9 35.01 35.32 Avg. water Avg. temp. solar ins. (C) (W/m2) 41.75 40.58 40.93 38.87 41.35 41.17 40.25 38.33 39.17 38.28 41.56 42.57 969.7 940.5 668.8 508.87 915.58 844.86 583.3 468.67 538.3 934.9 594.99 909

experimentation. In all the samples the rate of evaporation was found to be higher in without surface cooling experiment compared against with surface cooling experimentation. This was due to the initial heat transfer in the liquid sample poured for the experimentation from the preheated surface due to sun. From this study, it was observed that the rate of evaporation depends on the various environmental parameters such as relative humidity, solar insolation, temperature, wind speed etc. The rate of evaporation was recorded to be highest in without surface cooling experiments for all the samples against other. The average relative humidity recorded was 65-86% during the tenure of study.

Avg. wind speed (m/s) 1.8 1.8 1.4 1.2 2.1 2.4 1.2 1.1 1.8 2.4 1.2 1.1

Avg. relative Rate of Conditions humidity evap. (%) (%) 74 73 73 72 74 75 71 69 73 75 70 74 80.40 82.83 97.86 98.32 55.62 58.27 90.96 97.93 41.03 69.88 82.74 91.91 Tap water (with cooling) Tap water (with cooling) Tap water (without cooling) Tap water (without cooling) Seawater (with cooling) Sea water (with cooling) Seawater (without cooling) Seawater (without cooling) Dairy effluent (with cooling) Dairy effluent (with cooling) Dairy effluent (without cooling) Dairy effluent (without cooling)

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Table 2 Comparative analysis of samples Parameters Initial char. of the sample Tap water pH EC (mSi/cm) Chloride (mg/l) Total hardness (mg/l) TDS (mg/l) 6.9 0.822 32.66 268 428.2 Seawater Dairy effluent 8.2 0.076 12666.4 4480 39350 7.7 0.005 211.2 540 1144 Final char. of the sample Tap water 7.8 0.149 17.04 44 110.36 Seawater 6.9 0.271 42.06 53 153 Dairy effluent 7.7 0.263 8.52 52 172.2 Rain water Mineral water EPA std.

5.6 0.03 5.68 16 28.4

6.18 0.06 14.2 5 38.4

78.5 0.78 200 200 500

From the transmitivity test, it was found that the transmitivity ratio for the glass surface was found to be 8088%. In the performance experimentation, the considerable rise in the efficiency was noted for pre-heated sample (65C) compared to that of the other. The highest efficiency of 30.41% was reached in tap water for both sample temperature conditions (25C and 65C). The characteristics of the initial and final condensate were noted and tabulated and were further compared with that of the rainwater, mineral water and EPA standards for potable water (Table 2). The readings were noted and are represented graphically (Figs. 5 and 6). The efficiencies were found to be high with water circulation compared to that of without water circulation. The maximum daily production of the solar still was about 1.4 L/m2.d, and its efficiency was about 30% with corresponding average solar insolation of 28 MJ/day. The final characteristics of the condensate from the solar still for all the three samples showed higher reduction in their respective values against the initial conditions. The final condensate values were noticed to be under acceptable limits of EPA standards and further it was also compared with rain water and mineral water. A thermal model of a double condensing chamber solar still (DCS) has been presented. The thermal model is based on energy balance equations for the different components of

a double condensing chamber solar still (DCS), namely the water mass, the first and second condensing covers and the basin liner, including the reflecting mirror. Experiments were conducted for both the single-slope conventional solar still (CSS) and double-condensing chamber solar still (DCS) on an hourly basis for comparison of their performance. The results have been compared with the experimental observations. It was observed that there was a fair agreement between the theoretical and experimental observations [30]. The shallow water basin, 23 cover tilt angle, 0.1 m insulation thickness and asphalt coating of the solar still were found to be the optimum design parameters that produced an average annual solar still yield of 4.15 kg/m2 day. A cost analysis is performed to shed some light on the potential of utilizing an array of simple solar stills for the production of drinking water in remote areas [31]. The performance of a solar desalination plant (whether using thermal or photovoltaic collectors) was influenced by the ability of the glazing system to transmit solar radiation to the collector absorption surface. This ability was influenced by such factors as the intensity of solar radiation, the transmittance of the collector glazing, the tilt angle of the absorbing surface, the operating parameters of the plant, the properties of the materials of construction, etc. This plant

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Fig. 5. Efficiencies of samples without circulation of water.

Fig. 6. Efficiencies of samples with circulation of water.

has a collector field area of 1864 m2 of absorber surface and a multiple effect distillation unit for seawater desalination with a capacity of 120 m3/d of distilled water. The frequency of high-pressure water jet cleaning on the performance of the plant was also investigated. It was found that dust deposition and its effect on plant performance depend strongly on the season of the year and the frequency of jet cleaning should be adjusted accordingly [32]. It has also been observed that the daily yield of an inverted absorber double basin solar still increases with the increase of water depth in the lower basin for a given water mass in the upper basin. It has been observed that, for a particular flow rate, the evaporative heat transfer coefficient decreases as we increase the water depth in the basin [33]. In an attempt to decrease the preheating time of the basin water of basin type solar stills, a single-slope single basin solar still with baffle suspended absorber (SBSSBA) was designed and built using locally available materials. The effects of vent area and water depth of the upper and lower water columns on the daily productivity of the still were studied. Comparisons of the performance of the SBSSBA and the conventional unit, the single-slope single basin solar still (SBSS), have been carried out. It was found that the daily productivity of the SBSSBA is about 20% higher than that of the conventional still (SBSS) [34].

From the graphs, there is a clear picture that the circulation of water on side wall tubes facilitates better performance with enhanced efficiency. The condensation takes place not only on the glass surface but also on the four side walls and the condensate falls into the condensate collection channel draining to the vent. If samples has black colour by its nature, it would further facilitate the solar still performance efficiently. So, the incorporation of solar thermal energy devices with the solar still makes to perform better. The preheating of the sample increases the productivity of the condensate enhancing the efficiency of the still. Number of turns on the walls can be increased for higher condensation and better performance. The aluminium tubes can be replaced by copper tubes for better performance. Using black rubber or black gravel materials within a single-sloped solar still as a storage medium was examined to study experimentally the effect of different parameters such as rubber thickness and gravel size under the same operating conditions for four identical stills. The experimental results showed that black rubber (10 mm thick) improves the productivity by 20% at the conditions of 60 l/m2 brine volume and 15 glass cover angle. Also, using black gravel of 2030 mm size improves the productivity by 19% at the conditions of 20 l/m2 brine volume and 15 of glass cover angle [35]. There are problems such as growth of algae on the underside of the glass must be

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controlled, and the unit must be effectively sealed [36]. Solar desalination technology reduces the salts and pathogens in better rate when compared to the initial quality of the sample. Thus, it makes a great difference in peoples health and environmental sanitation. For a given solar energy input, the factor limiting the distillate yield of solar still is inefficient condensation. The condensation rate can be increased either by lowering the wall temperature or increasing the area of the surface for condensation. The retrieved distilled water, which is in purest form pose a clean taste, odor free, eliminating hazardous chemicals and bacteria. It can be used in laboratories, health centers, workshops, batteries, cooking etc. In addition, it improves the taste and color of food and preserves the natural flavor of beverages such as tea and coffee etc., and is extremely important for use in baby formulas and diet food.

Acknowledgements One of the authors, K. Vinoth Kumar, renders his thanks to Er. V. Narasimhan (GARP-MKU) for his fruitful technical discussions, and Miss. J. Subha, for her consistent support in carrying out this study. References
[1] National Research Council, Review of desalination and water purification roadmap, National Academy of Sciences, 2004, www.nap.edu/catalog/10912.html. [2] Media Analytics, Desalination markets 20052015: A global assessment & forecast, 2004, www. researchandmarkets.com [3] L. Gracia-Rodriguez, Desalination by wind power, Wind Engineering, 28 (2004) 453. [4] M. Boukar and A. Harim, Development and testing of vertical solar still, Desalination, 158 (2003) 179. [5] N. Nagai, Solar desalination in desert areas, J. Heat Transfer Soc. Japan, 43 (2004) 13. [6] L.G. Rodriguez and C.G. Camacho, Preliminary design and cost analysis of a solar distillation system, Desalination, 126 (1999) 109. [7] S.S. Nandwani, Economic analysis of domestic solar still, Solar Wind Technol., Costa Rica, (1990) 219. [8] A.S. Nafey, M. Abdelkader, A. Abdelmotalip and A.A. Mabrouk, Solar still productivity enhancement, Energy Conv. Mgmt., 42 (2001) 1401. [9] B.A. Akash, M.S. Mohsen and W. Nayfeh, Experimental study of the basin type solar still under local climate conditions, Energy Conv. Mgmt., 41 (2000) 883. [10] B.A/K. Abu-Hijleh and H.M. Rababah, Experimental study of a solar still with sponge cubes in basin, Energy Conv. Mgmt., 44 (2003) 1411. [11] B. Bouchekima, A solar desalination plant for domestic water needs in arid areas of South Algeria, Desalination, 153 (2002) 65. [12] S. Kalogirou, Survey of solar desalination systems and system selection, Energy, 22 (1997) 69. [13] J.F. Manwell and J.G. McGowan, Recent renewable energy driven desalination system research and development in North America, Desalination, 94 (1994) 229.

4. Conclusions The condensation occurs due to the temperature difference not only on the glass surface but also on the four sidewalls, which can be cooled by water circulation through tubes attached on the wall surface for efficiency enhancement. The maximum daily production of the solar still was about 1.4 L/m2.d, and its efficiency was about 30% with corresponding average solar insolation of 28 MJ/d. The condensate water quality was analysed and was found to be comparable with water quality standards and against rainwater and mineral water. Increased cooling on the wall surface was observed enhancing the condensation process. To comprise in a nutshell, conclusions can be drawn that the utilization of solar energy in purifying water offers a good recommendation not only on the environmental aspect but also on the sanitation.

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