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2:05

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, .~I:'· :. ,~ -..'". I'-,i]J-.'e.rfta:..LJlonail. IE' III' '"to,ro-~"CCUJlJI!l.Ca." I """1 ,...- t-·-,~,~":Fi, ~oc -, -,•. - ".,Jb,,""'F":~'"C",-:-' vomm~~!I.0'1,1J
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lnstitution, of'Electriea1 E'Dlin,een ImstitulJe ormectn,cal and :Ef,~tX;QlD:i~s ~gineli~u"~' E interm~dmJb! pre-5su:r~-( I·t;~a:li:v,e a d,dillid'~f~, see HP' iabove) I,nte:ma,~'i.oRa], Standards Orpmj~a'tlun input. and OiIL])~plllJl Kraftwerk Kenn z:eiche:n,s:,!'tc':m (plo,w'~'r'station designat ion,
system)
,~P.l;.P-~~-~

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'1,ft(";"oa.i ... 'l'Ji re~ ~~ ~~

nif'!;.;l.ti~\in!r" J1,'
~,~~~~~.~,.~,

LED'
load

lig'ht em~iuill\gdiode tile ·Dow' (J~' steam- in t.,rw/:s that. is) p.,reduced ,at an" Irti.v,cn dm,c: bv '1'1 the b ~,;:ll~lr' 'UD' Cli,n ("~n\Y'rffi,~~I';'m''-'' .,.. ~JJ~y iti:h-'"electrical 'load on rhe ,CL[\.1.-:lfU'
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f. ".

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.'

-- "' ~ - - ""-~ 1 _JiJl\¥

...J,,,,,,,C:,'"," '.' \' 'pres'sure {~ :re -'I"_11ii!tlV~: \,a,- -"~~~' 'U;I;J-Im,u.O:'U" see H~'0 .-1l...-~I"e)," ,.:"J,- 8uov' -=- :' tUJ1·.o ... eneru:OT or' aJ :._~,ternat1)r' bg - - ~- ~ -- ,-" - . ..,- - '~'"I Ik mmulitlu~eCl;r.-t::uU ~rea,er _.
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, .'. ,t:" .-', ,\,a~;soly.',.A}~ con b'o..nuous ra_:~n.gt~'~,"C ,nMi:"i 'n ~ .'~lI"'.'..... ."')-11 . iIi'iL.e . 'h'-"'·-'h·'--'~~ y,pca "~}\ _._ll'e m :rate' of stJea;m Dow tb.at a, boiler' fJianproduce .ro~ ,exl'eilded, pedrol .. a dev]),ce' (alsO' kn,(Jwn. as; a p1iliJve'm~r) that is used to ,crush ,,~,o\ll·I. into ~ "d'; er 1"~J!1I.01'e '~,~'13, 1i"":....JI"I'· jo'fL burn.,". -, ern nne 'pow,~- - b !l~, ~'~)ime
WJ'aXUIlllllll.
'," -," -' ., --...... j

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1

..." ,'." "~",,,~',1".,-, k··-·"C"·:- ·-·"·m, measnrec. d V3J.I!ue,\,al80."··:now 1:1.: '!!liI;i.'!'~lpro";il"o;il;!iDiI::1'''Ii'~''!Io'''''!'''''L,ll~'\ ~,t".~;;J;~ J
Aa "' 1·",","'''',,0;1.1;
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mean dme to repa;i,r

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e ,

1iJ,'~:mn,g·;and imJ:rumentlltion- diauf,am"" .". , .. " , ., - . ~,prill!tOO: cl,Kult 'boa,-rd plUl verised fue], (coal)
:f."'1.t'"", , :_, -" '-'"

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l

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t.:1
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L .;

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--~

:pt)w'er supply' UUfi1!t

FY'
DAM"""[~-·_.Il

!lDP'
'RF.I RQ,IM: RliC

~r
.J,.
~I

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.,,;;Ii

a d~ice (aim known 31, a 'm'W) t.hat is '05'00, lJl,cmd;llcoal into 'Hne, ~ powder before ],t is .red 'WI the bwrmen, pro ce ss vlu·,ialMe ,~,a:iso,kuo'tm as, 'J~m!Ms:u:red'v,alu'eili) :ra_ndoDl--ac~ess memory' :r-elus~'"'d~Tived ruel nldio",freqnemcl' interference fead~()nJ,y 'Ilu:=mrlr'f rm'l. ..dmt eloclk,

site acceptance, ~esit

~_'

SCA'DA,
!I"J!"I'1"~·V·:,,',.-'

8upe,rv,iSllrJ~, flJontllul, 8_nd,dam-a'quiBtio,ll system 'f"L,·-,;·)~-~,)-,: ··::--'h"', ' ,,!I!,eYIIl.lllst:ue,[' 'U'~·erwa-c_._unls . v~Jr\eiln (IG~:-:-' ,-, _' .. ~'~~"'l~ 'd, Suer: :_ .... " ., e rmau ,1leaJ.!IlIC, .... -,,' '_,P , I~ c

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p;;jj11t·;i"\'Ij"II)'".. .' &Iv.f.ll.ll

U'L

UPS

V:OU 'W~I~E

1l1:nivers:al, 3synch:r-onoU!s, :rooel'vlcrltra,fI!smittder. (an ele-etfomlc, de'"', viee 'that 'COIl!u·'o.ls,COmlll1U1J)llieati,on 'wi;(n, a :pulp:b,eFtd) uudefwritJers',' :Iabof,a~ories UlDinter,rupnbl,e powe-r supply v15utd displa',y' unit. (also te:r,med a,'~nlGDjmr!lO'r' '~cremJ 'WaJt&~tD"",eJl!e'llCY fa! type or'pl;al1!t 'where wsste l's 'bur.m~dlto 'PEOOUC-C ,el,eclricily' OF' beat .for a district or illld'1l1!8it[:i;a~, proott.ssJ

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.

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'W,hen water :is heated :iUI 't,em:p~a,'ture:rises :~D,a w,ay' that: can be det'octed '-fo,r examnle Y," 'llhermom ;A[I1'~r'~')':"" ,Ff" ,1Il:11~, '~ __ .~1'~1l· 1'"01It'I,.::I~ 'II,*,:!"f4l1'U' ~~ ,iIi'""~llI'I,,:,,,,41 b .~~I _',I I ll~, '_ 11i.1D., ,,~I-I' ~MlIJ,I~, Jmsi61, 'because "it!! effects 'Cllft 'be: sensed, 'but: ~t.s-ome: point the wllilI,ef' starts
1\ ., .~_ ~-~ _ ~.~I
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rll

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:But here we need 'to :~oo:k, even deeper into the subjec~ ~ :Exa,.ctly' w'ba1t. :2;1:' meant by' the expression ~boiUDg'J'~''T-o8,tud,y this wle mUlt, consider the ,thv-fe basic stetes of mlltt,er!: SQUds} liquids, and g,aseI" (A 'pIDalm;a"produced whren the a.toms in a ga's 'become, iOD~d:, is; o[ten r-eferred, tO as 'the faur-til state of
I

to

!L~":I Il.JU'J. '.'

'matter but '60-~:r most 'ifi'l,Frvt"i

. •. .,. •. ,.. I I,

it J~'~p'lrill~if">~i'~n-,-"t-,~,A,eensider lif!io;,·IIV the ..... r.~~-~~ ".I.I-Jb~\ fU!~~ ulH.J -11 ~ )'1 ~, 0 f' --- 'I 'I tnree b::iJDClta'tf!l\~' ,,11 Its so ti''''d state, 'm,attef' C01:lSJiSts; :-, :miU1f.Y m,_eCIi!bts tigh,tly boU:lld together' by' ,att-r,a~tiv'e rfU~cabetween ,tJbem,., 'WIU~-D the matter absorbs heat the ,e:ntt-gy levels -of its m,olecule:..s i[If;::rtr~C' 8,;'nd 'me' mean, d:istanve between the 'molecules incr-eases~ ,As, mOI~eaDd,more heal! 'i~, a,p'plied, these effects, inerease 'u'n'til the attr,mcD:w' ro:r-ce~ 'betw~en, the molecules 'is (~v~;ntllaliyovereome aud. the paI1icl"es become ca.pa'blle of :m.ovi'ng about iDdepcnde:D't~"y of le~c;b ot~h,er"'T.hIs cJulJlIe or state from, ooUd. ID :Hq,uid,:isco:mmout,y recognised as '~:mel.tlQgi'~ ,As, more heat D, ,rIIp: ~Fnili~d to the '1i(Jl'ttid,~ ,some' of the 'm,alec ules :I?!'~ti'n
,_I~ ,,_. ~. ~,.I __ ~. _

'p-C1I)1~e~' ~: ·'MllII!'

I.

III

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enou,gh, e:n,~rgy' to escarpe B,um the 8un~ce:~ 8,

r-~I _:_~l.~l ._ ULl.llI!ll"~ .rjf'U'.\~~~

(w.h'c(le·by a ])00:1. of liquid s,pill,ed OlD, :3. 'Wh-.,~-~~. is ,~;·.;:iI'piDPr!n·,·_;n·I'I'P'I' 1~~iIt -~ ~IM,IJ d£'iii~I'~'~. ,;i,'ib,,~ pr ~r::-'1~.",r·~'!I._.!~IY~,_, tCJ '....~'~'nl-' .. U,I~"1 ~,_~.uv~~ u'~ ~'1Jf~'iIil('iIll[."a'·
,!ll~ '"

ealled 'ev',aporra!tiug sulface' \vUI gradiU.liU, disappear),

p\[\ocetjS
_~l

usome
I~_[

''''hi temp "~II1.UI,"'" rises these esCill:peS occur more' r,a:pi.dl'y ,and, at a rertai:n poia,t the liquid, becomes very' ~11.ta:ted; 'wi:t~ t.. _,:_/~: ,q.uan,tilil~'of bubbles ri~bl,g to the
m ,,---~I~rU-'1I~~ .,"UJ.Ii .........._ I !I:~
l

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,~~

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at
Q

E~I~:'t"~I'v' 'Ilo![io~,*,!' 1~!I:~!Ii" ,iII,'Y'",

"'I~m-npr,-;oz:j;,'i!uu~~[C!! but IU"y,.

!L,Ih.J 111,t'"!I!,)~g~ .. !I.,'!!!...~~ ..

n,C' the vi '~

J_~

"'\JI'C' I~::']I .. 1 ~ ,_!~

~,~U:ll,

~r.--"!iIi'~II'I-rB' ~""".

surface I'~'~,~, ~~I''!!P, time i~:iI:..,«j];,'" the 1i"lq-'IIII~d-" 11i::I'~,~,d':ii'li'); ~ ..iI1'i!]i'r~r it "i]'~;'n: O""_'~' _ ::~I "'Ib· , at UJl!i:l u~ U_J:PJ4 _~IJI -.~ ._I-,li~~~,.. [ a 1--;t;· precess Of',c:baogi~' state to a va,po'Uf:~ w'bic:h is, ,3\, :8:ui~d,tn a ,gaseous state, , Let 'us' oonsider ·8 'q.DlrnlilY' o;f 'water' that is '(1)Dtahled in an IOPf~D,vessel, Here, the air tb.3!t bl~'Bkets the surface exerts a 'p:r-esB·'lU~'t o III the: surface: of' the '8~l'id, nd, as the temperature of' the wa't,f;'1 is rn,i$ed~,e:D,Dug'h ener~ is, a cygntuaUy gained, 'lm overcome the 'blan'keting efliect, of that pressure ,aDd the water starts '~Ochange its state inm 'that of a 'V8,puur (st.eM1lJ~Fll:rt.b,er 'heat add, at ,thil stage will not cause ,a;p:y ,further d,etec:ta'ble; change in te~mpera.t'u.re:',the eD,e~gy added ~s., USiOO. 'to ch.a~ge t:h~~tate ofthe amd" Its s 1~.~lt· 1iO"'n'Oi~iIl" ~~ ~ sensed bv ~ thermometer .. .__ 'b-'~'II'" i:~t; liO'! 1 I' there, .I,~'u ,.-ji ~nlr" 1Il;e,~.!I,I\.."",..:. ""3"'n'" ~ __ '.' Ii, .. !I!.'1~!!!;;;'''' IUC ~",!I:-_.""", . "J . :'"',! ~"'.Ii.IJIl. "', this reason it is called l'lttMt, rather then semi'bl.e;1 heat, The te'Ul.:pera'tUfe at, 'w'b"itJ t'hU; haeeens 'is, ,caUed, 'the I~boilin~ neint',~ [1At 'UO:IiB1IJl atmosp:h~ric: _11 , .. l.l 'r".itl:~-~I.l_.. .~ -~I 11I_r-~I~' .. .. I (.~ .~-~ ~-~ __ pteMU'VC the 'boJlin,g' 'poblt aF'"wattf' is lOO '~IC~ If the pressure ,of the all" blanket on t,ol;)1 of 'the wat,et were 'to be increased, more e~o,e~gy lo,u~dhave to 'be iu,t;f'Qd,ucuI, Ito the wBiter '~Ol na,ble w
I~

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c.'

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'M,

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it to break free, In, other W(lr-ds" the rempe:ratu:t.e: must be raised Furth,er 1,0 m al '-I;, ~I_'Tn ,:'ll-'~"lIi~'t"rgl'i.~ ~l:i;;~ =c ~t~'1 ;n~C'!;tl'l'r"'" I inereas ~"V 1- O,~, ? 7'0 u:.K,'L, III", .ilil~ t.g, -~, g _U!I!bo' UI U' aioove' its :nOltmal il'blf),QS'p"b,et,icvalue, the tempe __ ·rn't:u:re: of the wa'ter must be raised mJust ~bo~,e IO'C befblie bollin! ovcu:rs~ I The ste a,m lemleFgi,Dg' [rom the boiJmg :~iqujd,~S, said to be' saturated and, ' for any' given Pff\essu:re'~ temperamre at <w'bj,ch'ooiH'Dg oceuss '~S' ca,Uicd, the the ,~~dfB;aRma~P6';lJtu:"'.. ' The infO:mlllltm:n. relating 'to steam at an'y' combination oftemperature, -t- ;I!,tIi,IL'I~ h']'~cl-1i' "'-'!L4~'~'~,~: and other ann omer lu;,~;)w'n m,ay' L.... :1fQ'UD.n, :~n, steam '1I!U~U.,:~iiJ,_'w-·'~~:_:!IJ are oe t.- -P· DO'Wad,ays available' in :suft,wa:re as, weU ::18, in the: ,UU)IiC traditional :pil~pf:r form" These tables 'were' or,igi:naUy published in '19'1,5b~y Hugh Longboume
tl_.og;, ,;'~,

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lIQ6:, ~r='·'9:~-"~'O:;)". C-::'_I,~'l-'II"""u.:·,d~·-~I~g '.J ,~,., ~ .. "~ ~ B· ritish 1iIr.1Ii~,. _ Ur'i

,Pl-:':, \.
g, _,

p i1f'~?~I~~·~~'t-. Because . , ',"' .uyiS C~I'

ill'

,kno'w:J~,cd,g)e a,nd measurement te('JJn,ololgy~ and 'as.a, result ,of,ch~D,gi:ngu:nlt'S ,ot measurement, many d:ificRDt, variants of st;e'aDl tllbJe~iare toda~y in existence, bu t they enable one' to Iook up" {£l'ra:D,Y :pressur~" the satu:ra,ti!ontemperature, the beat per unit m,3$Sof fluid, the spe-emc vol ume 'etc.. Understanding steam and the steam 'tables is essential ~,n.maDlY elf' the' desi,gn of power-:plant ICO'O,'tro~ systems~ Fo:r example, if a d,esi:,gn,cT' needs 'to comoensate a" steam .."w measurement '.for chances in p.reflso:re. " or :fto-:::; ~a'i" ,e ' , e, -. - _. - -,t" .... .... . .. "". ',e ",' -. 'W' eorreet fo,r d:eosi,ty errors in a, water ... ],eve~measurement, reference to these tables, D, esseln,ti~" Another term lie],(t<ting to steam defines the' q u;an,tity of liquid mixed iu, 'i~~;,t:"h-,~ vanou _ r, In the U:·.',IK.'_'_ this Is..,: IC''''-fi'~II'~d-':th ;F;!;J'1"'i.m~'-'~: the ¥U,',I ....... ,'.' It. .. ~•• ' I.. .... ., _' 4:,:IL .. 'lU!"" u.ilL ~ .. "~:.J'.''"'I'l:SJ''u;~iCi:IJU'\I'\II ('"':n: li.iI!lC U 'SA'::·.~.··· I",", _

li"fIif, .,;,;....jIllv ..ore.......,~ '"" ~ .._

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'lk,

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term
-- -'~~

misture
--

tls.cd is ,sMl'#1J
~

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tai ns OJI'ill 'I~~Q'V..f ',' v"'1l!J'Oi'1iU' __._ nd ,try' ~:3 "_ Q.lIl-~'~ r
~I.,~,~
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,ill. . .

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Whal thb means is that :if each kitog,ram, of (he'

''l'lil ~,!I!,!t
. _'

011. 1 -;0 I~r:"l'!W a ~_, . 1.1l~, t~,~ . ," ,I. ~~_. '~
I!!
J

k"a
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water

,d."

'rl'1~~~~11 etion I .! l.lI.

~,!II,~~~ ~~g QJ
~"lllJU
J

is (1[9'1]
ISr~~ m:n I~b _[~\.r..M=_~ becomes
jIJ~lll\.r.~

,t,tfi\~~""'h;~JI!i\~ d!WP=~ill.t~~l~U.

sa'tura,tion. temperature oo:rr-espond~g' 'to its p'rasu're~ This, is: achieved b,y' (:oUecn,n:I'it fr-om the 'vessel in which the boUing is occu:rrring~ ~ead;~,ngit ,away'from 'the liquid through ;8, :plpe,~ then ad,ding: more heat to, it,~ and .. This proceBs ,adds £turth'e~ ene~gy' to. the Ouid,t 'w'hich ~m,provies,the efti__eie:Dcy of
the conversion of heat to eiett:ricity,., ,A~; talcd l€'~i:rli'~F heat ,~,1d.::I_)~.~ once the ~~,"'IiI,'iiI'I~iF" has started ~ tl.1,IILU ., w lilL:i ""'
- -. ---~ - - _ .....- ~ -~gI ~

W,b- :'C>I'D.fr-~, tem n ~ ~lla1~ture ,I-~ ,,[·;g,)"I""-.:Pl..l ~ __ ·:',.' '. pera r.U~ii!1i' ~~. _._., ~_._ ': .!I."-, ,:,~ ~~u' ab.V.lf~ 'tt he
,~I~ ~

_.IL:!

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I~ _".

~"!I.;,,!I,

.Yo,

.!\"i"~

'~~i"'ii;

Bort cause
, '-' '-","~I~_

'\", IU!.IIel.l'

,g:'H'V'

further ,.dlAii-"""iF,tf,gilb-;'I:e-, II..- ';"0;' temoerature ~h-:-g'n1l11!T11li!' Il;,'!!"u!'r-\II! MoIJ. 11!_~1,'L" U,'LIL\] ....~"' _ ,IJ:. ' ~~""'t:iI 11,_,.1
,UJi.
'1;",-.-,"

-II; "''''

Ii'

"'n'iil1!'fre~l,d," ch ~n:O'I~'~ it . ,!gIlt .. ~,I.,

,

"y

'It:":,,,,I~'~1 '~\~~I I~d,

u...... ~

U1

""._I=~'--'--1iO,l!i...qI'

the state o:r thee' 'Huld .. Once' the' steam has ~hrm,ed~1 ,be;at added to it contri .. b;utesi'to th.t~total heat of the vapour. This is 'the 9~nsi,bl~e' h.ea1t~,tm'the latent ,~bCilt ,IlttJ 'tb\C' beat utJtd ill ~:ncr1!as]:ngthe' tempera lure ofeach kilogram t'hc' '9~ui.d, throogh the number ,of degn::es of superheat to 'w,hLicll,it, bitSl been raised
,~

or

~,~~~~

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power ,planet, a major [()bJ~ctilve is the' cenversien elf en-e:tg-y' :lockBd. 'U:P'i,D the i~lput~ fuel into either usable heat or electricity, In the interests of e-oo;m;ulluics and the enviromnent it is, ~:mnnl·~..•'~-:f'taJlt, 'to obtain tbe .hiO':b,'fs,t lI~'~I'D ,8
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,As s,ta'ted, in th,€!; Preface, the boilers ,lind steam-g erators that are thi!t sub~~A""". n:f' t;h'~II(ii book pr-fi'lj;wi;d'IO steam to users I(!iUif';''Il..· as I"Dd'iI''II~'i'~O,11 t' I'~n,t' .'1 ~ I~~~ U IA_MJ:: '-l~ iiL:'bt-C&: 1~!IlJ 1~_gI'JIL~lg~,'p W. houslng ,and orher com:p]'e!res; I()f to drive 'Itarbi,tles tbalt are the pri,me movers r~r electrical D ,t~.hJ~ '~1I'!l"'ftn1il1~~, ~r'·'f[:I..I~~, '~:::-:-k~ ,SIII'fiI;,Ch. _,v _ .I~ ~~ rJy~l ., u~ IIl.}I-=--H-=--" - {~ - __ ~~- .. ~Qn.A~C- ~-Q.~:_~~: I~~'"'~~:,i~'\~~~~~; n ,processes ~~I~~ grouped toaeth ... '['1~~ un~'-'-d'- the Ig~~,_I~~!I!".::' name ~~itlilr'Ar 'p-'I'§"H"'·" ~ I~ rneesses ~.~.~'~' :>.. ~.: W.J..,!ttI"'~{ ~rl '9I,I-~ 1ii"h',jl!iI!t!';D ,g;'iIi'~p'I!~II'"".lIj.'li!',~ncIr.h: ' .~~ '!' ~_..ll'l'll,-e""'-:....!II ~':!i' QIP"-'P"'ivl'n,D" he W"\'"' ·w~"r.Ji"~r.~"11I'1t·~'I I~, ,~~~, ~V: l~l!1j!,~;~ __ Ul' 161: .. ~' IJ.' 1~!Ll' U, _
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entrgy loCked up ~:n,ome form ,offuel resource. In ,s,pi,te'of many attempts, s it has not proved :pas~dblle: 'to Ig)en,e'fate el,ie(:tt'clty in .1i1r-ge' ql1aD.'ti.t~es from the' direct oltulv,eftinO,of' the ~nerlY' OOIDtalo'oo, in a fmsil fuel, (or e"ven a nuclear fuel) 'wi.tbolut the use .of a m,edi,uDl, ~hat acts as an in.termoojary,.,

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i.t is :D.e~Ce&~a:l"yo employ t a mediium. that. is. read'Uy" av[uJable and w:tdch can. be UiSed. 'witb :re'bIJti;v'e salc1ty and ellci,mcy,~ On, :plaDt Earth,. water is, [at least :ln, general, ,a, pleotiful and cheap .mOOiuID,I()':f' lefrectin_g such tr,it~'lSre[S~ 'With ,the develop-, ment ,of t,ecl1nolo,gy' d'U'fing the: twen:tieth century other :pH,,ubUi,t],[e-.,, have be consid dered .. .i!;1!~~"".. iIil'D'Eo'h'c t'h' 'iii' 'U~;P ,Rf':: mtercu 'F\II"~ bbut except ,r~'r'- '!'Ji[p' ;"P' if?oit'!i.'n~ .'I:i~,q ,1:' ,.. ,!Il.~ S,Ut:]l, 's spacecraft wh~re leD,tire~J Dew sets of Umita.tiD,:ns and oond,ttl,o,ns a app~yj,mone of tll,ese has reached active usc" and, steam is llni~r:sa~i.y used , in :pow[er stations. The use of water and steam 'to provide motive power bas a bJ~§ bis[t[Q:ry' .. In the first ICIe:n,tu,ry ,A'D Hero of Al.ex_;a~ndria, showed that ;s~;ea,m, l,ea,yi'Dgvia, u.ozz1.[es, attached '00 a heated container 'fiU.ed 'wi.llI '[walter would,
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:steam, '~,eaylng' tbe' vessel 'was WC)$t,oo and fOf' continuous 'oper,i\'tion 'tbt prOCI~BS'tbefielOllC necessitated continually replacing the W,3Jter~ 'With the nature ofHeri)~s[ design" it 'was :D,Ort a saimp:~e ~aik, :fefiU the yes_seW,while ,it m ' 'was I,n, operation, but. even '0 3" method 'bad, been found., uiiug' w~ter in a one ... ,w,a;y p:roc,ess,like' this necessitates the' :proVilio,n,of endless supplies of that fl;uid,O]It 'was[ not untii, l a~2:4 that at Freneh e:ngi:m,e.er J [Sadi. Camot -='to{' '-"'00 ..' wa·'·;' !L'O,rero!IJv'e 't'nns ·~·'~·c-:-b,·~!::.:' ·h-'' p pGS_io_, a.~.[_Jy '~"" ,- ..::-['~~,~-::~,' ',C'.' pro uem, H;c_:· use a.:-.~ ...-J'-, w.nere th tetrans ,e ~'d~',C' '9't!l'i6, ,·····h·,··-: " 'tr~'~i~fer
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b:~m·.,!:iIild:.'~, 'ret''_'~:r'-:-:~I~I;t-'I1:p. ~iUl~, belt'lt: <:.ouldbe' converted into '.rorl and then extracted and re-used 10 rnake ,fj eJmed J.oo.P;; In. 11:11 concept (Figure :~ ;"1 a 'pistoo moves rree~y' widl.OU:t .l eneu'U,nreri.mg ,any [ricb,[on inside ,3,; ,eyH:nd,er made of some perfectly insu,ia.;liuu' material Th '-I~ piston ,;tl' d ,n--l~:~,~~rt '~ ~'~W"~I;"f~iili";11"~;i:-n'Q' ,U The ~'lJIlJj 'd;'!~'1'" bv ,O'irilll'~'~!~ :t"'.v~!~DI'[ 'TI:'3;'~~ v..1J11l.1l ( Ji;I!~ a head [at. out: end thit,it [can 'be 'swil,ciiled at 'wiU from being a perfect conduetor to being [H, perfect insulator, Outside the cyUnder are two bodies[) one ofw'hieh, 'can. ivre.T' heat with ou't U~SIown. temperature I( T],) ("Ding" the other' being a botrom~~ cold :si,nk at a temperature -(T2) w:h~j{;hs, 8J:30 i
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where sueh th-in~, are_. not obtainable, it would haw: 'p"robQb]:~ remained a -_ - __ ._.. . ·_,U-,!IiI!.· .... " "'6'C .. ,'I .. ~~ ~ it.. stl,entll:-.. COIOIC-e:pt 'Wlt.l no pracncal'~: appneanon, ,I]];a,:d not 3, c"" ~ h 'I ocottll_:-_ 'r~{~~-~I'---:-" ~Inm'ilr'l;e~r-j ')"'-':W>'_'·'-".: ~l~ill""" 'IR> an 'k. ;;'n~. po: ·.ro--'m'H~,...i mrod ;"t:'if"_"liI,iI';iOI;n to it ~f n '91 ~. ,ir~~!II..'ilJ P at the begiRDing' lof'th,e 'twentieth. century [~J The cOO,oe;p'lq; that, Rankine d,'cv1!Woped rOnit the 'buB of a'lI thermal po,wer pblrnt5: in llJ9C today .. BVlefl -"... . ,~II 'I '~c.: .... h 'h tuua'YSI om bined e ,.·IIleu",cyc~ power 'p'-( use' I',;U~,eYC,le' '~or O'De w '(,:~e'two p.. e ants nases a r'tie: I:r ~~--,'-> h ~r·~-'Ir-!O;,t'-"I~~' 'S"::"ofon,.,;',- ...:} F<;,l;gu.r~, I q 1._:li,US1!raJICS th,-.p,nn£l,p"1-'" ·----r ,t~·.' Rat '1.,:::, ", .... """J'-" 'e~,,,~~r~ulg 8b eo, ne' ~~Ul_ItUD,eeye A:'\ agamn, l",,." -"',.' ,··',-·d the ;lr'i.-.I~POlO" ,';:' --'-_-.-~ 'tI,le... -.-. ,MJUrOe "'f' 'h"'-~~I'- :~-" ,ap'p,![u!,:, [0 ,e:xpa'[l'~ I~k-,e ,[p,eu,~lllm",'_ 0" ,_,' eat, ~S'~:" ·:·-'~--"·d·1 U!J,s, ti::_,''' a" a CODl"aD.,~, at -I" ,p,ressu,re", ,,"0 plUl,~, B-·:'~ ,n.. -, W,_,J,eu ae tananc eX,paDSI,OIl -- :a!l.\ll,\cr ,'-'Ih~'< .~. ',d~ ,",.;c.l,-;--~ : ,~s,ftlaj,g made to 'occur' unti~,the medium, reaches the 'col:llditioni, at 'PQlh!l:~ it. - -, -:h-- - vnmme 0, t;U,e me'd•.~um [:5 rec ueec":'-- at ,il COlliSt~Jtn,~ ··f\· '-"' -, "., -__dO, .-- -C'd - ,-, -"- .'. ---.--, '.~ C- ., = ~ _~ t e ,", ......i a ~ rm,m ~~ nere, ~'p-.~:fel:"l1l;u_l'r'~.~lJ~''''~i] reaches 'nninT '1 '__"~ 'w' -' ,~Qn,--: _ is ~:O;'?,-1IiP( I~'if' ~U'~IlI\;_,;i~ D7,- ,11.1-~[._ I";t. ,~ ~. __ b ~i'ln~~J ';rl:~'!li:~i __ '
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AU Df lihis :rna:y seem of only theorerical in.te:rel~" but: it takes OD a :p:ractical ibrlD. i.n a thermal pO-Wf!:f'plant, 'where 'Wi)'~eJ:" ~Sl compressed 'by .pum.p5~ then heated until it, bo,ils '10 proo·uce· st"ea.m ·whiih, then expands (through a, turbine or- in .sO(fne P:fU{jtiS,_) uo·dl. it r'cverts 'to wa·ter .. 'This , o'pe'rati,o,n is. :sihow~nin Figur-e 1.,.:4 ·yibich this. berne :sihows temperature pioott,,,d against: a qu.~n'ri.'tycalled. e:ntropy' for·the proc,ess,cs w.~.'thi.D. 'boRer the and turbine o:f a. power plant, (Ch~p1r.er 2 d·escribes, in detail the fUilct~.OifD, or the various items, of pblnt:~) Entropy' .is, a. measure 'of t'be: ptll'ti'OiD of' tb}e
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heat 'trarlSJfer for a reversible proc1!Ss~ In the ~ly5it,em.::shOW.fi in Figure: :~.~:4.~, WMer is. heated in feed beaters (A. btl, B) u;s:in,gsteam extracted from the turbine, 'W:i,tbin the b(J;I~,e~r' ~·mel:r~, :be8!tit1 used to further p'f,ewarm the: water (in. the eeonomiser) 'before it lemt-en th.e' evapo:ra,tive ,stagles (CI) where it boil'S.. At :D superheat iSI added 'U:nti~. tile: co:nditio:ns at :E,are reached ,a't. the lUI'bine i(de·t~.The' steam expands ill. the turbhle ·to, the conditions aliI polo.1t F" .after w·hI.c·h it is condensed, ,aDd. returned tOI the feed :hi!~tlt~tt'i' energy' in the steam ~.e~~vin:g 'baUer is The the converted to mechanical e,D,e_r,gy' the 'tmbint" wh'icb th.en Sj;pkm, ehe :in generator to produce electrici.ty ..

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The diagram mDYiS, 'tha,t t'he ,energy delivered to 'the turbine :ls .m,axim.ised..~fpoint E is at the ,hi.g'hes,t ..ptJSS,i.blc· 'value and ,F is at the lowes:t

:poai:blf~Val~IJJe', a.od now w'e begin to' see I·h.e:impnf,trance 'of' unden,lit'oding' these c-yeJ.es:if plant operation is to be understood and optimised, It. explablS' 'w'by' 'the temperatuee of the steam :Ieaving 'me boiler i~ superheated and why tbe 'turbfi:ne: condenser operates at v~-,ry ~ow :pr-esSiu:res" ·whiChcorrespond ·with. :~owtemperatures.
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The ,effiLiency of a. :po·wer pilant :oos he measure ,of its efIecti,veness, :in,eont '" I ue "'.. ~_ 'vertl'llg fuel mto eIIectnea I enelf'gY or :pf."t)C.eSJj .L........._ T'L'~ C. heat, -I , ms l:aJ,ctOE - b~lle:cost sets. 'iIk' heat aenerated, and .. . , ... " "".1 ,- - ... _. '-'--'" . -- '-"-'" '-' Per 'ltml, of electricitv or ',,' .. _' >0 ..... '-'-_'- .. ,.-~-"-.' ill.....a 'network of interoon~, neeted 'power' Slt~'Uons, is this cost that determines the :e,ve'nue that will 'be :it """,.AI 'I.... - AJ-·"h:L. ,......'jl earUIOO,b~,t ::e p,m.m,t~,',"~I:t,~,OUI~;I'severalI steps may' 'L~ ·ttl_~n to reduce 'I ii-," -h [ ,m:. - ·1_...., .1i,OS:S:es~ lome 'heat, 'is 'ine'v1;talbly' lost in the flue gases and i:o the roo6:ng w,ater that leav fS, the wlld,elller" and a. realistic linli t rO'F' the effiei,ency' of sueh a :plan·t :~SjUB!t rV er 40%, ~.Althou.gh. it: h-ft.1J; o :~on.g been, understood that, for' ever,' 'unit of :mOb,ey' :P;l!lt, into the .o'pera1t-i,on, of tile plant, over half 16,1.1 bel~g; ·~os.t.~, 'Viery'
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heated, 'I'fA; ;I.,\,s,:ifii;'it'v.' if'La d<I,t"i~;!'D":PlI1 Rr:~',tl'hL,;tII;'p~"'I'~n":,t ,~;iIj.;..A'I'!Ii'~I'd'i be if1'''.iiIilr'~'j!Ii'~~''''"..J 0" arran ,~;'nlD" for IJ~ :~D,~"1 l~ll:l,v[ull, _ .' . 1,u.L_"~I[~~! _ . .. [lur the Bil,tu;ral,c~h,uacteri:ltiJc to a,'tt~arin, correct' steam temperature when, Ilbe
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the 'ra)t;e:of :Slteam

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is that ait 'whi,eh t'he b,oi~erwn~,nOFDI.all~~' operate, If

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being brought 'u.p to lOa1d

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"r,fltCtice 'thi~,o,'~j:ect[',yecan be attained only 'to a limited, extent, becau_K' the 'boll"eF'~:~ natural characteristic cha -:1 wi.,th, time due' '~O fttcm,m such ,1£,
fouling of 'the metal surfaces, which, ,mdiecb 'the heat 'tram(er,~In neral, it, i:s co~nm.'O:D, WI ,o'pe~-a:t,ew,~th,CQD,thl.OOUS, 'sp;r,a'yiD,g~whi has :d:U3: ad,vanl:l;gc of ,al~,rQ:wiflg''the' 'steam temperature '~D be ,adjusted 'borth. upw,uds and downwards If th rj;i;q' "U~;1"~;1 temperatu W'~\P""~ ,r.n '4.~, .. _: ' !Ii!"O'II,~'I'y,.i 'b""'¥"" ' ' .. ~",. ;I),iaJ ~ 'u~" '" llJ vlU IU'G 1m"II~' ·I!~, ' '. '. em:pl,oy:i,ng the natural ,cl)al'f,8!ctensbiC as described, it '\~dd, IlO'! 'be :possi,ble
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to pr~od:uce'tem'pera;mre ~.flCre'ases. .
Before loo,:k:~n,g the 'i~:'. ~, of steam-temperature at cOln:trol :sy~;,emsthat are S!p:pji.ed'~1it 'wlll be useful, to exa:ud ne !~ome~of the 'mema"msms w'hi"ch, af<e emp:'oyed, to regulate 'J:1!t temperature aoo[n~din_g 'to the ,00nteo II _:~Sl lDo'm, and '5'1, DepeJDJding 'o,n,'w'ht!tlle'r' or. DOt Ihe: teft1,peratD;[ie of'the' steam :a, m
u

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i~"~i!'I~:r;·~.·d.·,':~1 'b~':.;iIiIi:1~7I!:I'J'rt.';i:!i, :~'~I;t"U',I'Il'I'"'!'lI"O~E"!ID'~ llv~-=y.·~_ ~. __ ~n. _.lblV"¥T 1~:I~l~ ~.Ib __ ,,-u .",~u~\_ I 1 'f:iI6~'Hlty' r"~.awtIJ.:!II1J
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s,tn~above the' sa,1tur,l!'t~(),llpmnt is an, attltm:,per,a'tor'~1 \vhile lODe' '~h,at,lowers :i:t bel,ow 'the sa,tu,r,lltl,on point may be '~efer,red,to 'e:~,th,eras, an, a;tttmperatD,r 'or
- PP' ·11,; so b",; n,'~ ar ,,1\lil,~U If!!O' mewhat',~ • i:n...JI~~.t"r~'n'IIIl~ ,ii' ··I.U,[i,j~ ·,HJj:U:ti.,!:.,a.i'~
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..' '''~'li'''m~' aernearers, (·,S·:·:'ili"'I"]'j',;r;..... 'lv, Iii:!:p'~;iDo..,.,11.'~'nD" the pJI"'ii'll""re··"' '..:~lw"~~·U·I· ~::·.'~;MI,lI~~C)" : ~' '~I~'.~~,_·- to I.iJ, I~v use' fOlf' a ,device w'h'iel1). reduces the sitea.m, t~:rnp~lltUI'C' to a 'point, 'wm,cb its,
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k~'It'Ii'~I;~~'n w_~

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betw'eeD, only' 15 . and, ],100' of 'the boUer)s maxbn,tml, ,c~'ndD,UIl)'US rating' (I ·:_,:iR).!, T,biJ ,~imi-ta,:dion~s'also the :reaitd:t of the $pfaY' ..,'w,ab~f'fllO"" b~lng .1, lla:rg-,---prr ~~ 'p-~~Ip-:#[i,r-~hnn,-:..!, he steam ,ilW... at ll~w,"'-'" 1-oad:'is ,"'f~:t- .", ,d,~,W' v'
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Van,01l5 forms of sJpray' attLCmpCr-l,to'l" are lemp~,Q,ed,!,Fi,gu~e 7'1'1.'shorw~,a t:!;llilm'-'n1e,--' d ~~;:J... where t,1..1iA ,..1 LI<~f~1...,p····r-,ACl!;i:1!·'u'r,~' ... ooling 'W"" h-·'~,B''i!..., m~''''~ :~'n';[iiI""~Jll'l"v· ~~,_ 'Jr-Ir,- ..-[~~',,"I '," ~~'~,1!1!,,", B·tomised in-to small [dro'p,I,ets at ,8, nozzle, thereby maximising tile area of
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avoid 'stre5~-i:l1d'ucing' :~mpi;D(gemfen.t of cold, d,ftlpJets Ion hot pipework, the I~enctb of :1~ra'~lb,t pipe 'i'D, 'w'hi,'Ch, this, type' ,of .'ttempera,tor :need)s, to 'be iusitalll,ed ,61 qnite :~,o.mg;" 't.ypi,caU,y 10 :m, or mo,re~ W,i,th, -,f,ay ,at f,31't,o'r1." tbe :fto'\'V of cooUn,g wattr is :rela"ted to t:be tflow' ra,te and, the ~em:pe~a'tur,e oftbe steam, 8D,d th~'sleads to 3, fUf1t:her lim ...
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:fixcd,·'DO"Z"Zle at,teIll,:pera.tor,~ S'Jlcce~lftd 'breaJir;.,..up' of ,the wale:r'

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exceeds: 'tll~eSiteam p..ressufe~at the' D,ozzle 'by' ,it c,f:rtain amOiUllrt (typi,call'y' ,4, 'bar l~ BeoCa.;UIC the :D: e' prieseD:~S ,3 fixedt..are'2 ,o'n:ficf '00 th,f' IPI'8(y' Yfr.,ater~ 'tI:l)'e press:ure/How ,c'hamcteristi-c hm; a, :squa-re~la'w' I!b~:pe'~ ,resulttiog in ,2 festrictm :range of' flOWrS o'~lerw:llicb it can be used (thisl :is ~e:rerred to ,as: :_:ited ,[lIrn""doWD, ,or rangeabili.tY)lI' T'be tu:r,n""doV\;n of the' 'm,emanic'aUy
,1I'tomised, type of a"tt'emperatof' i:sIrFou:nd 1.,.,5 : :~~ 'The '['£ID!Jref,B'iture ,of tlx s:t,eam, is a.qjulted, b), m,oo'oia'ting a. ;separat,e~ SP1'8y...Wtlter' eO'Dtroll va'l,v,t to adm'it mOJ1ie 'or less coola:o,t; into the s;team,;, '

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Copy rig hted m ateri al

',I The accuracv of control and tbe turndown ranee available fi-O'En a. multi,~'DO\lZ~' attemnerator is coasiderablv I' 'U':reatler than that of a, sinzler~ b ... _, . '. . ... . .. nozzle veEsi,OIl, all,ow,lf.l!R' the steam temperature to be controlled to
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" eva;poratloll", Due bl rhe 'Ve~nt1llri, principle, the pressure ,of' the cooled stealD is, ,quickly restored dO,wDstream ;of the vena coo'tra,cta, point, reBulti,DI' in a 'yety 1.0\'\1' ovcl:aU loss, of:p:rrfSsuc:!, An advantage of the' 'VA'D' is dla,t,~ due to the coolant iqiectio'IJ occurring at a point, ,"v,beR:the iiteam 'pressnf,e is, ,~,ow,er~", ~p'fessu;r.e of' the the Sl:~ai.yw,a'ter dices, :D,O't have to be i~gnificjlDlly' :highu than rhat of the
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i

,A,t least, two other d.esig;tu;; of li,:ttem:per,ll't-O'f' win be ellcouD rered in :power~, ,s'ta,tion a,p,pUcati,'!llns,~ The vapou:r:..a;lOuU:sio!I' d.esigm, mixes steam with the'
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eer th U,i::j r.~'I"n"1Ji' i brea 'I,:th-·r::np-· '1I!,g*" 0 u_.~:.__, I,~I~~ and s,h,rouding the ,llto;mised droplets in a sheath, ofs,teatm, to p'Iiovide r,apid
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Variable-orifice attemperators inehide a :rteel'y' HOQ,tin,g plug whim :ls positioned above a ,fi_xcd~eat~'a dlcsiS'11, tha:t SCJlelf,a:t'C'i :high, turbulenee and lBor-e ,tffic~en:t:a1:t~m,peratilQn~, Tbe: ICOO:I:3;tlt 've]!oci'ry mereases :simu~:ta,, .. :o,eoiudy w,i:th 'the pressure drop, ,~:n:s,ta,n.'dy' v,~por,illjD;lthe liq,uid .. Because ,of , the movement of the ,p]ug:, the' pre-SJU11~: drop' across the no;;zlle' remains constant (at about O~,2 ba'r]~The ,d,esig:n, 'Oir this 'type of attemperator is SOl efficient hat com ";.iI!I!.,,,"'!.P m plete __ -'~~~n- OI_U,'II;;,. coolant_ and the ~l"'f",€,' the ~,il~~, ~!~'P"ill";~rvl'~d'. I:"~ C:·.I,!ldIL~,", glJ, ~y ,:___ ~_ ___ '__ ~ , w.i.t,hi:n,3 'to 4 m of the OOO[il'D'[ entry poin,l; and th,e te~m'pe~r,ature e,a:n be eon 1 'ifTro,'i'II~_)l: ,+11 '2~"--~' <:-:'" theoreticallv:-.lI~~~ll i(ri.,"if~'f-'I~l tur rtl" ..:_i1d··.~ 'r'-,'lIiin,a~'of1'oo. iilC' ~ ,'_:~lJlJeU ~y-_ ii1'1 ~,'j.iiIi'lf1'liI '... .a.II.jr:;.¥ ..:. '7 ~-,,,,J&[.I Because the :fiJO,~'tiD;g' plug' moves a,:glwns,t ,g-f,a:vi,t'~ this '~:y,p_(~of attem .. , peratcr 'must be i.lutaU,ed In, a, verdcal sectjo;o Df pipe \'Yith the steam
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the :Ilow'lor COOli.D--I 'W,I:ler 'to 'the' 9 pra'y' attemperator ,so.as! to keep the tem .., perature ,constarnt at laU. 60w eonditJons,., 'UnrortuD;a~tlely~because 10.[' the lon;g' time 'OOIDst;a:n:ts associated 'wil'dl the' superheater th'~I,for,m. lef control \VOrUld produce escessive d,leviatioll~ i;n temperature, a:nd. ,1\ more loo:m',plex:
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