Electronics

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ELECTRONICS
Keeping Up With Design & Technology
INTRODUCTION
Since Thomas Edison invented the filament lamp in 1879, electronic products have been designed for almost every aspect of life imaginable. By investigating and using a few basic components, it is possible to design circuits for making alarms, timing devices and a whole range of other interesting and exciting products.
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ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS
Electronic circuits are sometimes referred to as electronic systems. A system has
- input: for gathering information - process: for deciding what to do with the information - output: for switching on and off a device
INPUT
PROCESS
OUTPUT
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TOOLS FOR ELECTRONICS

A soldering iron is used with electrical solder to join components together. The tip of the iron heats up to 300C, which provides enough heat to melt the solder at the joint. Therefore the iron should always be stored in a holder.
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Electrical solder consists of 40% lead and 60% tin. It melts at about 180C. It also contains a flux which is essential for preventing the build-up of an oxide at the joint.
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The soldering techniques are as follows:
ensure that the surfaces to be joined are clean and free from grease - allow a minute or two for the iron to heat up before use - use the soldering aid to clamp the components firmly together - the tip of the iron is positioned so that the surfaces to be joined are heated together - after a second or two, feed the solder into the joint - when soldering certain components, long nose pliers should be used as a heat sink to prevent excessive heat from damaging the component
soldering aid
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Common errors when soldering are:
not enough heat dirty or oxidised surfaces applying solder to the tip of the iron instead of the joint
good joint with bevelled surface
poor joint
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Long nose combination pliers are useful for a range of electronics applications such as bending, twisting and cutting wires. They also function as a heat sink during soldering of delicate components.
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Wire cutters (side cutters) are useful for removing waste material from the underside of a circuit board, providing a flush surface.
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Wire strippers remove the plastics insulation from wires.
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Screwdrivers are commonly used in electronics for connecting wires to components such as terminal blocks and bulb holders via a clamping screw. Types of blade: straight and cross.
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De-solder guns (solder sucker) is used to remove solder from a joint, especially when faulty components need to be removed from a circuit board. The joint is heated with a soldering iron and the molten solder is sucked up into the cylindrical body of the tool.
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Multimeters are used for fault finding and testing in electronics. Readings between leads of different points can be found for the voltage, current and resistance. Analogue meters use a moving pointer which passes over a printed scale. Digital meters display the value directly using a liquid crystal display (LCD).
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analogue multimeter digital multimeter

Prototyping board (breadboard) allows temporary circuits to be investigated and tested.
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Two types of wires: solid core and stranded. Solid core wire retains the shape into which it is bent. Stranded wire is used where flexibility is required. Both types are available in a range of diameters and colours, and are identified by a coding which states the number of strands and strand diameter.
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Self-adhesive copper tape is ideal for electronics project work and is available in different widths. Circuits are laid out on card or thick paper and components are soldered directly to the tape. It can also be used in the design and manufacture of a range of switches and sensors.
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POWER SUPPLIES
All electronic products require a power supply. Dry cell batteries allow products to be portable and compact. A battery has positive and negative terminals.
AAA
AA
PP3
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ELECTRIC CURRENT
If a wire is connected between the two terminals of a battery, there is a movement within the wire. This movement is called electron. The movement from the negative terminal to positive terminal is called an electric current. Scientists originally believed the direction of this movement to be from the positive terminal through the wire towards the negative terminal. This movement is called the conventional current. For consistency, this direction is still considered.
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ELECTRIC CURRENT
Electrical current is measured in amperes (A). Small currents are measured in milliamperes (mA).
1A = 1,000 mA
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ELECTRIC CURRENT
Steps to measure current using a multimeter.
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VOLTAGE SUPPLY
To produce a current through a wire, the battery must provide a potential difference between the terminals. Potential difference is measured in volts (V). Filament bulbs are available for different voltages, so care must be taken to ensure that the supply voltage is sufficient. Too high a voltage will cause the bulb to burn out quickly. Too low a voltage will produce a dim glow.
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VOLTAGE SUPPLY
Steps to measure voltage using a multimeter.
+6V
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ELECTRIC POWER
When an electric current passes through a device such as a light bulb or a motor, electrical energy is changed into other forms of energy such as heat, light and kinetic energy. The rate at which energy changes is called the power of the device and is measured in Watts (W). The power (P) of a device is determined by the current (I) flowing through it when there is a potential difference (V) across it.
Power = Current x Potential difference

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CIRCUITS AND CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS

Current that always flows in the same direction round a circuit is called a direct current (D.C.). Batteries provide a source of direct current. Current that constantly reverses direction is called an alternating current (A.C.). Mains electricity provides a source of alternating current.
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When a bulb is connected to a battery, current flows in a continuous loop called a circuit.
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In a series circuit, if the combined rating of the bulbs is higher than the supply voltage, the bulbs will glow less brightly. If the combined rating of the bulbs is less than the supply voltage, the bulbs will burn out quickly. In a series circuit, if one of the bulbs burns out, the other bulb(s) will stop glowing.
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When two or more components are connected side by side, they are in series. There is only one possible path for the current to take in a series circuit and the current will be the same through the circuit.
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When two or more components are connected across each other, they are in parallel. The current has a choice of paths to take. The current in a parallel circuit can be different from point to point.
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In a parallel circuit, each bulb receives the full supply voltage. The more bulbs that are added, the more current the battery has to supply. If one of the bulbs in a parallel circuit burns out, the other bulb(s) will continue glowing.
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Some circuits use components connected in series and parallel at the same time.
A C
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CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS

Metals are good conductors because current flows through them easily. Wood and most plastics do not allow current to flow and are electrical insulators. Some materials, such as silicon and germanium, are called semi-conductors because current flows through them, but not as freely as through metals.
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SWITCHES
All switches perform the same function of making and breaking a circuit. When the switch is open, the contacts are not connected and the current is prevented from flowing. When the switch is closed, the open switch contacts are joined together and the current is able to flow.
closed switch
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SWITCHES
When the switch is open, the bulb is not lit. As the switch is closed, the circuit is completed and the bulb lights up.
INPUT
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switch
OUTPUT
filament bulb
SWITCHES
When switches are connected in line, they are connected in series. Switches connected in series must all be closed before the current will flow. A microwave cooker has a microswitch and a main on/off switch to turn the power off as soon as the door of the cooker is opened.
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SWITCHES
When switches are connected across each other, they are connected in parallel. Closing any single switch will allow the current to flow. Buses have switches connected in parallel for passengers to press to stop the bus.
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SWITCHES
A switch with two connections is called a single-pole, single-throw (SPST) switch. A switch with three connections is called a single-pole, double-throw (SPDT) switch.
SPDT
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SWITCHES
A double-pole, double-throw (DPDT) switch has six contacts. DPDT can operate two independent circuits at the same time.
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DPDT
SWITCHES
Types of switch:
Slide switch Rocker switch
Rotary switch
Push switch
Microswitch Reed switch
Tilt switch Membrane panel switch Key switch
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OUTPUT COMPONENTS
The filament bulb lights up when current passes through. The current causes the filament to become so hot that it glows.
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OUTPUT COMPONENTS
Buzzers make a noise when connected to a battery and are often used as warning devices. The wires are sometimes coloured coded: red to connect to the positive terminal and black to connect to the negative terminal.
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OUTPUT COMPONENTS
Motors are used for turning wheels, pulleys, gears or cams. D.C. brush motors having contacts for the battery connection are the most common type. The direction of the spindle rotation can be reversed by swapping the connections at the contacts. The larger the motor, the more current it requires.
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OUTPUT COMPONENTS
A stepper motor has a permanent magnet rotor that turns inside fixed coils of wire. The coils are switched on and off in a special sequence to turn the rotor. They are precise because the rotors can be made to turn through an exact number of steps.
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OUTPUT COMPONENTS
A solenoid also produces a linear movement. It consists of a coil of wire with a plunger in the centre. When the current flows through the coil, it creates a magnetic field, causing the plunger to move through the coil.
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OUTPUT COMPONENTS
A relay is a switch which is operated by a small solenoid. The relay allows a low voltage circuit called the primary circuit to control a high voltage circuit called the secondary circuit. It also allows high current devices to be switched on and off by a circuit which uses a much smaller current.
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NC
NO
OUTPUT COMPONENTS
A light-emitting diode (LED) glows when a current flows through it. LEDs are cheap and come in a variety of colours. The leg next to the flat side of the LED is to be connected to the negative terminal of the battery.
anode (+) cathode (-) cathode flat side indicates cathode
anode
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OUTPUT COMPONENTS
Diodes allow an electric current to flow through in one direction only. They are used in circuits for controlling the flow of the current. A standard semiconductor diode does not light up when current flows through it.
anode (+)
cathode (-)
anode
cathode
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RESISTORS
Resistors reduce the amount of current flowing in a circuit and are used for protecting components from being damaged by too much current. They are made in a range of values, with higher values providing a greater resistance. Resistors can be connected either way round in a circuit.
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RESISTORS
Resistance is measured in ohms (). Larger values of resistance are expressed in kilohms (k) or megaohms (M).
1k = 1,000 1M = 1,000,000
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RESISTORS
Letters are sometimes used instead of the symbol.
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100R = 100 4k7 = 4.7 4M7 = 4.7M
RESISTORS
Resistors are coded with coloured bands to indicate their values. The band provides an indication of the accuracy of the resistor and is referred to as the tolerance.
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RESISTORS
Calculating resistor values using Ohms Law.
Potential difference = Current x Resistance

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RESISTORS
Steps to measure resistance using a multimeter.
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RESISTORS
Prototyping board provides a fast method of investigating and testing circuits. Components are pressed into the holes in the board which has a series of connecting tracks beneath the surface.
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RESISTORS
When resistors are connected in series, the combined resistance is higher than the individual resistances Worked out by adding each individual value to the next.
R = R1 + R2
R1
R2
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RESISTORS
When resistors care connected in parallel, the combined resistance is lower than the individual resistances worked out by adding the reciprocal of each individual value to the next.
1 R
1 R1
1 R2 R1
R2
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BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR
A transistor is an automatic switch. Instead of pushing a button or sliding a lever to turn it on or off, it has a contact, called the base, which is used to activate it.
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BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR
In a N-P-N transistor, with no current flowing into the base, the transistor is switched off. However, if a small current flows into the base, the transistor switches on, allowing a current to flow between the collector and emitter contacts.
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BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR
A very small current at the base will switch on the transistor, allowing a much larger current to flow between the collector and emitter.
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BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR
The base of a transistor is usually connected to a sensor, such as a light or temperature sensor, which determines the amount of current flowing into the base. When the sensor allows enough current to flow, the transistor switches on. A resistor is normally connected to the base of a transistor to prevent it from being damaged by too much current.
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BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR
The maximum current that can flow between the collector and emitter varies from one transistor to another. Generally, the larger the transistor, the greater the amount of current. If a transistor is overloaded with too much current, it will be ruined.
Web link to alternative explanation of how t 12
BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR
In a P-N-P transistor, current is allowed to flow from the emitter to the base and from the emitter to the collector.
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SENSORS
Moisture sensors make use of the fact that water is a better conductor of electricity than air. The sensor is connected to the base of the transistor. A 1k resistor is connected to the base of the transistor to protect it from damage by too much current.
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SENSORS
In dry conditions, there is a very high resistance between the contacts of the sensor. No current is able to flow into the base and the transistor is switched off.
In dry conditions, no current flows into the base of the transistor so the LED is off.
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SENSORS
In damp conditions, the resistance between the contacts is much lower. A small current flows into the base and the transistor switches on.
In damp conditions, a small current flows into the base of the transistor so the LED is on.
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SENSORS
INPUT-PROCESS-OUTPUT diagram for a moisturesensing circuit. INPUT
probes
PROCESS
transistor
OUTPUT
LED/buzzer
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SENSORS
A wooden block construction method is an alternative to using copper tape and terminal blocks.
the circuit is drawn out on a piece of paper which is stuck to a small wooden block. - small pins are nailed into the wood at points in the circuit where connections are required. - the components are soldered directly to the pins, which should protrude by about 10mm.
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SENSORS
Light sensors use a component called a light-dependent resistor (LDR) to determine the amount of current allowed through the circuit when light falls on it. The LDR is a special kind of resistor which changes its resistance as the light level varies. The LDR is connected to the base of the transistor.
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SENSORS
In darkness, the LDR has a high resistance (typically 1 M), so virtually no current flows through it. The transistor is switched off.
In dark conditions, no current flows into the base of the transistor so the filament bulb is off.
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SENSORS
In bright light, the LDR has a low resistance (typically 270 ), allowing a larger current to flow. As the light level increases, the flow of current through the LDR increases, switching on the transistor.
In light conditions, current flows into the base of the transistor so the filament bulb is on.
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SENSORS
INPUT-PROCESS-OUTPUT diagram for a light-sensing circuit. INPUT
lightdependent resistor
PROCESS
transistor
OUTPUT
bulb/LED/buzzer
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SENSORS
The amount of light needed to switch on the transistor in the light-sensing circuit can be adjusted by adding a resistor between the base and negative side of the circuit. The lower the resistor value, the greater the amount of light needed to switch on the transistor. This arrangement of the LDR and resistor is called a potential divider.
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SENSORS
To switch on the transistor in dark conditions and off in light conditions, the LDR and the resistor in the potential divider can be reversed by swapping positions.
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SENSORS
For extra sensitivity, two transistors may be used.
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SENSORS
Temperature sensors use a component called a thermistor to determine the amount of current allowed through the circuit when temperature changes. The thermistor is a special kind of resistor that changes its resistance as the temperature varies. It is connected between the base of the transistor and the positive side of the circuit.
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SENSORS
Workings of the type of thermistor that decreases its resistance as the temperature rises is described below and in the next slide. In cold conditions, no current flows through the thermistor so the transistor is switched off.
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SENSORS
As the temperature rises, the flow of current through the thermistor increases, switching on the transistor.
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SENSORS
INPUT-PROCESS-OUTPUT diagram for a temperaturesensing circuit. INPUT
thermistor
PROCESS
transistor
OUTPUT
bulb/LED/buzzer
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SENSORS
To adjust the sensitivity, a potentiometer may be connected between the base and the negative track. The value printed on a potentiometer states its resistance value between the two outer contacts. By rotating the shaft, the resistance between the middle contact and either of the outer contacts is adjusted.
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SENSORS
For extra sensitivity, two transistors may be used.
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TIME DELAY CIRCUIT

Time delay circuits make use of a component called a capacitor which stores electricity. When connected to a battery, current flows into the capacitor and it becomes charged. The amount of charge a capacitor can store is called its capacitance. The higher the capacitance, the greater the charge it can store.
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TIME DELAY CIRCUIT

An electrolytic (polarised) capacitor must be connected so that the leg marked with an arrow or - sign is connected to the negative side of the circuit.
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TIME DELAY CIRCUIT

An non-electrolytic (non-polarised) capacitor can be connected either way around.
cathode (-)
anode (+)
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TIME DELAY CIRCUIT

Capacitance is measured in Farads (F).
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1 F = 1,000,000 F 1 F = 1,000,000,000 F
TIME DELAY CIRCUIT

Switching off the output after a time delay.
- As the switch is closed, the capacitor charges and the transistor switches on. - When the switch is opened, the capacitor discharges a current into the base of the transistor so the transistor remains on. As the capacitors charge drops, the current is reduced until the transistor switches off. The larger the capacitor, the longer the time delay will be.
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TIME DELAY CIRCUIT

Switching on the output after a time delay.
- The time taken for a capacitor to charge can be varied with the addition of a series resistor. - The resistor reduces the flow of current into the capacitor. The higher the resistance, the longer the time taken for the capacitor to charge.
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TIME DELAY CIRCUIT

Switching on the output after a time delay.
When the switch is closed, a small current flows through the resistor and begins to charge the capacitor. Since no current flows into the base, the transistor is off. - As the capacitors charge increases, the current flow into the base of the transistor increases and eventually switches the transistor on. - A single-pole, double-throw switch is used for discharging the capacitor before the circuit can be reused. -
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TIME DELAY CIRCUIT

INPUT-PROCESS-OUTPUT diagram for a time-delay circuit INPUT
switch, capacitor & resistor
PROCESS
transistor
OUTPUT
bulb/LED/buzzer
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TIME DELAY CIRCUIT

A suitable circuit layout to switch off an output component after a time delay.
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TIME DELAY CIRCUIT

Though a transistor can be used for switching on or off the output component in a time delay circuit, they do not achieve accurate timing. An eight-pin 555 integrated circuit (IC) can be used to achieve accurate timing for a time delay.
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TIME DELAY CIRCUIT

When viewing the 555 timer from the top with the notch to the left, the pins are numbered anticlockwise from the bottom left.
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TIME DELAY CIRCUIT

When the start switch, S1, is momentarily closed in circuit, the 100 F begins to charge up via the 1M variable resistor. As it is doing so, the LED will illuminate. When the capacitor has charged sufficiently, the 555 switches off the LED and it remains off until the start switch is pressed again.
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TIME DELAY CIRCUIT

The timed period is determined by the 100 F capacitor and 1M variable resistor. By adjusting the variable resistor, the period can be set from a few seconds to several minutes. A longer time delay can be set by using a larger value capacitor. When the 555 IC is used in this way, it is said to be in monostable mode.
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TIME DELAY CIRCUIT

A suitable circuit layout to switch on an output component during the timed period using a 555 IC.
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TIME DELAY CIRCUIT

The LED can be made to light up at the end of a timed period rather than during the timed period by connecting it between the supply and pin 3. A typical 555 IC can source up to 200mA, therefore it is possible to connect other output components in place of the 470 resistor and LED.
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TIME DELAY CIRCUIT

The circuit could be used to operate a second circuit such as a pulse generator, for a given period of time. The LED in the pulse generator would flash on and off for the timed period and then switch off.
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PULSE-GENERATING CIRCUIT
Pulse generators produce a current which occasionally switches on and off. The number of times the current switches on and off per second is called the frequency and is measured in Hertz (Hz). A current which switches on and off once per second has a frequency of 1 Hz. Higher frequencies are measured in kilohertz (kHz) or megahertz (MHz).
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The circuit for the pulse generator includes a capacitor and two resistors. The higher the values of the resistors or the capacitor, the lower the frequency of the pulses.
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A suitable circuit layout for the pulse generator.
A potentiometer may be used to vary the frequency of the pulses.

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INPUT-PROCESS-OUTPUT diagram for a pulsegenerating circuit INPUT
capacitor & resistors
PROCESS
555 IC
OUTPUT
bulb/LED/buzzer
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THYRISTOR
A thyristor is an important electronic component that is widely used in alarm systems. It has three legs called the anode, cathode and gate. A small momentary trigger current flowing into the gate of a thyristor enables a much larger current to flow between the anode and cathode. The thyristor is said to be latched on because the larger current continues to flow even when the trigger current is switched off.
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THYRISTOR
When the power is connected, the 1M resistor joining the gate to the 0V track ensures the thyristor is initially switched off.
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THYRISTOR
When switch S1 is closed momentarily, a current flows through it and into the gate of the thyristor. The thyristor switches on, allowing the current to flow through the filament bulb and across the anode and cathode to the 0V track. The bulb continues to glow even when switch S1 is released.
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THYRISTOR
Once the thyristor has been triggered, it can be reset by disconnecting the power supply for a moment. Another option is to add a second switch S2, so that when it is momentarily closed, the current bypasses the thyristor.
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THYRISTOR
A sensor could be used to activate the thyristor in place of S1. The 1M resistor may need to be exchanged for a lower value variable resistor when using the sensor. INPUT
sensor 12
PROCESS
thyristor
OUTPUT
bulb
THYRISTOR
The latching action of a thyristor means it is an ideal component for use in an alarm system. As long as the light is shining on the LDR, the thyristor remains switched off. If the light beam is broken, the thyristor is activated and the buzzer sounds. The reset switch could be a key switch, tilt switch, reed switch, pressure pad, trembler switch or a microswitch.
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THYRISTOR
A suitable circuit layout for a light-activated alarm.
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MOTOR SPEED CONTROLLER

Most D.C. motors, when connected to a power supply, spin at a very high speed. To change its speed, a resistor can be put in series with the motor. However, the torque will be significantly reduced at lower speeds. A more efficient way is to use a pulse generator.
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For the speed controller, two logic NOT gates are used in conjunction with a resistor and a capacitor. NOT gates convert a positive (high) input to a negative (low) output, and vice versa. Two NOT gates are connected to the capacitor and resistor.
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When power is connected, the input to the first gate is LOW, output from the first gate is HIGH, output from the second gate is LOW. The capacitor starts to charge up via the resistor.
capacitor charges up via resistor
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When it is sufficiently charged, the input to the first gate changes from LOW to HIGH. Output from the first gate is LOW and the output from the second gate is HIGH. The capacitor starts to discharge via the resistor. When it is sufficiently discharged, the input to the first gate changes from HIGH to LOW and the cycle starts again.
capacitor discharges via resistor
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The frequency of the charging and the discharging is determined by the values of the capacitor and resistor. When plotted as a graph, a square wave is observed.
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If a motor is connected to this output, it would switch on at full power when the output is HIGH, then off when the output is LOW, in a repeating cycle.

With the addition of a second resistor and two diodes, different times for switching on and off is possible. If R1 is of a lower value than R2, the switching on time will be greater than the switching off time, and vice versa. These values can be varied using a potentiometer to create a basic speed controller. Good torque can be achieved even at low speeds.
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These values can be varied using a potentiometer to create a basic speed controller. Good torque can be achieved even at low speeds.
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A suitable circuit layout for a motor speed controller.
FET
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SEVEN-SEGMENT DISPLAY
Seven-segment displays contain seven LEDs arranged in a figure 8 configuration and are used to display numbers. Some contain an eighth LED for the decimal point.
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Seven-segment displays are usually controlled by an IC. The 4026 IC is designed to increment a seven segment display by one digit each time pin 1 receives an electrical pulse. Pin 15 provides a reset function.
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Instead of using a switch to trigger the IC, a sensor can also be used to increment the display. The sensitivity of the circuit could be adjusted by replacing the10k resistor with a 100k variable resistor.
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A suitable circuit layout for a counting circuit.
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To count up to 99, a second seven-segment display is needed along with a second 4026 IC. Each time the first display changes from nine to zero, pin 5 (carry out) of the first 4026 IC sends a single pulse to pin 1 of the second 4026 IC.
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A pulse generator could provide the input to the 4026 IC in place of the sensor and 100k variable resistor. Pin 3 (output) from the pulse generator is connected to pin 1 of the 4026 IC.
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The display increments by one digit for each pulse from the pulse generator. The frequency of these pulses can be increased or decreased by swapping the 68k resistor for one of a higher or lower value.
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PROGRAMMABLE MICROCONTROLLERS
Dedicated ICs are normally designed for specific applications. The pin operations of these ICs are fixed. Programmable microcontrollers are able to function in different ways for different applications. Also known as Peripheral Interface Controller (PIC).
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Advantage of using programmable microcontrollers over dedicated ICs.
reduction in number of electronic components circuits are easier to assemble and are physically smaller, enabling greater product design flexibility allows a wider range of features to be built into a product easily altered through programming instead of reconstructing a new circuit
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PIC chips allow complex control tasks to be carried out in a relatively simple manner. They can be physically built into products.
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The PIC can be programmed to light up one, two, then three LEDs with a one second interval between each. All three LEDs are then switched off together and the cycle is then repeated. Then assemble it on a circuit board with the LEDs, power supply, ceramic resonator and resistor.
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CIRCUIT CONSTRUCTION METHODS

Electronic components can be joined together in many different ways. Some methods are achieved using cheap and readily available consumables, while others require special tools and equipment.
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In the terminal block method, components and wires can be clamped together using terminal blocks and a screwdriver. This avoids the use of soldering iron and allows components to be removed easily. The circuit may end up being quite bulky and untidy.
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In the wooden block method, components can be wrapped around and soldered to small panel pins hammered into a block of wood. The pin heads may be cut away to ease the soldering process. Useful for simple circuits, but may be quite bulky.
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In the copper tape method, self-adhesive copper tape stuck onto paper, card or other material, provides a track onto which components are easily soldered. A small blob of solder is required to make a good connection between overlapping tracks.
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In the stripboard method, stripboard enables circuits to be neat and compact but the circuit layouts must be carefully planned from the start. A stripboard cutter is used to cut a break point in a copper track to create two separate conducting rails.
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The printed circuit board method is the neatest way of joining components. Some boards are designed for the components to be joined on the same side as the copper (surface mounting) while others require components to be joined on the reverse side.
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MAKING A PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD

Steps to make a printed circuit board.
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TROUBLESHOOTING
Electronic circuits do not always work the first time they are switched on, but in most cases, the fault can easily be identified. The step-by-step guide is shown on page 232.
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COMPUTER SOFTWARE FOR ELECTRONICS

The four main types of computers in electronics are: - investigation and simulation of circuits - circuit board layout - packaging design for the circuit - programmable devices
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Computer software can simulate how a circuit would behave under different conditions. Advantages include:
time-saving cost-saving improved understanding
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Some software generate a printed circuit board layout directly from the circuit diagram. Other types of software allow tracks to be drawn on screen using a number of predefined templates and the final circuit is printed on paper or thin card ready for the addition of copper tape.
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CAD software may be used for designing the packaging for electronic circuits. Templates can be printed and stuck directly to the surface of material to assist with cutting and bending. They may also be designed for membrane panel switches and other surface details.
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An increasing number of microelectronic products use components that can be programmed, allowing changes to be made to the operation of the circuit at a later date.
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Electronics

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Keeping Up With Design & Technology

CIRCUITS AND CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS

Keeping Up With Design & Technology

CIRCUITS AND CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS

Keeping Up With Design & Technology

CIRCUITS AND CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS

CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS

Keeping Up With Design & Technology

Keeping Up With Design & Technology

Keeping Up With Design & Technology

Keeping Up With Design & Technology

Keeping Up With Design & Technology

Keeping Up With Design & Technology

Slide switch Rocker switch

Microswitch Reed switch

Tilt switch Membrane panel switch Key switch

Keeping Up With Design & Technology

Keeping Up With Design & Technology

Keeping Up With Design & Technology

Keeping Up With Design & Technology

Keeping Up With Design & Technology

Keeping Up With Design & Technology

Keeping Up With Design & Technology

Keeping Up With Design & Technology

Keeping Up With Design & Technology

100R = 100 4k7 = 4.7 4M7 = 4.7M

Keeping Up With Design & Technology