Evolution of the ITU-T Standardization of Optical Fibres and Cables

Gastone Bonaventura, Francesco Montalti

Telecom Italia
Roma, Italy
+39 06 36881
gastone.bonaventura@telecomitalia.it
francesco.montalti@telecomitalia.it
Michele Guglielmucci
ISCOM Ministero delle Comunicazioni
Roma, Italy
+39 06 54441
michele.guglielmucci@istsupcti.it


Abstract
Scope of this paper is to present an overview of the more recent
evolution and of the standardization activities in progress in the
ITU-T in the optical fiber and cable fields.
Keywords: optical fibres; cables; standards; ITU-T; IEC;
CENELEC;
1. Introduction
The beginning of the standardization activities on optical fibres and
optical cables dates back to the end of the '70s, when the new
transmission medium came on stage with the promise of bandwidths
until then unbelievable and with a so rapid evolution that some
values in the standards were already obsolete at the time of
publication (see for instance the attenuation classes for multimode
fibres).
Since then, the market driven request of bandwidth has stimulated a
strong effort in the development of product specifications and
standards for fibers and cables and for the related measurement
methods to characterize their functional parameters.
The International Standardization Organizations where the activity
on optical fibers and cables is carried out are basically the ITU-T
(International Telecommunication Union - Telecommunication
Standardization Sector), who has the main objective of preparing
Recommendations related to the telecommunication networks and
the IEC (International Electrotechnical Commission), whose
Specifications are mostly oriented to the industrial products.
The ITU-T Recommendations represent de facto standards and
are used by the telecommunications Operators for the deployment of
their optical cables and by the industry as target for their products.
Within the ITU-T, whose activity is organized in Study Groups, the
subjects related to optical fibres and cables are assigned to Study
Group 15 Optical and other transport network infrastructures and
to Study Group 6 Outside Plant and related indoor installations,
the former taking care of the optical fibres characteristics and the
latter of the cable construction, installation practices and
maintenance.
The activity of IEC is mainly devoted to the preparation of
Specifications in the electronic Sector. The work on optical fibres
and cables is carried out in TC86 Fibre Optics and SC86A
Optical Fibres and Cables, while SC86B Passive components
deals with optical connectors, splitters, couplers and their reliability.
The aim of IEC Specifications is to provide industrial standards that
guarantee compatibility and interconnection- of products from
different manufacturers at a certified quality level. For this reason
they contain in particular product detailed specifications and test
methods for different environmental categories.
This paper will provide an in depth overview of the activities carried
out in ITU-T, leaving the description of IEC activities to another
paper in the same session of this Symposium.
2. ITU-T Study Group 15 activities
Among the 14 Questions assigned to ITU-T Study Group 15, two of
them are entirely devoted to the optical fibres and cables: Question
5/15 Characteristics and test methods of optical fibres and cables
and Question 10/15 Optical fibres and cables for the access
network to and in buildings and homes.
2.1 Optical fibres (Question 5/15)
The responsibility under this Question includes the following areas
of standardization:
the description of single-mode and multimode fibre types, with
parameter tables describing the characteristics of each type;
definitions of parameters and associated test methods for the
geometrical, transmission, mechanical and reliability fibre
characteristics.
The geometrical, optical, transmission and mechanical parameters
are described, in three categories of attributes:
fibre attributes that are retained throughout cabling and
installation;
cable attributes that are recommended for cables as they are
delivered;
link attributes that are characteristics of concatenated cables,
describing estimation methods of system interface parameters
based on measurements, modelling, or other considerations.
The following Recommendations fall under its responsibility:
G.650.x series, G.651, G.652, G.653, G.654, G.655, G.656. Optical
fibres in accordance with G.653 and G.654 have at present limited
applications and therefore they are considered out of the interest of
this paper.
International Wire & Cable Symposium 315 Proceedings of the 54th IWCS/Focus
2.1.1 Test methods (G.650.x series)
The G.650.x-series comprises three Recommendations which are in
a different stage of development. G.650.1 Definition and test
methods for linear, deterministic attributes of single mode fibre and
cable can be considered a stable text. G650.2 Definition and test
methods for statistical and non-linear related attributes of single
mode fibre and cable is still under a continuous updating stage. In
the last version (November 2004) a generalized interferometric
method (GINTY) was added and a cosine Fourier transform analysis
was added to the fixed analyzer PMD measurement method. At
present another modification is under study related to a new
Stimulated Brillouin Scattering definition and to the relevant test
procedures. G.650.3 Test methods for installed single-mode fibre
links is at a very preliminary stage because the first draft was
proposed only at the Study Group 15 May 2005 meeting. In G.650.3
there are two big issues under discussion. The first is to divide the
parameters which are measured in the field in two categories: those
that are measured on a routine basis and those which are measured
only on an exceptional basis. The second is to decide which are the
most appropriate test methods for these parameters.
2.1.2 Single-mode optical fibres (G.652)
This Recommendation describes the geometrical, mechanical, and
transmission attributes of a single-mode optical fibre which has
zero-dispersion wavelength around 1310 nm. This fibre, optimized
for use in the 1310 nm wavelength region, can also be used in other
wavelength regions, as it will be shown in the following. Two
categories of fibres are described in G.652: the so called G.652
A&B with the attenuation peak due to the presence of the OH
-
and
the G.652 C&D without this peak.
The two last revisions of G.652, that are dated March 2003 and May
2005, have created new categories of the fibre having a reduced
PMD link design value of 0.20 ps/km in order to accommodate
systems with higher bit rate/distance products. Moreover the
tolerances of some of the fiber parameters were tightened, in order
to maintain the continuing commercial success of this fibre in the
evolving world of high-performance optical transmission systems.
The improvement of the quality of the G.652 A&B fibres in the last
couple of years is clearly shown in figures 1 and 2 which contain the
behaviour of average fibre attenuations and average total losses
(fibres plus splices) in the 1270-1610 nm range measured in cables
installed in two different time periods (around 2000 and 2003) [1].
The fibre attenuation statistics are obtained by mass curve fitting
OTDR field measurement at 6 different wavelengths using a
mathematical model for total fibre attenuation. The splice loss
statistics are obtained using an empirical model based on the
measurement results at the OTDR wavelengths and by assuming 2
km between each splice.
Recommendation G.652 contains information which allows the
chromatic dispersion coefficient limits (fig. 3) be calculated vs.
wavelength by the following equation:
( )

|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|

4
min 0 max 0
4
max 0 max 0
1
4
1
4
S
D
S

Where
0min
= 1300 nm,
0max
= 1324 nm and S
0max
=0.093 ps/nm
2

km.

1200 1250 1300 1350 1400 1450 1500 1550 1600 1650
Wavelength (nm)
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
A
t
t
e
n
u
a
t
i
o
n

(
d
B
/
k
m
)
Average fibre attenuation
Average total loss -
2 km between splices

Fig.1 Measured fibre attenuation and splice loss in installed
G.652A&B cable (Cables installed around 2000)

1200 1250 1300 1350 1400 1450 1500 1550 1600 1650
Wavelength (nm)
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
A
t
t
e
n
u
a
t
i
o
n

(
d
B
/
k
m
)
Average total loss -
2 km between splices
Average fibre attenuation


Fig.2 Measured fibre attenuation and splice loss in installed
G.652A&B cable (Cables installed 2003)

-5.00
0.00
5.00
10.00
15.00
20.00
1250 1300 1350 1400 1450 1500 1550 1600
Wavelength (nm)
D
i
s
p
e
r
s
io
n

c
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t

(
p
s
/
n
m
/
k
m
)
upper limit
upper limit
lower limit


Fig. 3 G.652 Chromatic dispersion
International Wire & Cable Symposium 316 Proceedings of the 54th IWCS/Focus
In spite of the fact that the chromatic dispersion is defined only in
the O-band (1260-1360 nm) and in the C-band (1530-1565 nm), the
G.652 fibre is also used in the L-band (1565-1625 nm) for DWDM
systems and in the S+C+L bands (1460-1625 nm) for CWDM
systems.
In particular the ITU-T Recommendation G.695 (Optical interfaces
for Coarse DWM applications) has collected in an Appendix a lot of
values of attenuation coefficient and chromatic dispersion
coefficient of the G.652 fibres in the 1460-1625 nm range in order
to give some guide to the designers of CWDM systems.
2.1.3 Non-zero dispersion shifted single-mode optical
fibres (G.655)
This Recommendation describes the geometrical, mechanical and
transmission attributes of a single-mode optical fibre which has the
absolute value of the chromatic dispersion coefficient greater than
some non-zero value throughout the wavelength range from 1530
nm to 1565 nm. This dispersion reduces the growth of nonlinear
effects which are particularly deleterious in dense wavelength
division multiplexing systems. The latest revision of G.655 (March
2003) created a new category of the fibre having a reduced PMD
link design value of 0.20 ps/km in order to accommodate systems
with higher bit rate/distance products. In the last two years several
proposals for updating have been made and should bring to a new
issue of G.655 in February 2006 at the next Study Group 15
meeting.
The new issue should foresee that the tolerances of some of the fiber
parameters be tightened, as it was already made for G.652. However
the biggest modification should be that originated from the demand
of the operating companies and systems houses for a change in the
approach to specifying chromatic dispersion. In the in-force version
of G.655, the information on the maximum and minimum chromatic
dispersion coefficient does not contain any information as to how
the dispersion varies with the wavelength, but simply consists of
upper an lower limits in the wavelength range of 1530 to 1565 nm
(Fig.4). [2]
D
i
s
p
e
r
s
i
o
n
c
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t

(
p
s
/
n
m
/
k
m
)
Upper limit
Lower limit
Dispersion not allowed
between +0.1 and -0.1 ps/nm/km
Dispersion not allowed
between +1.0 and 1.0 ps/nm/km
G.655.A G.655.B&C
Wavelength (nm)
1450 1530 1570 1530
- 15
- 15
0
D
Max
- D
Min
5.0 ps/nm/km
D
i
s
p
e
r
s
i
o
n
c
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t

(
p
s
/
n
m
/
k
m
)
Upper limit
Lower limit
Dispersion not allowed
between +0.1 and -0.1 ps/nm/km
Dispersion not allowed
between +1.0 and 1.0 ps/nm/km
G.655.A G.655.B&C
Wavelength (nm)
1450 1530 1570 1530
- 15
- 15
0
Upper limit
Lower limit
Dispersion not allowed
between +0.1 and -0.1 ps/nm/km
Dispersion not allowed
between +1.0 and 1.0 ps/nm/km
G.655.A G.655.B&C
Wavelength (nm)
1450 1530 1570 1530
- 15
- 15
0
D
Max
- D
Min
5.0 ps/nm/km

Fig. 4 Dispersion limits for G.655

In order to complete G.655 with the data requested, information has
been required to the manufacturers for the two broad varieties of
fibres contained in this Recommendation (low dispersion and
medium dispersion) on the average values and standard deviation
values of the chromatic dispersion.
2.1.4 Fibres with non-zero dispersion for wide band
transport (G.656)
The Recommendation G.656 has been approved in June 2004 and it
is therefore the most recent on optical fibres. This Recommendation
describes a single-mode fibre with chromatic dispersion that is
greater than some non-zero value throughout the wavelength range
of 1460-1625 nm. This dispersion reduces the growth of non-linear
effects that can be particularly deleterious in Dense Wavelength
Division Multiplexing (DWDM) systems. This fibre uses non-zero
dispersion to reduce four-wave mixing and cross-phase modulation
over a wider wavelength range than the fibre described in ITU-T
Rec. G.655 (1530-1565 nm) (Fig.5).
D
i
s
p
e
r
s
i
o
n
c
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t

(
p
s
/
n
m
/
k
m
)
Wavelength (nm)
1450 1530 1570 1625
- 15
- 15
0
G.656
G.655
G.655
2
14
- 10
10
D
i
s
p
e
r
s
i
o
n
c
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t

(
p
s
/
n
m
/
k
m
)
Wavelength (nm)
1450 1530 1570 1625
- 15
- 15
0
G.656
G.655
G.655
2
14
- 10
10


Fig. 5 Comparison of dispersion limits for G.655 and G.656

Here again there is the same problem regarding the not complete
specification of the chromatic dispersion underlined for G.655: the
chromatic dispersion coefficient should remain between a minimum
of 2 ps/nm/km and a maximum of 14 ps/nm/km between 1460 and
1625 nm
This fibre can be utilized for CWDM and DWDM systems
throughout the extended wavelength transmission region between
1460 and 1625 nm, which includes the three spectral bands S (1460-
1530 nm) C (1530-1565 nm) L (1565-16252 nm). CWDM
(Coarse Wavelength Division Multiplexing) systems with 8
channels spaced by 20 nm and operating between 1471 and 1611
nm are already covered by the ITU-T Recommendation G.695
(Optical interfaces for CWDM applications). DWDM (Dense
WDM) systems operating between 1530 and 1625 nm are already
specified in the Recommendation G.696.1 (Longitudinally
Compatible Intra-Domain DWDM Applications).
2.2 Optical fibres for the access network to and in
buildings and homes (Question 10/15)
The growing demand for broadband services (multimedia, high-
speed Internet, HDTV, etc.) in buildings and homes requires the
introduction of high-capacity transmission media into the access
network. Optical fibres would be an important option for any
broadband media mix for this purpose.
This Question was recently created and has not produced any
Recommendation until now. However many contributions have
been received which contain proposals for single-mode and
multimode optical fibres.
As for the first category there are proposals both for G.652
compliant fibres with only a few modifications to G.652 (bending
loss, bending radius, lifetime, geometrical tolerances, etc.) and for
new single-mode optical fibres.
As for the multimode fibres it is under discussion the opportunity to
update the old Recommendation G.651 (Characteristics of a 50/125
m multimode graded index optical fibre cable). Different types of
fibres have not been suggested until now. As said before the activity
is at the beginning and some time is still necessary to reach concrete
results.
International Wire & Cable Symposium 317 Proceedings of the 54th IWCS/Focus
2.3 Submarine optical fibre cables (Question 8/15)
Submarine optical fibre cables are dealt with in ITU-T
Recommendations from G.971 to G.977. For the transmission
characteristics of the fibres before cabling it is said that they will be
similar to, or the same as, those specified in ITU-T Recs G.652,
G.653, G.654 or G.655. Types of fibre are chosen to optimize the
system's overall cost and performance. As a consequence these
Recommendations do not give particular additional requirements,
from the transmission point of view, in respect of already described
Recommendations of the series G65x.
The main focus of the Recommendations from G.971 to G.977 is
put on the submarine cable characteristics, which, as it is well
known, are very different from those of the terrestrial cables. Last
year a complete revision of these Recommendations has been made,
so that the present text is updated.
3. ITU Study Group 6 activities
In the framework of ITU-T activities, Study Group 6 has the
mandate for the following studies:
- Construction of all types of terrestrial cable for public
telecommunications, including marinized terrestrial cables and the
associated hardware (closures, connectors, cabinets, poles, etc.);
- Installation, jointing and termination of cables;
- Construction and maintenance of the telecommunication
infrastructure. This includes interoffice, access and related building
and home cable and hardware installations;
- Protection from corrosion and others forms of damage from
environment impact, except electromagnetic processes, of cables for
public telecommunications and associated structures;
- Protection against fire of telecommunication buildings and outside
plant;
- Protection of the environment from the deployment of
telecommunication related cables, hardware and equipment in the
outside plant.
The activity of Study Group 6 consists in the production and the
maintenance of L-series Recommendation and Handbooks and
Manuals on Construction, installation and maintenance of the
outside telecommunication plant.
3.1 Cables (Question 7/6)
The studies on the mechanical characteristics and environmental
performances of optical fibre cables are carried out under Question
7/6 Optical fibre cable construction and function. Since about 20
years Study Group 6 has created several Recommendations on
optical fibre cables for tunnel, directly buried, aerial and marinized
terrestrial applications, respectively. Moreover a Recommendation
describing the special requirements for access network applications
was also created. As the demands on optical fibre cable will be
continuously growing, these Recommendations need to be modified
and updated in order to keep the pace with the emerging market
needs.
The Recommendations presently in force are the following:
L.10 Optical fibre cables for duct and tunnel application, L.26
Optical fibre cables for aerial application, L.27 Method for
estimating the concentration of hydrogen in optical fibre cables,
L.43 Optical fibre cables for direct buried application, L.58
Optical fibre cables: special needs for access network, L.59
Optical fibre cables for indoor application, L.60 Construction of
optical/metallic hybrid cables.
The above L. series Recommendations deal with the fundamental
considerations related to optical fibre cable from the mechanical and
environmental points of view.
The most important parameters related to the different types of
installation are specified, in order to allow the correct choice of
cable structure.
The Recommendations take into account the following items:
characteristics of fibres and cables, cable construction and test
methods, as described in the following.
3.1.1 Fibres and cable characteristics
Under this item the Recommendations deal with optical fibre
characteristics, cable characteristics and environmental conditions.
The optical fibre dimensional and transmission characteristics,
together with their test methods, being out of the scope of Study
Group 6, are specified in the relevant G. series Recommendations
(see clause 2.1).
Particular emphasis is put in microbending and macrobending
effects that can induce an increase in optical loss. The former is
caused by manufacturing and installation strains and also
dimensional variations of cable materials due to temperature
changes during operation. In order to reduce microbending loss,
stress randomly applied to a fibre along its axis should be eliminated
during the fibre incorporation into the cable, as well as during and
after cable installation. Macrobending is the resulting curvature of
an optical fibre, which is large relative to the fibre diameter, after
cable manufacture and installation. As the optical loss increases
inversely to the bending radius of the fibre, the macrobending
should not be severe enough to significantly increase the optical
loss.
In order to properly design an optical fibre cable, the definition of
the mechanical requirements and the environmental conditions is
needed.
The mechanical caracteristics specified are bending, tensile
strength, crushs and impact, torsion. Under the dynamic
conditions encountered during installation, the fibre may be
subjected to strain from both cable tension and bending. The
strength elements in the cable and the installation bend radii should
be selected to limit this combined dynamic strain below the
specified maximum allowable fibre strain in order that the
predicated lifetime of the fibre is not reduced.
The fibre bending radii remaining after cable installation shall be
large enough not to present macrobending loss.
In Recommendation L.14 the measurement methods to determine
the tensile performances of an optical fibre cable under load are
provided.
The most important environmental effects taken into account are:
hydrogen gas generation, moisture permeation, water
penetration, biotic damage, vibration, temperature variation and
fire safety. In case of aerial cables the effects of snow and ice and
strong electric fields are also considered for the cable design.
The Recommendations suggest the best methods to apply to reduce
the influence of these effects on the fibre attenuation .
Particular attention is drawn to the effect of moisture and to the
generation of hydrogen gas in the presence of moisture and metallic
elements. As hydrogen may diffuse into silica glass and increase
International Wire & Cable Symposium 318 Proceedings of the 54th IWCS/Focus
optical loss, it is recommended that its concentration in the cable, as
a result of its component parts, should be low enough to ensure that
the long-term effects on the increase of optical loss are acceptable.
The method for estimating the concentration of hydrogen in optical
cables is given by Recommendation L.27.
By the use of dynamic gas pressurization, hydrogen absorbing
materials careful selection and a suitable cable construction, it is
possible to maintain the increase in optical loss within acceptable
limits during service life.
Further information can be found in IEC 60794-1-1 Annex B.
Various materials can be used as barriers to reduce the rate of
moisture permeation. If required, minimum permeation is achieved
by a longitudinal overlapped metallic foil. A continuous metallic
barrier is effective to prevent moisture permeation. In metal-free
cables, however, filling compound is effective in preventing
longitudinal water propagation, but does not significantly hinder
radial moisture permeation through plastic sheaths.
The small size of an optical fibre cable makes it more vulnerable to
rodent attack. Where rodents cannot be excluded, a suitable and
effective protection should be provided. Further information can be
found in Recommendation L.46 Protection of telecommunication
cables and plant from biological attack.
An effective protection is provided by metallic barrier (steel tape or
wires armouring) or non-metallic (e.g. fibreglass rods, glass
yarns/tapes).
3.1.2 Cable construction
The various types of cable construction described in the above
quoted Recommendations of Study Group 6 take into account the
characteristics and the functional performances of the cable elements
needed to protect the silica fibre within the cable structure and to
ensure its long term reliability under service conditions.
First of all primary and secondary coatings are considered: in
order to prepare the fibre for splicing, it should be possible to
remove the primary coating without damage to the fibre, and
without the use of materials or methods considered to be hazardous
or dangerous. The composition of the primary coating, coloured if
required, should be considered in relation to any requirements of
local light-injection and detection equipment used in conjunction
with fibre jointing methods. Moreover, in case of use of tight
secondary coating, it should be easily removable for fibre splicing
and its nominal diameter should be between 800 m and 900 m,
with a tolerance of +/- 50 m. Non-concentricity between fibre and
secondary coating should not exceed 75 m .
The need for fibre identification can be fulfilled either by colouring
the fibre and/or assigning an unique position within the cable core.
If a colouring method is used, the colours should be clearly
distinguishable and have good colour-fast properties, also in the
presence of other materials, during the lifetime of the cable.
The two mostly used construction techniques for the cable core are
the slotted core and the tube. Both construction avoid the direct
pressure from the outside of the cable on optical fibres. In the
former, optical fibres or ribbon fibres are located into slots provided
in a helical or SZ (reverse oscillating lay stranding method)
configuration on a cylindrical rod. The slotted core usually contains
a strength member (metallic or non-metallic). The strength member
adheres tightly to the slotted core in order to obtain temperature
stability and avoid their separation when a pulling force is applied
during installation. The latter uses plastic tubes stranded around a
central strength member for protecting and gathering optical fibres
or ribbons.
Water blocking material may be contained in both the structures.
Filling a cable with water-blocking material or wrapping the cable
core with layers of water swellable material are two means of
protecting the fibres from water ingress. A water-blocking element
(tapes, filling compound, water swelling powder or combination of
materials) may be used.
The cable core shall be covered with one or more sheaths and
armour suitable for the relevant environmental and mechanical
conditions associated with storage, installation and operation. The
sheath may be of a composite construction and may include strength
members The minimum acceptable thickness of the sheath should be
stated, together with any maximum and minimum allowable overall
diameter of the cable. One of the most used sheath materials is
polyethylene (see clause 22 of IEC60708-1). There may be
however, some conditions, where it is necessary, for example to
limit fire hazards: in these situations special materials should be
used.
A cable armouring should be provided in case additional tensile
strength or protection from external damage (crush, impact,
rodent) is required. It should also be remembered that the
advantages of optical fibre cables, such as lightness and flexibility,
will be reduced when an armour is provided. The armouring for
metal-free cables may consist of aramid yarns, glass fibre reinforced
strands or strapping tape, etc.
Sheath and armouring considerations for optical fibre cables are
generally the same as for metallic conductor cables. However,
hydrogen generation due to corrosion must be considered.
3.1.3 Test methods
The tests carried out on the cables are divided in three sections: test
methods for cable elements (optical fibres, coatings, ribbons and
tubes), test methods for mechanical charactersitics of cables and test
methods for environmental characteristics of cables. The test
methods for the geometrical and optical characteristics of optical
fibres are described in the above quoted ITU-T Recommendation
G.650.1 and G.650.2, and in the IEC 60793-1 series. All the
mechanical and environmental tests for cables, unless otherwise
stated, should all be carried out in accordance with the methods
standardized in the IEC 60794-1series.
3.2 Installation techniques (Question 2/6)
The studies on cable installation are carried out under Question 2/6
Infrastructure and installation techniques for cables and
equipment. So far several Recommendations and an Handbook
have been produced, covering the different aspects of cable
installation techniques. In the recent years the attention of the work
was focused on new techniques allowing cost effective solutions as
well as reducing the environmental impacts and the social costs
caused by the construction of telecommunications infrastructures.
In the near future the spread of optical fibre cables into the premises
areas will be a key issue, especially in existing buildings without
specific infrastructure for these new elements. Possible solutions
will include the installation of cables into existing facilities for other
utilities (e.g., gas pipes, water conduits and sewers).
3.2.1 Mini-trench and Micro-trench
The Recommendation L.48 Mini-trench installation technique and
L.49 Micro-trench installation technique describe two new ways
International Wire & Cable Symposium 319 Proceedings of the 54th IWCS/Focus
of construction of a telecommunication infrastructure with the aim
of addressing cost effectiveness, time to market and reduction of
social costs.
Both techniques allow the installation of underground cables at a
shallow depth, in small grooves. The advantages of these techniques
over conventional cable laying technologies lie essentially in their
speed of execution, cost effectiveness, significantly lower
environmental impact and limited disruption to road and, as a
consequence of the previous items, easiness in obtaining permits for
the occupation of public area.
Mini-trenching is normally carried out by simultaneously cutting
through the paving and digging a trench whose depth and cross-
section vary in accordance with the number of ducts to be laid:
depth is normally between 30 and 40 cm, while cross-section can
vary between 7 and 15 cm. In order to guarantee a protection
against impact resulting from road-repairing, the depth of the laid
infrastructure shall be maintained constant at a known level that
must be 5 cm deeper than the foreseen asphalt cutting depth
normally specified for road surface repair works.


ducts/cables
Figure 6: Example of mini-trenching installation configuration
Figure 6 show one of the possible installation configurations that
can be used. Which configuration is selected will depend on the type
of machinery employed and the number of ducts or cables envisaged
in the project.
The micro-trenching cable laying technique is typically used for
customer drop connection to the existing distribution network.
These connections shall normally be routed along two physically
separate paths.
Micro-trenching is normally carried out by cutting a groove in the
asphalt to a little depth (better if not less than 7 cm), but without
penetrating beyond the asphalt layer. Care must be taken to avoid
cutting entirely through the asphalt, as this could cause the
pavement along the sides of the groove to crack or split.
Groove width may vary (e.g.: 10-15 mm) in accordance with the
diameter of the cable laid.
The cable is required to meet exacting demands as to crush and
temperature resistance, which is needed when sealing the cable in
the groove with hot bitumen. The bitumen temperature during the
sealing operation can reasonably vary between 100 C and 170 C
In order to withstand such temperatures, the optical fibers are
preferably enclosed in a metallic (e.g. copper) tube filled with a
suitable filling compound and surrounded by a PE jacket. There are
currently different cable types in use, containing different numbers
of fibers and with different outside diameter.
The cable can be manufactured and supplied in long lengths;
however, in city networks, it is often convenient to use short or
matching lengths particularly for crossing under road or rail.
3.2.2 Fluid assisted installation techniques
Recommendations L.57 Air assisted installation of optical fibre
cables and L.61 Optical fibre cable installation by floating
technique deal with the possibility of using fluids to install cables
in ducts. With both techniques, as generally the load on the cable is
an order of magnitude lower than the typical force involved with
other installation methods, like pulling techniques, installation
hazards are significantly reduced. Additionally, bends in duct run
are not as important matter of concern as they are in pulling
techniques, so that the installation speed can be increased and longer
lengths of cable can be installed. Cables are installed without virtual
stress and the cable remains relaxed in the duct upon completion of
the installation.
Air-assisted installation is based on forcing a continuous high-
speed airflow along the cable with an air source. Moving air force
pushes the cable and makes it advance forward at a typical speed
supported by the equipment. Typically the maximum pressure is
around 10-12 bar and the duct should be designed to support such
pressure values .
This technique can be used to install underground cables in normal
ducts as well as micro cables in mini ducts.
The Floating method is based on cable dragging, forcing a
continuous water flow along it with a compressor. Moving water
force exerts a distributed force all along the cable and makes it
advance forward at a typical speed supported by the equipment.
There is absolutely no pulling force at the front end of the cable:
water flow exerts a distributed force along the entire cable.
It has to be noted, however, that the required water pressure in the
duct is generally lower than the one required by air assisted
techniques. This allows to lay cables also in ducts which were not
designed to withstand pressures greater than 6 bars. Moreover water
floating does not cause a relevant increase of the duct temperature,
giving a clear advantage over systems using a gas as laying fluid.
3.3 Optical fibre cable network maintenance
(Question 6/6)
The Recommendations presently in force are the following: L.40
Optical fibre outside plant maintenance support, monitoring and
testing system, L.41 Maintenance wavelength on fibres carrying
signals and L.53 Optical fibre maintenance criteria for access
networks.
As broadband optical access services are now commercially
available, the number of fibre to the home (FTTH) subscribers is
increasing rapidly, requiring the accommodation of thousands of
optical fibres in a central office for optical access networks.
International Wire & Cable Symposium 320 Proceedings of the 54th IWCS/Focus
Outside plant maintenance is very important if a highly reliable
optical network has to be achieved. In the FTTH era, more effective
and more efficient maintenance means of optical cable networks
must be provided. With a view to realizing a highly reliable optical
cable network transporting WDM signals with a wide spectral
bandwidth, the maintenance criteria for in-service fibre line testing
without interfering with the optical communication signals in the
access network will be the most important item of study in the
present study period.
Moreover optical fibre cable maintenance systems to be used with
optical fibre cable carrying high optical power density will be
addressed, taking also into account the safety guidelines related to
optical transmission systems using high optical power. The required
maintenance band and test light filtering for testing in-service fibres
without interfering with optical communication signals in these
systems will also be studied.
4. Considerations on the standardization
activities
4.1 Harmonization of different Standards
ITU-T and IEC are both working since many years on the
preparation of standards for optical fibres and cables.
ITU-T mainly follows a top-down approach: the starting point for
the fibre standardization are the requirements coming from the
public telecommunication networks operators and transmission
systems manufacturers, who are focused on the use of these
materials.
On the other hand IEC follows a bottom-up approach because the
starting point are the requirements coming from the cable
manufacturers, who are mainly focused on the aspects of the product
specification and test methods to be included in the contracts for
selling these materials.
In spite of this different approach the result of the activities in ITU-T
and in IEC is for the optical fibres transmission characteristics
completely harmonized,, as shown in Table 1.
However this harmonization needs a continuous updating of the
Standards of the two bodies in order to maintain them aligned.
Considering the different working methods and the different
meeting schedules the alignment is not always possible with
problems in choosing which is the right standard to apply. In our
view the original collaboration based on the subdivision of
responsibilities between ITU-T (outdoor applications) and IEC
(indoor applications) was better than the present situation based on
the harmonization of the activities.
4.2 Unique standard / multiple standards
Another frequently discussed subject for the standards is the
alternative between unique solution and multiple solutions. The
supporters of the first alternative say that a standard is by definition
unique. The supporters of the second alternative say that with the
multiple solutions the technicians leave some alternatives and, after,
the market will make the choice.
As shown above we have a clear example of these two alternatives
in the ITU-T G.652 where the characteristics of the fibre are so well
defined that only one type of fibre can meet them. On the contrary,
in ITU-T G.655 the characteristics are described in order to include
a family of different fibres.

Table 1 Harmonization between IEC and ITU standards
Common name Use (60793-2-50) IEC
class
ITU-T
Recs
Dispersion
unshifted
single-mode
fibre
Optimized for use in
the 1310 nm region but
can be used in the 1550
nm region
B1.1 G.652 A,
B
Cut-off shifted
single-mode
fibre
Optimized for low loss
in the 1550 nm region
with cut off wavelength
shifted above 1310 nm
region
B1.2 G.654
Extend band
dispersion
unshifted
single-mode
fibre
Intended to extend the
range of possible
transmission signals,
using 1310 nm band
power budgets, to
portions of the band
above 1360 nm and
below 1530 nm
B1.3 G.652 C,
D
Dispersion
shifted single-
mode fibre
Optimized for single
channel transmission in
the 1550 nm region.
Multiple channels can
only be transmitted if
care is taken to avoid
the effects of FWM by,
for example,
moderating the power
levels or appropriate
spacing or placement
of the channels
B.2 G.653
Non-zero
dispersion
shifted single-
mode fibre
Optimized for multi
channel transmission in
the 1550 nm region
with a cut off
wavelength that may be
shifted above 1310 nm
region
B4 G.655
Wideband non-
zero dispersion
shifted single-
mode fibre
Optimized for multi
channel transmission in
the wavelength range
of 1460-1625 nm with
the positive value of
the chromatic
dispersion coefficient
that is greater than
some non-zero value
over the same
wavelength range
B5 G.656

The success of the G.652 and the need to better define the G.655 on
the basis of strong requests from the users clearly show that the
research of a unique standard is the way to be pursued.

International Wire & Cable Symposium 321 Proceedings of the 54th IWCS/Focus
4.3 The needs for standards
Winter temperature remained in place in the last four years for
long distance cabling market and it is expected that it will remain in
place still for some time. KMI [3] estimates that 150,000 km of
cabled fibres was installed in the United States in the year 2003, i.e.
less than 2% of the 9.8 million of fibre-km installed during the peak
year of 2000.
In spite of this sleeping market, the fibre and cable companies
remained awake in the labs and their presence in ITU-T did not
change since the year 2000: more than 250 delegates still attend the
ITU-T Study Group 15 meetings and more than 270 contributions
are submitted at each meeting. The engagement in the preparation of
new Recommendations (e.g. G.656) and in the updating of the
existing ones show very clearly the importance that fibre and cable
companies give to the standardization activities and to the needs of
suitable standards also in a period of stable markets.
Also in Study Group 6 the participation is remained constant and it
is to notice the increasing of delegations of developing Countries
and Countries with economies in transition.
5. Conclusions
Since the beginning of optical communication era, ITU-T has played
a leading role in the standardization of optical fibres and cables, as
well as the related optical technologies. Thanks to this activity
standards have been developed, allowing an harmonized worldwide
spread of this new transmission media also in developing Countries
and Countries with economies in transition. .
The key role of ITU-T is demonstrated by the fact that, even in a
scenario of growing competition also in the standards production,
the ITU-T Recommendations continue to follow and in many cases
anticipate the market needs.
For more detailed information on the subject dealt with in this paper
it is possible to read the ITU-T G.Sup40 Optical fibre and cable
Recommendations and standards guideline.
6. References
[1] Proposal for new text in Appendix I of G.695 Telenor
Nordic Fixed, Norway, ITU-T COM 15 D-365
[2] Dispersion characteristics in G.655 Nortel Networks
(Europe), ITU-T D.231
[3] S. Hardy Long-haul cable market to continue its hibernation
Lightwave, December 2004

Gastone Bonaventura
(gastone.bonaventura@telecomitalia.it)
spent more than 35 years of his professional
life in various Italian telecommunication
Companies (State Agency for the Telephone
Services, Italcable, SIP, STET, Telecom
Italia). In Italcable he was the Technical
Director with the responsibility of the
intercontinental network.
He has been active since 1970 in international Standardization
Organizations (CCITT, UIT-T, CEPT, ETSI). At present he is, as
Consultant of Telecom Italia, Vice-Chairman of the ITU-T Study
Group 15 (Optical and other Transport Networks) and Chairman of
the Working Party Optical Technology. Since 1982 he has been
Professor of Telecommunication Plants in the post-graduate
course for engineers, held by the Ministry of Communications.
He is the author of more than 70 papers published in different
national and international congresses and reviews.

Michele Guglielmucci was born in
Benevento, Italy, in 1950.
He received the electrical engineering
degree from the University of Naples,
Italy, in 1978.
From 1978 to 1984 he worked at the
ASST (the Telephone Agency of the
Ministry of PT) in the branch
concerned planning and testing of TLC
Exchange Power Plants.
In 1985 he obtained the Specialization
in Telecommunications at the Post Graduate School of Italian
Ministry of Communications.
In 1985 he joined ISCOM (Istituto Superiore delle Comunicazioni e
delle Tecnologie dellInformazione) where was appointed as head of
Optical Fibres &Cables Department. Since 1987 he is member of
international Standardization Bodies such as ITU-T Study Group 6
Outside Plant and related indoor installation and IEC 86A Fibres
and Cables.
Currently, he is member of Management Committee of COST 270.
He has actively involved in studies carried out in the projects
ACTS-ESTHER Exploitation of soliton transmission highways for
the European ring and IST ATLAS All-optical Terabit per second
Lambda Shifted transmission.
He is author and co-author of many publications concerning the
telecommunication field.

Francesco Montalti
(francesco.montalti@telecomitalia.it)
received the Laurea degree with honours in
Physics from the University of Rome La
Sapienza in 1976. After some years spent at
the Face Standard Central Laboratory as
researcher, in 1985 he joined SIP, now
Telecom Italia, working on the
Industrialization of New Technologies and as responsible for the
specifications of cables and the associate hardware used in the
whole Telecom Italia network. He participates in the activities of
several standardization bodies, namely ITU-T and IEC TC86B.
Francesco has successfully chaired Study Group 6 (Outside Plant)
since 2001. Under his leadership Study Group 6 developed
Recommendations and Handbooks in its core competency areas for
the network deployment, cable installation, operation, maintenance
and restoration including devices and associated hardware giving
useful advice and expertise especially to the developing countries.
He is author and co-author of many publications.

International Wire & Cable Symposium 322 Proceedings of the 54th IWCS/Focus