FOLK-MATHEMATICS STUDY

N.C. GHOSH
S.N. Bose Institute for Mathematics & Mathematical Sciences
Email : ghosnarayan@gmail.com
ghoshnc@rediffmail.com

All those historically created designs for living explicit and implicit, rational and irrational
which exist at any time as potential guides for the behavour of men is called culture. Herskovits
said : culture is the man-made part of the environment.[1] Every single culture, tribe, community,
individuals develops a way of coping with everyday needs, with the environment, with follow
human beings, always a trying to understand what is going on, to explain what is seen and felt,
thus contributing to building up knowledge and mathematics is part of culture. Knowledge of
mathematics belongs to each and every tribe, community, individuals. As knowledge is the
cumulative product of mankind since the first appearance of Homo sapiens on our planet;
continuous cumulative effect developed, processed and refined culture, mathematical culture.
Following this historical development Gerdes stated: as a cultural product mathematics has a
history. Under certain economic, social and cultural conditions, it emerged and developed in
certain directions; under other conditions, it emerged and developed in other directions. In other
words, the development of mathematics is not unilinear[2].

The term Folk usually mean, the great proportion of the members of a people residing in
any particular region who share at least one common factor viz. common occupation, religion or
ethnicity etc. Folklore means folk learning. It comprehends all knowledge that is transmitted by
word of mouth and all crafts and techniques are learned by imitation or example, as well as the
products of these crafts. In non-literate societies folklore is virtually identical with culture.

Folklore includes folk art, folk crafts, folk tools, folk costume, folk custom, folk belief, folk
medicine, folk recipes, folk music, folk dance, folk games, folk gestures and folk speech, as well
as those verbal forms of expression called folk literature but which are better described as verbal
art. Verbal art includes folktale, legends, myth, proverbs, riddles and poetry are the primary
concern of folklorists from both the humanities and the social sciences since the beginning of
folklore as a field study.

Mathematics is a science that deals with the relationship and symbolism of numbers and
magnitudes and that includes quantitative operations and the solution of quantitative problems.
Though foundation of Mathematics is real world due to development of mankind it has reached in
higher form for which it seems an entirely free activity, unconditioned by the external world. It is
more just to call an art than a science. It is as independent as music of the external world; and
although, unlike music, it can be used to illuminate natural phenomena, it is just as ‘subjective’ just
as much of a product of the free creative imagination.

The literature of mathematics is full of æsthetic terms. But art is not something which
exists merely to satisfy an ‘æsthetic emotion’. Art is worthy of the name reveals some aspect of
reality. The real function of art is to increase self consciousness to make a man more aware of what
he is and therefore what the universe in which man live really is. Mathematics, in its own way, also
performs this function, it is not only æsthetically charming but profoundly significant. It is an art,
and a great art.

Folk-mathematics some times called as Ethnomathematics. Ethnomathematics is the

mathematics of ethnic people. Better way to say all the mathematical concepts that ethnic people
uses in their daily life, not knowing it as mathematics; but part of their life. These knowledge
ethnic persons acquired from their predecessor and they can transfer acquired knowledge to their
next generation with no hurdle.

In the way of naming mathematics of people’s life it was termed as i. Indigenous

Mathematics, ii. Socio-mathematics, iii. Informal Mathematics, iv. Mathematics in the socio-
cultural Environment, v. Spontaneous Mathematics, vi. Oral Mathematics, vii. Oppressed
Mathematics, viii. Non-standard Mathematics, ix. Hidden or Frozen Mathematics, x. Mathematics
codtified in know-hows, xi. Anthropological Mathematics, xii. Sociology of Mathematics, xiii.
Self-generated Mathematics, xiv. Practical Mathematics.
Gay and Cole[3] have done good work on mathematics knowledge and mathematics
teaching. In his work he elaborated the idea of Indigenous Mathematics. Noting influence of
mathematics in people’s life of Africa, Zaslavsky[4] pointed that life stile of African people
simultaneously has changed their mathematics. Mathematics in people’s life of Africa Zaslavsky
termed as Socio-mathematics. Posner[5] introduced the term Informal Mathematics saying about
knowledge of mathematics not covered by formal teaching and learning. Pointing mathematical
concepts used by African people in their handicrafts and playing Touri and Doumbia[6] discussed
about Mathematics in the socio-cultural Environment. Schliemann[7] showed that mathematical
concepts, mathematical justification thinking and knowledge of some group of African people
acquired from their predecessor were been transferred to their inherent automatically He said such
mathematics as Oral Mathematics. There are various mathematical concepts in the oppressed
people of the society and those concepts they developed of their own. These are very important as
it relates with the survival of oppressed people. Paulus Gerdes[8] described such mathematics as
Oppressed Mathematics. Besides commonly known formal mathematics lot of mathematical
concepts prevails in the society in not only rural people, even it is in the people urbanized area.
Mathematicians like Gerdes[8] and Haris[9] described such mathematics as Non-standard
Mathematics. Mathematical concepts though old but prevails in on going ideas is called Hidden or
Frozen Mathematics. Gerdes has done good work on Hidden or Frozen Mathematics. Code
languages are been used by many people all most every where. They normally use codes for
mathematical expression. These are Mathematics codified in know-hows. Gerdes[8] wrote, how to
recognize hidden geometrical thinking : a contribution to the development of Anthropological
Mathematics. Sociology of Mathematics was nicely elaborated by Struik[10] in his article On the
Sociology of Mathematics published in the journal Science and Society. Cobb[11] in his article
‘Contexts, goals, beliefs and learning mathematics’ termed ethnomathematics by the term Self-
generated Mathematics. Practical Mathematics is nothing but mathematics are been used by all
cross section of people. D’Ambrosio has done good number of works in non-formal mathematics.
According to D’Ambrosio above stated all the terms are basically names of Ethnomathematics.
D’Ambrosio said Ethnomathematics is a programme which looks into the generation,
transmission, institutionalisation and diffusion of knowledge[12]. He said every individual man or a
group of man of their own spontaneously invent some mathematical rules and ways. Before
defining those mathematical rules and ways as ethnomathematics D’Ambrosio had called them
Spontaneous Mathematics. People struggle for their survival are forced to know their
surroundings, to explain it and to understand it better and better way. For that anylising attitude are
been developed among the homo sapiens. So, in order to satisfy drives towards survival and
transcendence, human being have developed and continue to develop in every new experience and
in diverse cultural environments, their ethnomathematics[13]. It was essential as mathematics exists
in society as a socially organized activity (the social institution of mathematics) and as ad hoc
experiences [14]. In broad sense mathematics is a human social activity – a common project [15].
More general way here I shall call them Folk-Mathematics. One can build a nice Schematic Model
of the development of self-generated mathematics which I shall say of Folk-Mathematics.

Study of Folk-Mathematics

Though mathematical concepts are part of human life from the early period of human race
modern people did not stressed on mathematics of life of common man. In the year 1985 Ubiratan
D’Ambtosio of Campinus University, Brazil at the time of delivering his lecture on new thought of
mathematics education in the fifth International Congress on Mathematics Education (ICME-5)
was held at Adiled, Australia he drawn attention to ethnomathematics. Since then mathematian,
mathematics educators were been attracted to ethnomathematics and investigation on
ethnomathematics or mathematics of indigenous people were been started. After ICME-5 a
separate session on ethnomathematics was started in each International Congress on Mathematics
Education. A new organization named International Study Group on Ethnomathematics (ISGEM)
has been formed and ISGEM arranging conference, seminars etc. to create understanding and
collaboration among the activists on ethnomathematics.

In the international level there are three separate trends in study of ethnomathematics viz.
a) Anthropological approach, b) Historical approach, c) Socio-psychological approach.

Ascher, Zaslavsky,Gerdes, Harris, Pinxten etc. prefers anthropological approach, when

Ronan, Needham, Joseph etc. are working with Historical approach, on the other hand Lave Saxe,
Abren Carraher etc are working with Socio-psychological approach.

Mathematician, mathematics educators, social scientists in Latin America started the study
on non-conventional mathematical concepts during forties. In the year 1942 D. Denscocombe
published his article ‘The hidden pedagogy and its implication for teaching’ in the journal of
Sociology and Education. In he year 1946 Ubiratan D’Ambtosio has published his notable article
in the journal ‘For the Learning of Mathematics’ title of which was ‘Ethnomathematics and its
place in the history and pedagogy of mathematics’. One may it was starting of investigation of an
untouched world of mathematical concepts prevails in the society. There after number of works
were been done.

In the year 1973 the book Africa Counts : Number and Pattern in Africa Culture was
published. During seventies another interesting books ‘Mathematics of the Yoruba People and of
their Neighbours in Southern Nigeria’ and Black African Traditional Mathematics’ were published.
Besides those books many articles and books on study of folk-mathematics were been published.
Important addition were ‘Arithmetic in Africa’ by O. Raum in 1983 and ‘Ethnomathematics : A
Multicultural view of Mathematical Idea’ by Marcia Ascher in 1991and On the Awakening of
Geometrical Thinking by Paulus Gerdes in 1982.
 Journal ‘For the Learning of Mathematics’ is publishing articles on ethnomathematics or its
related topics. Some of the important such articles are ‘Ethnomathematics and its place in the
history and pedagogy of mathematics’ by Ubiratan D’Ambtosio published in the year 1985. In the
same year Paulus Gerdes had published ‘Conditions and Strategies for emanicipatory mathematics
education in underdeveloped countries. ‘How to recognize geometrical thinking : a contribution to
the development of anthropological mathematics’ was published in the year 1986. Doing a good
research work on unexplored Mozambican mathematical concepts Paulus Gerdes has published a
book in the year 1985 named ‘On the awakening of Geometrical Thinking’. In the year 1987 M.
Harris has published ‘An example of Traditional women’s work as a mathematical resource’ and
R.P. Hunting his article named ‘Mathematics and Australian Aboriginal Culture’. After that
continuously articles were been published, viz. in the year 1988 ‘Mathematics and Society :
Ethnomathematics and a Public Educator Curriculum’ by J. Abraham and N. Bibby, ‘A Widespread
Decorative Motif and the Pythagorean Theorem’. In the 1990 M.C. Borba has published his article
‘Ethnomathematics and Education’in the journal FLM. In same year Ubiratan D’Ambtosio has
published his famous article ‘The Role of Mathematics Education in Building a Democratic and
Just Society’ and the article ‘On Mathematical Elements in the Tchokwe Sona Tradition. In the
year 1991 C. Zaslavsky’s article ‘World Culture in the Mathematics Class’ were been published.
After extensive field survey Gelsa Knijnik published his famous article named ‘An
Ethnomathematical Approach in Mathematics Education : a matter of political power’ in the
journal For the Learning of Mathematics in the 1993. Area where said field survey was done by
Gelsa Knijnik was famous for rural movement like MST Movimento dos Sem-Terra : Landless
People’s Movement. In the year 1994 the journal ‘For the Learning of Mathematics’ had published
a special issue on Ethnomathematics where article written by Claudia Zaslavsky, Charles G.
Moore, Alan J. Bishop, Paulus Gerdes, Rik Pinxtin, Victor J. Kartz, Rodney C. Bassanezi, Marcia
Ascher and Ubiratan D’Ambtosio. Rodney C. Bassanezi in his field survey based article
‘Modelling as Teaching-Learning Strategy’ published in the journal ‘For the learning of
Mathematics’ showed that Ethnology encompasses ethnoscience or more specifically, in this
course the etnomathematics is one of the essential parts to be considered in the modeling process.
In the same year Rik Pinxten, Department of Comparative Sciences Culture has his article named
‘Ethnomathematics and its Practice’ in ‘For the Learning of Mathematics’ journal.

Articles written by J. Adda ‘The Mathematics Classroom as a Micro Society’ , D.

Broomes’s ‘The Mathematical Demands of a Rural Economy’ , L. Burrton’s ‘ Mathematics as a
cultural Experience : Whose Experience ‘? , N. Langdon’s ‘Cultural Starting Parts’, N. Taylor’s
‘Let them eat : Desire, Cognition and Culture in Mathematics Learning’ are important to note here.
All those articles written were been published in the monograph named ‘Mathematics, Education
and Society’ edited by C. Ketel, P. Demerow, A. Bishop & P. Gerdes and published by United
Nations Educational Scientific, Paris. Contribution of A. Rogerson of Australia is worth while to
note here. His articles were been published in the journals ‘The Australian Mathematics Teachers’
and International Journal of Mathematics Education, Science and Technology.
In India investigations done by D.K. Sinh, N.C.Ghosh and Amal K. Bhoumik[16-21] are
worth while to note. Amal K. Bhoumik. has written a book in Bengali on this topic. As indian
folklore exhibits a wide range of topics touching every aspect of traditional life including secular
and religious myth, folk tales and historical legends, as well as a rich folk science there are fast
areas to investigate mathematical concepts prevails in the Indigenous people and the said concepts
are continuously developing in natural way.
 Problem and the question to be dealt with

In any investigation of folk-mathematics five basic things are to be studied : i) Cultural

basis, ii) Ways and means of presentation, iii) Duration of presentation, iv) Achieved knowledge
and its basis, v) Transfer process.
In this context transfer process of folk knowledge even from one generation to other will be
given due consideration,
Also it is important to note that in any investigation related to folk-mathematics
mathematical concepts, concept of great art, is essential to search in folklore – the culture of
indigenous people. Turbulent history of folklore need be illustrated during the study as and when
necessary. Statistical methods are essential to apply for analytical analysis of folkloristics/folk
science. Such investigation may be divided in following parts mainly :
i. Body of knowledge, ii. Mode of thought, iii. Kind of art and lastly iv.
Mathematical concepts in knowledge, thought & art.
Also stress may be given for qualifying folklore materials in terms of their social context,
time depth and medium of transmission.
Data collection, observation, analysis and sampling, arrangement and significance of the
collected data, experiment and lastly orientation and interpretation are to be the methodologies for
such investigation.

REFERENCES

1 Herskovits, M.J. (1966) : Cultural Dynamics, New york, Alfred A. Knof.

2. Geredes, P. (1994) : Reflections on Ethnomathematics. FLM. Vol. 14 No. 2
3.. Gay, J. and Cole, M. (1967) : The New Mathematics and an old culture : a study of
learning the kpelle of Liberia.. New York.
4. Zaslavsky, C. (1979) : African Counts : Number and Pattern in African Culture.
5. Posner, J. (1985) : For the learning of Mathematics. Vol. 6, No. 2
6. Touri, S. and Doumbia, S. (1980) :Conditions and Strategies for Emancipatory
Mathematics. FLM. Vol. 5, No. 3
7. Schliemann, C. (1942) : Man Makes Himself. Primitive World and its Transformations
8. by Robert Redfied, Penguin Books,
9. Gerdes, P. (1982) : Mathematics for the Benefit of the People
10. Haris, M. (1982) : An Example of Traditional Women’s work as a Mathematics
Resource. FLM Vol. 7, No. 3
11. Strunk, D. : (1942) : On the Sociology of Mathematics, Science and Society. Vol. 6
12. Cobb, P. (1986) : Social Process and Proof of Theorems and Programs. De Millo
Lipton. New Direction in the Philosophy of Mathematics.
13. D’Ambrosio, U. (1985) : The History of Mathematics and Ethnomathematics. (How a
Native Culture intervenes in the Process of Learning Sciences) Impact of Sc, on Society.
No. 160
14. Abraham, J. and Bibby, N. (1988) : Mathematics ans Society : Ethnomathematics and a
Public Educator Curriculum. FLM, June.
15. Lipton De Millo. ( 1995) : Social Process and Proof of Theorems and Programs. New
Directions in the Philosophy of Mathematics.
16. Bhaumik, A.K. and
Sinha, D.K. (1993) : Mathematics Education for Indigenous People,
Ethnomathematical Point of View. Presented in First Indian
Congress on Mathematics Education.
17. Bhaumik, A.K. ( 1998) : A Study on Ethnomeasurements : An Emerging Facet of
Ethnomathematics. Indian Journal of Math. Teaching. Vol.XX, No. 2.
18. Sinha, D.K. (1993) : Ethnomathematics : A Philisophical and Historical Critique.
Occasional Paper 13. Project of History of Indian Science Philosophy and Culture. ICPR.
19. Ghosh, N.C. (1993) : Saksharata Pathe Ganit Siksha ( Mathematics Teaching in
Adult Education). Ganasakti. Vol . 27 No. 114
20. Ghosh, N.C. (1996) : Basic Points for Studying Mathematical Concepts in the
indigenous Society. Journal of Centre for Pedagogical Studies in Mathematics. No. 6
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indigenous Society. Mathematical Education, UGC.