AP Biology Reference Guide

Contents: How to Write a Lab Report Lab Safety Data Collection Statistical Analysis of Data Making Scientific Drawings Citation Guide Glossary of Latin and Greek Roots

Lee Ferguson Allen High School

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HOW TO WRITE A LAB REPORT

When scientists want to report findings of an experiment, they submit reports that describe what they did during the course of their study to journals such as Science, Nature, or Journal of the American Chemical Society. Their reports describe succinctly the following things: The problem the researchers identified. The hypotheses generated about the problem. The materials they used to conduct their experiment. The experimental method they used. Data collected during the experiment. Interpretation of the data to draw a conclusion. You do the same things when you write a lab report. Writing a lab report has one main objective, which is to report findings of an experiment. However, the reporting must be done in a very specific manner. When you write a lab report, you will use a style of writing known as technical writing. In general, a technical writing style is pretty dry, highly objective, extremely specific, and not very descriptive in terms of using descriptive words. When you write a lab report, you are writing as though the person who reads it knows absolutely NOTHING about what you are reporting. Remember: JUST THE FACTS. THE MOST IMPORTANT THING ABOUT A LAB REPORT: The person who reads your report needs to be able to reproduce the experiment exactly as you performed it, without any outside help!! In the world of scientific journals, this is especially important because other researchers rely on accurate information and directions contained in journal articles in order for them to conduct their own research. The person reading may not necessarily know a great deal about the topic being researched by the article s author. Things you will need to do prior to writing a report: 1. Identify your problem. 2. Identify both the independent and dependent variables. 3. Establish a constant or constants. You will type up your lab reports, and turn them in on a disk. They must be typed in Arial 12 point (or Helvetica, if you have a Mac), with one inch margins all the way around. All formal lab reports will include the following sections: TITLE PAGE: Center your title (18 point font). Six spaces below that, type your name, your class (AP or IB Bio), my name and the date the lab is to be turned in. ABSTRACT: This is a summary of your lab, including a synopsis of your research question, your experimental method, your results and conclusion. This should be no more than a paragraph. This is written AFTER the entire report is finished. INTRODUCTION: The introduction s purpose is twofold: it provides a framework for the reader to understand your experiment, and it introduces your research question and hypothesis. This should provide some background information for the reader, which is extremely important! Generally, this information will come from journals or other outside sources (your textbook, etc.), which must be cited properly. Failure to do so is plagiarism. As you describe your investigation, include only the question and hypothesis that you finally investigated. Briefly describe the experiment performed and the outcome predicted for the experiment. Although these items are usually presented after the background information near the end of the introduction, you should have each clearly in mind before you begin writing the introduction. It is a good idea to write down each item (question, hypothesis, prediction) before you begin to write your introduction. (from http://www.an.psu.edu/jxm57/irp/introd.htm)
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MATERIALS AND EXPERIMENTAL METHODS: This tells the reader what you used to carry out the experiment. You should include all non-standard equipment, species of organism and sex of the organism if relevant to the experiment, as well as chemical reagents (including concentrations, if known). The methods section tells the reader HOW you carried out the experiment. It should be written in such a way that someone else can repeat your experiment and get the same results that you got. This part of the lab is one of the most important parts of the report, because it entails step by step what you did during the experiment. It is not necessary to write about failed attempts unless the technique you used could possibly be used by someone else. The method section must be written in the following manner: DO NOT UNDER ANY CIRCUMSTANCES USE THE PERSONAL PRONOUN I IN THIS SECTION! Scientific reports are never written in first person!! They are always written in third person, past tense. I know that this goes against what you have probably learned about writing in your English classes, but this is scientific report writing, and in the real world of scientific journals, this is how it is done. For example: Patients were monitored daily for 4 months to 1 year before surgery and for 12 to 46 months after transplantation. From the New England Journal of Medicine, 26 November 1992 Notice that I or we is not used here, and that the action is described as having taken place in the past. Always write in third person, past tense. Summarize your procedure. It is up to you to decide what details are important to the experimenter reading your report. Do they really need to know that you used a Wusthof knife to cut your potato cores with? No. Think about thisbe selective in what details you include in your procedure. CONCISE PROCEDURE = GOOD. LENGTHY PROCEDURE = BAD. The hardest part about writing a lab report is determining the amount of detail to include! RESULT: This section includes the following things: A paragraph or paragraphs summarizing the result. Data in either chart or table form. If your data includes calculations, you must SHOW ALL FORMULAS AND WORK! See the Data collection section of this reference guide for tips on how to choose an appropriate graph that accurately represents your data and how to construct effective data tables. Where appropriate, statistical analysis of data should be carried out. If you refer to your charts or graphs or drawings in your summary, refer to them as Figure 1, Table 1, etc. If your data includes pictures, please use the Making Scientific Drawings guidelines found in this reference guide. Always use the metric system! You will never see a scientific journal article that employs the standard system of measurement. THE RESULT SECTION IS NOT WHERE TO REPORT WHAT YOU EXPECTED TO OCCUR!!!

DISCUSSION: The Discussion section is where you will analyze and interpret the results of your experiment. You should state your conclusions in this section. Do not use the word prove in your conclusions. Your results will support, verify, or confirm your hypothesis, or they will negate, refute, or contradict your hypothesis; but the word prove is not appropriate in scientific writing.
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Complete your Introduction and Results sections before you begin writing the discussion. The figures and tables in the Results section will be particularly important as you begin to think about your discussion. The tables allow you to present your results clearly to the reader, and graphs allow you to visualize the effects that the independent variable has had on the dependent variables in your experiment. Studying these data will be one of the first steps in interpreting your results. As you study the information in the Introduction section and your data in the Results section, write down relationships and integrate these relationships into a rough draft of your discussion. The following steps, modified from Gray, Dickey, and Kosinski (1988), may be helpful to you as you begin to organize your discussion: 1. Restate your question, hypothesis, and prediction. 2. Answer the question. 3. Write down the specific data, including results of statistical tests. Do you notice any trends or patterns in the data you collected? Data interpretation is extremely important here! 4. State whether your results did or did not confirm your prediction and support or negate your hypothesis. 5. Write down what you know about the biology involved in your experiment. How do your results fit in with what you know? What is the significance of your results? 6. List weaknesses you have identified in your experimental design. You will need to tell the reader how these imperfections may have affected your results. What errors could have occurred? How could you have improved your design? 7. List any problems that arose during the experiment itself. Unforeseen difficulties with the procedure may affect the data and should be described in the discussion. Having completed this list, integrate all of this information into several simple, clear, concise paragraphs. (from http://www.an.psu.edu/jxm57/irp/disc.htm) CONCLUSION: In this section, you will need to address the following things: Was your research significant? If so, how? How can you extend on what you learned? What are some practical applications for your experiment? How else can this experiment be used in other research? Good researchers always talk about other studies that could be done using the research they conducted. This is how scientists learn from one another, and develop other projects! REFERENCES: This is a bibliography of any information sources you used in the writing of your report. For format, check the Citation Guide in this packet. With these guidelines, you ll be on your way to designing great research projects in no time!

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LAB SAFETY
You will carry out many laboratory activities in Biology. While no human activity is completely risk free, if you use common sense and a bit of science sense, you will encounter few problems. Science sense is an extension of common sense. Sensible laboratory conduct won't happen by memorizing a list of rules, any more than a perfect score on a written driver's test ensures an excellent driving record. The true test of science sense is your actual conduct in the laboratory. The following safety rules apply to all laboratory activities. For your personal safety and that of your classmates, make following these guidelines second nature in the laboratory. If you understand the reasons behind them, these safety rules will be easy to remember and to follow. 1. Perform laboratory work only when your teacher is present. Unauthorized or unsupervised laboratory experimenting is not allowed. 2. Your concern for safety should begin even before the first activity. Always read and think about each laboratory assignment before starting. 3. Know the location and use of all safety equipment in your laboratory. These should include the safety shower, eyewash, first-aid kit, fire extinguisher, and blanket. 4. Wear a laboratory coat or apron and protective glasses or goggles for all laboratory work. Wear shoes (rather than sandals) and tie back loose hair. 5. Clear your bench top of all unnecessary materials such as books and clothing before starting your work. 6. Check chemical labels twice to make sure you have the correct substance. Some chemical formulas and names differ by only a letter or number. Pay attention to the hazard classifications shown on the label. 7. You may be asked to transfer some laboratory chemicals from a common bottle or jar to your own test tube or beaker. DO NOT return any excess material to its original container unless authorized by your teacher. 8. Avoid unnecessary movement and talk in the laboratory. 9. Never taste laboratory materials. Gum, food, or drinks should not be brought into the laboratory. If you are instructed to smell something, do so by fanning some of the vapor toward your nose. Do not place your nose near the opening of the container. 10. Never look directly down into a test tube; view the contents from the side. Never point the open end of a test toward yourself or your neighbor. 11. Any laboratory accident, however small, should be reported immediately to your teacher. 12. In case of a chemical spill on your skin or clothing rinse the affected area with plenty of water. If the eyes are affected, water-washing must begin immediately and continue for 10 to 15 minutes or until professional assistance is obtained. 13. Minor skin burns should be placed under cold, running water. 14. When discarding used chemicals, carefully follow the instructions provided. 15. Return equipment, chemicals, aprons, and protective glasses to their designated locations. 16. Before leaving the laboratory, ensure that gas lines and water faucets are shut off. CLEAN UP AFTER YOURSELVES! Failure to do so will result in 10 points taken off your lab grade. 17. If in doubt, ask!

This was modified from http://www.chem.vt.edu/RVGS/ACT/lab/safety_rules.html

AP Bio Reference Guide.doc Created by Lee Ferguson